HomeNetworkBasisTransmissionEnvironmentsandWiredWirelessProtocolsByWalterY Chen-1 PDF

• Table of Contents
Home Network Basis: Transmission

Environments and Wired/Wireless
Protocols
By Walter Y. Chen
Publisher : Prentice Hall PTR

Pub Date : July 11, 2003
ISBN : 0-13-016511-5
Pages : 576
Copyright
About Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference
Preface
References
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1. Introduction
Section 1.1. Home Environment
Section 1.2. Available Means of Transmission
Section 1.3. Chapter Summaries
Section 1.4. References
Chapter 2. Twisted Pair
Section 2.1. Twisted Pair Cable
Section 2.2. Twisted Pair Cable Channel Model
Section 2.3. Noise Model
Section 2.4. Radio Frequency Interference
Section 2.5. Channel Capacity
Section 2.6. MATLAB Files
Chapter 3. Coaxial Cable
Section 3.1. In-House TV Wiring
Section 3.2. Coaxial Cable Model
Section 3.3. Splitters
Section 3.4. Tap
Section 3.5. Cable TV Channel Allocation Scheme
Section 3.6. Channel Model
Section 3.7. Noise Environment
Chapter 4. Electrical Wiring
Section 4.1. In-House Electrical Wiring Cable
Section 4.2. In-House Electrical Wiring Model
Section 4.3. Electromagnetic Emission and Power Spectrum Density
Section 4.4. Noise Environment
Section 4.6. Matlab Files
Chapter 5. Radio Wave
Section 5.1. Available Radio Frequency Spectra
Section 5.2. Indoor Radio Environment
Section 5.3. Channel Attenuation Model
Section 5.4. Channel Impulse Response Model
Section 5.5. Noise Level
Section 5.6. Channel Capacity Calculation
Section 5.7. MATLAB/Simulink Models
Chapter 6. Ethernet
Section 6.1. Media Access and Control Protocol
Section 6.2. 10BaseT
Section 6.3. 100BaseT4
Section 6.4. 100BaseTX
Section 6.5. 100BaseT2
Section 6.6. Autonegotiation
Section 6.7. Media Independent Interface
Chapter 7. HomePNA
Section 7.1. HomePNA 1.0
Section 7.2. HomePNA 2.0 QAM
Chapter 8. FireWire
Section 8.1. Arbitration Protocol
Section 8.2. 1394-1995 Cable Physical Layer Attributes
Section 8.3. Highlights of 1394b
Section 8.4. 1394b Twisted Cable Physical Layer Attributes

Chapter 9. X-10, CEBus, HomePlug
Section 9.1. X-10
Section 9.2. CEBus
Section 9.3. HomePlug
Chapter 10. Wireless Ethernet
Section 10.1. Media Access Control Protocol
Section 10.2. Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
Section 10.3. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Section 10.4. Complementary Code Keying
Section 10.5. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Chapter 11. HomeRF
Section 11.1. Media Access Control Basics
Section 11.2. HomeRF 1.0 Physical Layer Attributes
Section 11.3. Highlights of HomeRF 2.0
Section 11.4. Reference
Chapter 12. Home Networking Protocols
Section 12.1. Broadband Internet Access
Section 12.2. Peer-to-Peer Networking
Section 12.3. Network Address Translation
Section 12.4. MAC Bridging
About the Author
Copyright
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Chen, Walter Y.
Home network basis : transmission environments and wired/
wireless protocols / Walter Y. Chen.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-016511-5 (case)
1. Home computer networks. I. Title.
TK5105.75.C47 2003
004.6'8dc21
2003053152
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Preface
Broadband digital communication used to be limited only to backbone network
infrastructure and to private transmission facilities of large corporations.
Digital broadband access to average households had been promoted for video-
on-demand applications and succeeded, most recently, only as a fast Internet
extension. At this writing, there are at least 15 million homes with PCs
connected to the Internet through broadband access networks in forms of
either ADSL or cable modem. Networking PCs through a home router, with a
home network at one side and the broadband access modem at the other side,
is a good way to share the Internet access among multiple PCs and their users.
Many network service providers, such as AT&T Media One, have endorsed such
an approach rather than insisting that customers pay more for multiple IP
addresses. There are many different brands of home routers available on the
market with many varieties of home networking capabilities.
A home network system can be based on a few transmission media and many
existing and emerging standardized communication protocols are available. A
home network system can be based on in-house telephone wiring, TV coaxial
cable, existing power line, or radio frequency for wireless. Over the telephone
wiring, standards (HomePNA 1.0 and HomePNA 2.0) have been developed by
the HomePNA industry consortium. Using power line, a standard called
HomePlug is now finalized by the HomePlug group. For radio frequency
wireless communication systems, protocols (SWAP 1.0 and SWAP 2.0) are
produced by the HomeRF committee. These are a few of the emerging
transmission systems that have been developed on the concept of no new wire
for existing home applications. Transmission throughputs of these systems are
between 1 and 30 megabits per second (Mbps). They are also developed with
multimedia content in mind. Many of them can carry voice or music packets
with guaranteed quality of service. For newly constructed homes, Category 5
twisted pair cable can be installed in a home run or star configuration to take
advantage of Ethernet standards at transmission throughputs of 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps, or even 1 gigabit per secopnd (Gbps) for PC interconnection and sharing
Internet access. Wireless Local Area Network (LAN) technology defined by
IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.11a, and IEEE 802.11b can also be used in the home
data networking environment.
Meanwhile, household electronics are more oriented toward digital contents

such as MP3 for music, DVD for video, and high-definition TV. Home
networking can be useful for the distribution of digital multimedia content
among a central and/or a few displaced resource centers and many
presentation devices. A PC can be used as a resource center, a presentation
device, or both. The use of a digital home network can also be extended to
cover home automation applications. Using X-10 or CEBus-based devices,
hobbyists have looked into many scenarios to make life easier and more
enjoyable. The incorporation of a high-throughput home network and Internet
to these schemes could eventually make them move into a mainstream
market. Home appliance manufacturers would also like to see their products
connected online for providing real-time maintenance and other value-added
applications. Among many great possibilities, home data networking is taking
the lead.
To understand home network systems, we first examine transmission

potentials for the previously mentioned communication media in terms of
channel and noise models. This leads to calculations of channel capacities for
these diverse transmission environments. The channel capacity is the limit of
what a transceiver can achieve. By comparing channel capacity with the
transmission throughput of a particular home network system, we can
understand why certain signal processing or coding techniques are necessary
and if any further improvements can be made. We then look into each
applicable communication protocol individually. For each protocol, we will study
key features of related standards and corresponding implementation
approaches in enough detail that a person, with some effort, can gain a good
grasp of the subject. This book can be a general reference for people
interested in the technical details of home networking transmission systems.
More importantly, this book provides a condensed resource in terms of systems
engineering and technology merits for engineers and students to carry on
related research and development activities. Understanding can be achieved
through not only reading but also practicing computer simulation using the
MATLAB files and Simulink models on the Prentice Hall companion Web site,
http://authors.phptr.com/chen/. The MathWork also has a central site where
you can find the book's electronic files:
http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/
I'll keep the Web files up to date and reflect reader feedback there.
References
1. David Goodman, Two-way RF communication at points of convergence of

wire pairs from separate internal telephone networks, US patent 5,844,596,
December 1, 1998.
2. J. Cioffi, P. Chow, and K. Sistanizadeh, "On a multi-drop T-interface for

ADSL," T1E1.4/ 93-174, August 23, 1993.
3. A. Reddy, K. Balemarthy, and J. J. Werner, "Characterization of in-house

telephone equipment," T1E1 Contribution, T1E1.4/98-171, June 15, 1998.
4. K. Balemarthy, A. Reddy, and J. J. Werner, "Characterization of in-house

telephone wiring," T1E1 Contribution, T1E1.4/98-273, August 31September 4,
1998.
Acknowledgments
My initial involvement with Home Network is related to the development of
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL). The idea of ADSL was originated
by Dr. Joe Lechleider of Bellcore around 1990 to provide video-on-demand
services over existing telephone lines. For that particular application, we
needed a home distribution system to reach multiple TV sets. We looked at
Dave Goodman's analog TV signal transmission system over existing in-house
telephone wiring [1]. John Cioffi's group at Stanford University and Kamren
Sistanizdel of Bell Atlantic proposed a digital distribution system over existing
in-house telephone wires [2]. J. J. Werner and his Bell Labs group made in-
house telephone wiring measurements and examined related issues [3, 4].
Dave Waring encouraged many of us to work with different Home
Networkrelated standards bodies, such as the 1394 trade association, when I
was reporting to him at Bellcore. Don Shaver supported the establishment of a
1394-based home network test bed in addition to the long distance 1394 effort
when I was working for Texas Instruments (TI) from 1995 to 1997. I enjoyed
conversations with Ed Frank and Jason Trachewsky of Epigram while
examining their in-house telephone wiringbased transmission technology on
behalf of TI. Vedat Eyuboglu gave me the opportunity to be involved with
HomePNA, HomePlug, and HomeRF technologies on behalf of Motorola when I
was working there from 1997 to 1999. I have learned much about HomePlug
from Brian Mark Walter of Intellon. My additional involvement with HomePlug
was also supported by Stephan Taylor and Bulent Celebi of Scenix (now
Ubicom). Paul Willes of Phonex Broadband taught me much about Walsh
transform. Thanks to Rouben Gharagozian and Paviz Ghaffaripour, I have
enjoyed working on home connectivityrelated projects since I joined MAXIM
Integrated Products. Many of the discussions in this book would not have been
possible without the cumulative experience I gained during these years.
I also appreciate Bernard Goodwin of Prentice Hall Professional Technical

Reference (PTR) for giving me the opportunity to publish this book and for his
patience in allowing me the time to finish the writing. I appreciate, as well,
Naomi Fernandes of MathWorks, Inc., for signing me up on its author's
program and supplying me the MATLAB/Simulink programs. Many thanks go to
my reviewers: Steve Hirschman, Brian Mark Walter, and Jayhan Karaoguz for
their corrections, comments, and suggestions. Many thanks also go to Don
MacLaren, Bill Hartman, and Sara Black of BooksCraft for their professional
efforts in copyediting, proofreading, and creation of final pages. I also thank
Michelle Vincenti, Anne Garcia, Lisa Iarkowski, and others at Prentice Hall PTR
for coordination of the project and their other help. My appreciation is
expressed to Claudio Stanziola and Jacqueline Hansson of IEEE for giving
permission to discuss technical details and to use some figures from IEEE
standards documentation. Thanks to Rich Nesin, Steve Strauss, Jed Johnson,
as well as others on the board of directors of HomePNA for giving permission
to discuss technical details and to use some figures from HomePNA technical
specification documents. I thank Rob Ranck and Larry Yonge as well as
members of the HomePlug technical committee for giving me guidelines for
discussing the HomePlug technology. Thanks, too, to HomeRF Associates: I
hope my discussion in this book is consistent with their goal of moving this
technology to academic institutions for further exploration.
Finally, I thank my wife, Nancy, and my sons, Aaron and Brian, for their warm
support in the writing of this book, as well as a few other ventures. I hope that
this book will also make my parents, Frank and Sally, and my sister, Linda,
proud.
Thanks, too, to IEEE and HomePNA for use of the following figures.
Figures 6.46.7, 6.136.15, 6.246.26, 6.30, 6.31, 6.33, 6.63, 6.64, 6.83 6.87,
and 6.896.91 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.3, 2000 Ed., "IEEE
Standard for Information technology-telecommunications and information
exchange between systems-Local and metropolitan area networks-Specific
requirements Part 3: Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) access method and physical layer specifications," Copyright 2000,
by IEEE.
Figures 8.1, 8.2, 8.4 8.14, 8.21, and 8.22 reprinted with permission from IEEE
Std 1394-1995, "Standard for a High Performance Serial Bus-FireWire,"
Copyright 1995, by IEEE. The IEEE disclaims any responsibility or liability
resulting from the placement and use in the described manner.
Figures 8.24, 8.25, and 8.27 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 1394B-
2002, "Standard for a High Performance Serial Bus-Amendment 2," Copyright
2001, by IEEE.
Figures 10.1810.20 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std. 802.11, First
Edition, "IEEE Standard for Information technology-Telecommunications and
information exchange between systems-Local and metropolitan area networks-
Specific requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and
Physical Layer (PHY) specifications," Copyright 1999, by IEEE.
Figure 10.31 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.11b-1999

(Supplement to IEEE Std 802.11, 1999 Edition), "Supplement to IEEE
Standard for Information technology-Telecommunications and information
exchange between systems-Local and metropolitan area networks-Specific
requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and
Physical Layer (PHY) specifications: Higher-Speed Physical Layer Extension in
the 2.4 GHz Band," Copyright 2000, by IEEE.
Figures 10.5310.58 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.11a-1999

(Supplement to IEEE Std 802.11-1999), "Supplement to IEEE Standard for
Information technology-Telecommunications and information exchange
between systems-Local and metropolitan area networks-Specific requirements
Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY)
specifications: Higher-Speed Physical Layer in the 5 GHz Band," Copyright
1999, by IEEE.
The IEEE disclaims any responsibility or liability resulting from the placement
and use in the described manner of the figures cited above.
Figures 7.1, 7.4, 7.9, 7.10, 7.127.14, 7.16, 7.17, and 7.21 reprinted with
permission from HomePNA Specifications,"Home Phoneline Networking Alliance
1M8 PHY Specification, Version 1.1, June 2, 1999" and "Interface Specification
for HomePNA 2.06 10M8 Technology, March 20, 2000," Copyright 1998 and
1999, by Home-PNA. HomePNA disclaims any responsibility or liability
resulting from the placement and use in the described manner.
Chapter 1. Introduction
Using a PC at home to finish a little bit of work or to access the Internet has
become a common practice. You might use a dial-up connection, a cable
modem, or a DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) for your access. A broadband access
service, such as a cable modem or a DSL, usually costs twice as much as that
of the dial-up service. However, it is a much better option than installing a
second phone line to keep the primary line open for in-coming calls, especially
during prime hours. Used with a wired or wireless home network, multiple PCs
and their users can share broadband access service at home simultaneously
without noticeable access time degradation. Because of the popularity of
broadband access services, the number of PCs at home, and the affordability of
transmission devices, home networks are turning up in a growing number of
households. With so many different households having network connections
and a wide range of electronic devices, you might wonder at one time what is
really going on when a Web page from a remote corner of the Earth is being
displayed on your PC screen.
Information such as a text document, picture, or piece of recorded music is

encoded as binary digits, or bits, of 1s and 0s. When interacting with a
computer or a Web site, your commanding or responding key strokes are also
coded into bits. Information and command bits are converted into electrical or
light signals when relaying over a copper or optical communication link. To
achieve high efficiency and reliability, a different protocol, including the
definition of the electrical or optical signal, the encapsulation of information
bits, and the set-up procedure, is usually specified for each individual
communication link according to its unique throughput requirements and
transmission media characteristics. An Internet access from a home PC
consists of many communication links, which could include an Ethernet from a
PC to a DSL modem at home, a DSL connecting a home to a CO (Central
Office), an OC-3 (Optical Carrier 3) from a CO to a regional Internet access
point. From the Web site regional Internet access point, there might be
another OC-3 to a local CO, and a T3 from a CO to the Web site host location.
SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) rings might be involved from one
Internet access point to another.
After you gain access to the Internet, end-to-end application connections can
be established for useful services such as e-mail, Web browsing, and instant
messaging for known destinations based on the Internet Protocol (IP). Internet
destination addresses of particular interests can also be identified through
portals such as Yahoo. The information exchange between remote Internet
destinations is accomplished by transmitting a different type of packet. A
packet usually consists of a header and a body. The header normally contains
source and destination addresses as well as some kind of identification that
explains the purpose of the packet. The body can carry a command/response
or an encoded text/picture. The IP is defined based on a set of packet formats
and their exchanging procedures. The operation to detect and interpret these
IP conforming packets has been embedded into e-mail and Web browser
software such as Outlook and Netscape.
An original command or encoded text can be encapsulated many times before

being relayed over a transmission link as an electrical or optical signal. For
example, an e-mail message is first encapsulated into an IP packet, which in
turn is encapsulated into an Ethernet packet for transmission to a DSL modem
over a Category 5 twisted pair or a home network, and the Ethernet packet is
encapsulated again into ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) cells to be carried
to a CO over DSL. There are always peer-to-peer connections to encapsulate
and to recover the original packet. When you send an e-mail, a few ATM cells
carrying the Ethernet packet, which carries the IP e-mail packet, are sent to a
CO via Ethernet and then DSL. These ATM cells are then sent to a regional
Internet access point also known as an ISP (Internet Service Provider) where
the original IP e-mail packet is recovered and sent to the destination e-mail
server over the Internet. The e-mail server sends back an IP packet to
acknowledge the reception of the e-mail.
A home network can thus be used to share a broadband Internet access among
multiple PCs. PCs connected to a home network can also share files on their
hard disk drives and such peripheral devices as printers via the NetBEUI
(NetBIOS Extended User Interface) protocol, which is supplied with every
Windows operating system. Home networking has also been associated earlier
on with home automation where household lighting and appliances were
controlled automatically and remotely. One objective for implementing a
hassle-free home network has been "no-new-wiring." In fact, some wiring
infrastructures already exist in a typical home environment. There is usually
at least one power plug on each wall of a living quarter; multiple telephone
outlets and cable TV plugs can be found within a house. Wiring for the HVAC
(Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) system and networked smoke
detection devices is less accessible but still available. Wireless communication
devices that use either Radio Frequency (RF) or Infrared also meet the "no-
new-wiring" requirement very well. PC application-based home networks have
increased in popularity recently and can be further expanded to distribute
multimedia contents such as HDTV (High-Definition TV) signals. A high-
throughput minimum latency home network can also be easily adjusted to
accommodate other home networking needs such as home automation.
1.1 Home Environment
Our daily living places have many commonalities. Rooms are usually separated
by interior walls and interconnected by doors. Interior walls are normally made
of sheetrock nailed to a wood frame from both sides and covered by paint.
Electrical, telephony, cable TV, HVAC, and smoke detector wirings are typically
laid within these hollow walls during the construction of a home building.
Typical room dimensions range from 10 feet by 10 feet for bedrooms up to 20
feet by 20 feet for family-gathering living rooms. Room ceiling heights can
range from 7 feet up to 11 feet. A single family home usually consists of one
or two stories with a total living space of between 1500 and 4500 square feet.
The floor separation is usually made of sheetrock for the downstairs ceiling
and carpet laid over clapboard for upstairs floors. Exterior dimensions of a
single family home are from 20 feet by 30 feet up to 40 feet by 60 feet. The
exterior wall of a home building is usually covered by sidings of vinyl, wood,
brick, or stucco. A single-family home is usually located on a private lot of
from 1/8 to 1 acre. Children's play set, a swimming pool, or a garden are
normally located in the backyard of a single-family home's private lot. The
backyard is considered a part of the home living space especially during warm
weather.
Existing in-home wirings, including electrical, telephony, and cable TV, are all
the daisy-chain type and are connected to external service networks. From an
entrance point, usually located on one side of a home at the first-floor or
basement level, a few branches of wires are used to connect wall outlets or
plugs at different rooms through the whole house. The length of each wire
branch is related to the dimension of a house and is usually less than 100 feet.
Electrical wiring usually comes to a house with a neutral wire and two hot
wires of opposite phases. They are terminated at a distribution panel inside the
house and connected to in-home electrical wiring through circuit breakers. A
local ground wire is also introduced at the distribution panel. Each electrical
wall outlet is connected to a hot wire, the neutral wire, and the ground wire
for safety protection. Two phases of hot wires are used for heavy-duty home
appliances such as a wall oven or a clothes dryer. Otherwise, they are
randomly used throughout the whole house. In other words, electrical outlets
on different walls of the same room can be of opposite phases. The telephone
service network is connected to in-home telephone wiring at a demarcation
box located outside a house. In-home telephone wiring can have two pairs,
four pairs, or more. Some newer homes are wired with Category 5 data-grade
cables in a home-run configuration, where every telephone outlet is
individually connected to a central location, for telephone usage. An Ethernet
can be installed over home-run in-home telephone wiring as a home network.
The cable TV service is usually connected to in-home coaxial cables through a
lightning protection block located outside the structure. Multiple wall plugs are
all connected to the same entrance coaxial cable via splitters, which introduces
3 decibels (dB) of signal loss for every 1-to-2 split.
To take care of current as well as future home telephony, data, and

entertainment networking needs in a more organized fashion, structured
wiring [1] has been promoted as the correct practice for a "connected" home.
External communication networks, such as telephone or DSL, and
entertainment resources, such as cable or satellite TVs, are terminated in a
centralized distribution panel and routed through a home via structured wiring
made of Category 5 twisted pair, for telephony and data connections, and
single or dual coaxial cable, for entertainment services. One of the dual coaxial
cables can be used to redistribute home entertainment resources such as a
DVD player to other rooms. A multiple-input and multiple-output splitter with
a built-in gain is normally used to connect external and internal coaxial cables.
An Ethernet hub or a home DSL router can also be located inside the
distribution panel. Sometimes, stereo audio and remote control signals are
also transmitted throughout a home via additional wiring. Figure 1.1 shows a
centralized distribution panel with two in-coming telephone lines, four
telephone wall jacks, an Ethernet hub of four connected ports, and coaxial
cables connected to the cable TV signal.
Figure 1.1. A Centralized Panel for Structured Wiring
Telephony, data, and TV signal plugs can be located on the same wall plate for
this structured wiring approach. Figure 1.2 shows wall plates capable of
different numbers of outlets or plugs. Modular telephone (RJ-11), Ethernet
(RJ-45), coaxial cable, RCA (for audio), and S-video plugs, as shown in Figure
1.3, can be snapped into openings of a wall plate from behind. A blank module
can be used to cover nonoccupied openings.
Figure 1.2. Wall Plates
Figure 1.3. Plug Inserts for Wall Plates
The installation of structured wiring is more suitable for new homes. Because
the retrofit cost of structured wiring, which sometimes involves opening up
walls, can be too high to justify the benefit. RF-based networking approaches
are probably a better choice for most existing homes.
Because radio wave transmission cannot be confined, its use in a home

environment must follow government regulations to avoid causing interference
with other communication systems. Three Industrial, Scientific, and Medical
(ISM) bands of 900 megahertz (MHz), 2.4 gigahertz (GHz), and 5.7 GHz have
been used for home network applications. Radio waves can penetrate interior
walls and ceilings with a signal strength loss of about 3 dB. Radio waves also
experience a 6-dB signal strength loss when their traveling distance doubles
from the source. Reference signal strength losses are about 42 dB, 50 dB, and
57 dB at a distance of 10 feet from the source for 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.7
GHz ISM band radio waves, respectively. Within a home environment, an RF
signal can arrive at one point from another through many different paths:
direct, penetrated, or reflected. Radio waves arriving via different paths
contribute to the overall signal strength. They partially add or subtract
depending on phase differences and cause the phenomenon of significant
signal strength variations also known as multipath fading. Radio waves can
pass through exterior wall sidings of vinyl, wood, or brick except stucco, which
contains a metal mesh. Windows and doors might still provide some limited
passages in the late case. In other words, an RF home network can cover the
backyard usage for houses with other than stucco sidings. Radio waves can
also reach neighbors' backyards or get into their homes with additional signal
strength losses of 6 to 12 dB owing to longer traveling distances and exterior
walls. Some interference might exist between neighboring RF home networks.
On the other hand, Infrared signals behave like light. You can bounce the
signal from a remote control off the wall. In other words, you can point your
remote control toward a back wall or the ceiling and a TV or a VCR might still
respond to your command.
1.2 Available Means of Transmission
Ethernet [2] can be a good choice for home networking if home-run Category
5 or structured wiring is available. Ethernet can also be installed within a room
with twisted pair patch cables. Bob Metcalfe and his Xerox PARC (Palo Alto
Research Center) colleagues developed Ethernet in late 1972 to interconnect
personal workstations. The IEEE standards for the first version of twisted
pairbased Ethernet, 10BaseT, was released during 1990. 10BaseT has a
transmission data rate of 10 megabits per second (Mbps) over two pairs of
Category 3 or Category 5 twisted pair cable. The first 100-Mbps version of
twisted pairbased Ethernet, 100BaseTX, was standardized during 1995.
Network Interface Card (NIC), adaptors, and hubs capable of 10BaseT and
100BaseTX (also known as 10/100) Ethernet are available at very affordable
costs. The transmission throughput between NICs, adaptors, and a hub is
automatically negotiated. 10/100 Ethernet utilizes only two pairs of a
Category 5 twisted pair cable. Category 5 wiring is usually terminated with an
RJ-45 wall outlet connecting all four pairs or eight wires. The RJ-11 plug of a
telephone set can also be plugged into an RJ-45 wall outlet connecting only
the four middle pins. The middle two pins of an RJ-11 plug are commonly used
by a one-line telephone set. On the other hand, the middle two pins of an RJ-
45 plug are not used by 10/100 Ethernet. Therefore, home-run or structured
wiring can accommodate both the telephone and the data networking needs of
a typical home.
Transmission techniques specified by HomePNA (Home Phoneline Networking

Alliance) [3] can be used to connect PCs in homes with many telephone wall
outlets. Tut Systems [4] and Epigram, now a home network division of
Broadcom, found the existing phone wires in a home a very attractive
transmission medium to apply advanced transceiver technologies to. The
industrial consortium known as HomePNA was formed in June 1998 to promote
the in-home telephone wiringbased transmission technologies. Tut Systems'
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) system was selected in early 1999 as the
HomePNA 1.0 line code for a transmission throughput of about 1 Mbps.
Epigram's QAM line code was selected later in 1999 as the standard for
HomePNA 2.0 with a transmission throughput of up to 10 Mbps. By duplicating
the HomePNA 1.0 mechanism, HomePNA 2.0 is also backwards compatible.
HomePNA NICs and adaptors were available in stores during 2000 and 2001.
They can still be ordered from a few Web sites. Most recently, HomePNA 3.0
with a transmission throughput of up to 100 Mbps has been specified based on
technical proposals from Broadcom [5] and CopperGate Communications [6].
The IEEE 1394 transmission technology also known as FireWire or iLink can be
used to interconnect PCs and consumer electronics devices especially for
digital video connections. The FireWire name was originally coined by Apple
Computer, Inc. The iLink name has been used on SONY products. The IEEE
1394 serial bus technology was designed to handle both Asynchronous (such
as data) and Isochronous (such as video) packet transmissions. Most
standardization efforts were coordinated at the 1394 Trade Association (1394
TA) [7] meetings. The first FireWire standards, known as IEEE 1394-1995,
were released during 1995. This first version of 1394 technology is capable of
delivering transmission throughputs of 100, 200, and 400 Mbps over a special
shielded twisted pair cable of 4.5 meters. The new 1394b standards, released
during 2001, made the FireWire technology run faster and go further. 1394b
signals can be carried over a short shielded twisted pair cable of 4.5 meters at
up to 1600 Mbps as well as a Category 5 unshielded twisted pair cable of up to
100 meters at 100 Mbps. FireWire plugs can be found on some PCs, all iMACs,
some digital cameras, and all digital camcorders. The FireWire technology
holds a great potential for home network applications because it can carry
multimedia signals at high throughputs.
A home network can also be established using in-home electrical power lines
and wall plugs. There are mainly three available power linebased systems: X-
10, CEBus, and (most recently) HomePlug. The X-10 technology, with a
throughput of 60 bits per second (bps), was invented about 25 years ago by
engineers of a Scotland company called Pico Electronics. X-10 has since been
applied for home automation [8], where lights and other appliances can be
turned on and off via short command packets transmitted over the power line.
X-10-equipped lights, switches, and controllers can be found in electronics
shops as well as home improvement stores. CEBus (Consumer Electronics
Bus), with a throughput of 10 kilobytes per second (kps), is an industry
standard [9] intended for home automation and entertainment information
distribution applications. The effort for a CEBus standard was initiated during a
meeting in Washington, D.C., sponsored by Electronics Industries Alliance
(EIA) in April of 1984. The power linebased CEBus physical layer has found
good applications in commercial buildings as well as over the wiring of
commercial trucks for relaying information from different parts of a vehicle.
HomePlug [10] is the result of a common industry desire to have a single
transmission protocol for interconnecting PCs as well as entertainment
electronics "wirelessly" over the in-home power lines. The formation of the
HomePlug Powerline Alliance was announced on April 10, 2000. Under the
sponsorship of Radio Shack and Compaq, five residences around Dallas, Texas,
were chosen to field test prototypes from Adaptive Network [11], Cogency
[12], Enikia [13], Intellon [14], and Itran [15]. The system from Intellon with
a throughput of 10 Mbps was chosen as the basis for the HomePlug technology
on June 5, 2000, and the corresponding specification was subsequently
released on June 26, 2001. HomePlug retail products can be obtained from
Linksys [16], NETGEAR [17], and Phonex Broadband [18].
A wireless Ethernet [19] requires no wiring so that an RF home network can

be initiated as soon as you put an access point, NICs, or adaptors into the right
places. Wireless Ethernet is the nickname for transmission systems specified
by IEEE 802.11 standards. There are different versions of wireless Ethernet
defined by corresponding parts of the IEEE 802.11 standards. Initial versions
of wireless Ethernet are based on spread spectrum technologies defined for the
2.4-GHz ISM band. Two different wireless Ethernet spread spectrum
technologies initially released during June 1997 are Frequency-Hopping
Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). They
are both capable of transmission throughputs of 1 or 2 Mbps. The IEEE
802.11b standards for 5.5- and 11-Mbps throughput extensions to the DSSS
wireless Ethernet in the ISM band of 2.4 GHz were later released during 1999.
Today most wireless Ethernet products conform to the 802.11b standards with
backwards compatibility to the original DSSS version. The IEEE 802.11a
standards for an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) wireless
Ethernet were also released during 1999. The original OFDM wireless Ethernet
operates in 5-GHz ISM bands and provides transmission throughputs of 6, 9,
12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbps. Most recently, OFDM transmission techniques
have been adapted to the 2.4-GHz ISM and that results to the IEEE 802.11g
standards. Short-distance RF transmission systems such as BlueTooth [20] and
IEEE 802.15 [21] are not covered in this book.
There was also a HomeRF consortium group formed by a few PC and wireless
technology companies during 1997. At that time, the IEEE 802.11 wireless
Ethernet standards were just released, and standards confirming transceivers
were relatively too expensive for home applications. Goals of the HomeRF
group were to develop an inexpensive wireless technology to connect not only
PCs but also other popular electronic devices in the home environment. The
version 1.0 of the HomeRF specification, also known as Shared Wireless Access
Protocol-Cordless Access (SWAP-CA), was released in January 1999 for
transmission throughputs of 0.8 or 1.6 Mbps. A higher throughput version of
HomeRF version 2.0 was released in May 2001 for transmission throughputs of
5 or 10 Mbps. The HomeRF consortium group does not exist, and its Web site
was taken down by January 1, 2003. HomeRF might be available through
university partners for further studies and experiments.
Table 1.1 summarizes previously mentioned home network technologies

including transmission characteristics and availability as a quick reference of
comparison. Transmission characteristics for each technology include Rate
(transmission throughput), Medium, and Coverage (transmission distance).
Transmission medium can be UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair cable), Telephone
Wiring (in-home), STP (Shielded Twisted Pair cable), POF (Plastic Optical
Fiber), Electrical Wiring (in-home), or RF (Radio Frequency). The coverage is
measured in meters (m) or mentioned as for the Whole House. The year of
introduction (Int.) marks the release of a corresponding standard specification.
Availability for years 1999 through 2002 is recorded as limited (Limit), you
can buy from a few Web sites; available (Avail), you can buy from stores; or
promoted in stores (Hot).
Table 1.1. Home Network Technology Comparison
Type Rate (Mbps) Medium Coverage Int. 1999 2000 2001 2002
10BaseT 10 UTP 100 m 1990 Avail Avail Avail Avail
100BaseTX 100 UTP 100 m 1995 Hot Avail Avail Avail
HomePNA 1.0 1 Telephone Wiring Whole House 1999 Avail Limit Limit
HomePNA 2.0 10 Telephone Wiring Whole House 1999 Avail Hot Limit
HomePNA 3.0 100 Telephone Wiring 2002
1394 100, 200, 400 STP 3.5 m 1995 Avail Avail Hot Avail
1394b ..., 800, 1600 UTP, STP, POF 4.5, 50, 100 m 2001 Avail
X-10 60 bps Electrical Wiring Whole House 1979 Avail Avail Avail Avail
CEBus 0.01 Electrical Wiring Whole House 1991 Limit Limit Limit Limit
HomePlug 10 Electrical Wiring Whole House 2001 Avail
802.11 FHSS 1, 2 2.4 GHz RF Whole House 1997 Avail Avail Avail Limit
802.11 DSSS 1, 2 2.4 GHz RF 90, 75 m 1997 Avail Avail Avail Limit
802.11b 5.5, 11 2.4 GHz RF 60, 35 m 1999 Avail Avail Hot
802.11a Up to 54 5 GHz RF Whole House 1999 Avail
802.11g Up to 54 2.4 GHz RF Whole House 2003
HomeRF 1.0 1, 2 2.4 GHz RF Whole House 1999 Avail Hot Avail
HomeRF 2.0 5, 10 2.4 GHz RF Whole House 2001
Home networks have a great potential for further growth. They will be fueled
by the combination of market, technology, and application development. The
current population growth of home networking is very much related to the
deployment of broadband access networks mainly consisting of cable modem
and DSL. Figure 1.4 shows the trend of total U.S. broadband access network
deployment. This deployment trend might continue in a worldwide scale for the
next few years before reaching 200 million households or about 10% of world
population, as a goal of DSL Forum [22]. A large percentage of broadband
access network subscribers will use home networks, because, in most cases,
they have multiple PCs and PC users. Because a home network involves
multiple transmission devices, the total installation number of these devices
could be similar to or larger than those of broadband subscribers.
Figure 1.4. Growing Broadband-Connected Homes
Meanwhile, home network technologies will evolve. Transmission throughputs

of wired and wireless systems will unfold a few more times. Gigabit Ethernet,
or maybe 10 Gigabit Ethernet, can be deployed on the same Category 5 home
run or structured wiring. Performance of wireless Ethernet will be further
enhanced by introducing better semiconductor devices and using directional
antenna. Higher transmission throughputs in combination with isochronous
capabilities will enable home networking of digital video signals. In the future,
an affordable home network router might even be able to perform all data,
video, music, and telephone switch functions. In fact, many users might
replace their old home network systems with new, adding values during the
course. Currently, we are using a PC with a serial, a parallel, a monitor, a
keyboard, and a mouse port; a microphone and a speaker plug; a telephone
and an Ethernet jack; as well as a few USP ports for connecting peripheral and
networking devices. Wireless keyboard and mouse also provide additional
convenience. In the near future, we can imagine a home computer and
entertainment system with major components placed in different rooms and
networked together through a variety of plugs in a few wall plates. Similarly,
RF wireless connections will be a part of this system for providing certain
flexibility.
1.3 Chapter Summaries
This book is mainly organized into two parts: home transmission environment
(Chapters 2 to 5) and corresponding wired/wireless protocols (Chapters 6 to
11). The last chapter (Chapter 12) is about home network topology and
interconnection protocols. Each chapter in the first part of the book discusses a
particular environment by walking through corresponding transmission
medium characteristics, channel models, noise models, and channel capacities.
Some MATLAB files for related calculations are also included. Cable physical
dimensions are presented; then corresponding channel models are constructed
based on two-port network analysis for wired environment. ISM band
regulations are discussed and a few previously published channel models are
represented for RF wireless environment. Each chapter in the second part
covers standardized transmission protocols of a particular environment by
examining highlights of related standards and corresponding transceiver
structures followed by some performance estimations. Only highlights of
standards are included for the introduction to the related transmission
protocol. Full details can be more appreciated by subsequently studying related
standards documents. Thanks to the IEEE contract to the industry initiative,
Ethernet and Wireless Ethernet standards documents can be directly
downloaded from IEEE Web site [2, 19]. Other standards documents can also
be obtained by joining related standards groups [3, 7, 9, 10]. Transceiver
structures are presented by referencing some standards conforming product
implementations as well as Simulink modeling. Some MATLAB files are also
included for related calculations. Updated MATLAB and Simulink files of this
book are also posted at http://authors.phptr.com/chen/ and the Web site of
The MathWorks, Inc..
Specifically, Chapter 2 studies channel models for twisted pair cables. While
the dimension of the inner copper conductor is commonly measured by AWG
(American Wire Gauge), the transmission quality of data-grade twisted pair
cable is typically labeled as Categories 3 to 5 as specified by TIA/EIA
(Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Alliance)
standards. Here, a larger category number means a better quality. On the
other hand, the transmission quality of in-home telephone wiring, especially
for data transmission application, is usually poor and not specified.
Transmission characteristics of a twisted pair cable can be represented by
frequency-dependent primary parameters of R, L, G, and C per unit length or a
parametrized model. They can also be represented by a frequency-dependent
transmission line model of Z and g. While there is only a straight Category 3 or
5 cable between Ethernet transceivers, wiring branches occur on in-home
telephone wirings. The ABCD matrix based two-port network analysis is
introduced for the construction of channel models involving cable sections and
branches. Thermal, crosstalk, and RF ingress/egress noises are also discussed
for the twisted pair cable environment. Channel capacities are then calculated
in accordance with these channel and noise models under different constraints.
MATLAB files for calculations of RLGC parameters, ABCD matrices, insertion
loss, and channel capacity are attached.
Chapter 3 first describes the cable TV signal distribution structure. Commonly

utilized coaxial cables and corresponding models are then introduced. Internal
structures of a splitter and a tap, which are used to interconnect coaxial
cables, are revealed, and their models are discussed. TV frequency allocation
plans for both cable and off-the-air channels are listed for the possible
identification of spare bands. An in-home coaxial cable channel mode is
constructed based on coaxial cable and splitter models. A noise model using
random number generators is also introduced to emulate the ingress noise.
Channel capacity is calculated as a variable of signal level. MATLAB files for
calculating splitter, channel, noise models, and channel capacity are attached.
Chapter 4 first discusses practices for residential electrical wiring and

commonly utilized cable types. Transmission characteristics of these cables,
including insertion and crosstalk losses, are then derived based on their
physical dimensions. An in-home electrical wiring channel model is constructed
based on relevant cable models and a typical wiring topology. A previously
published empirical channel model fitting some real measurements is also
described. Permitted signal level is reviewed in accordance with related FCC
(Federal Communications Commission) regulations. Both noise measurement
procedures and the random number generatorbased ingress noise model are
presented. Channel capacity for the in-home electrical wiring environment is
calculated according to these channel and noise models. MATLAB files for
calculations of channel and noise models as well as channel capacity under
emission constraints are attached.
Chapter 5 first describes FCC regulations for RF usages in general and for ISM
specifically. Indoor RF radio transmission environment is studied through the
free space transmission expression as well as reflection and penetration
analysis. An in-home RF signal attenuation model is introduced along with
some real measurements at 2.4- and 5-GHz ISMs. A previously published RF
channel impulse response model with delay spread and its baseband
equivalence are then discussed. Antenna ambient noise, receiver noise figure,
and equivalent noise floor are analyzed. Channel capacities for the in-home RF
environment are calculated under different signal level constraints and noise
levels. MATLAB files for calculating reflection coefficients, signal attenuation,
impulse response channel model, and the equivalent baseband channel model
are attached.
Chapter 6 covers twisted pairbased Ethernet standards of 10BaseT, 100BaseT4,

100BaseTX, and 100BaseT2. The common MAC (Median Access and Control)
protocol in terms of frame formats and the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) mechanism are described first followed by
descriptions of these four different physical layer transmission methods.
Standards specifications of these physical layers are summarized in terms of
channel/ noise models, encoding methods, and transmit signal PSDs (Power
Spectrum Densities). Corresponding transceiver structures are presented.
Channel capacities under these specific transmission environments are
estimated to assess relative challenge levels of implementations. Simulink
representations of transceivers are also included. Other common features,
among different versions of twisted pairbased Ethernet, of autonegotiation and
MII (Media Independent Interface) are then discussed. MATLAB files for CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) calculation, Aloha, Slotted Aloha, and CSMA/CD
simulations; channel and noise models; and channel capacity estimations are
attached.
Chapter 7 discusses some technical features of HomePNA 1.0 and 2.0

specifications. Highlights of frame formats, encoding methods, signal
waveforms, PSDs, and test loops are provided. Transceiver structures and
channel capacity estimations are also included. MATLAB files for HomePNA 1.0
probability of error, square root Nyquist filter coefficients, HomePNA 1.0
environment channel capacity, HCS (Head Check Sequence), and CRC16
calculations as well as a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver are attached.
Chapter 8 introduces the IEEE 1394 technology by highlighting the original

subaction gapbased arbitration protocol and the corresponding transceiver
structure as well as the new full duplex arbitration protocol and twisted pair
versions of 1394b physical layers. Descriptions of wiring topology, initialization
process, and packet formats are included. The MATLAB file for the original
1394 signal PSD calculation is also attached.
Chapter 9 describes some in-home electrical wiringbased transmission

technologies including X-10, CEBus, and HomePlug. Operation principles,
encoding method, and circuit configuration for X-10 are first discussed.
Highlights of CEBus include a home network reference architecture, the
general packet format, an encoding table, and a signal waveform. A CEBus
implementation example is also included. The potential of a CEBus coaxial
cablebased physical layer is also briefly mentioned. Highlights of HomePlug
include transceiver architecture, encoding methods, transmit signal PSD, and
the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) MAC
protocol. Technology components of a HomePlug such as Galois filed
arithmetic, RS (Reed-Solomon) encoding, RS decoding, and Viterbi decoding
are discussed in detail. MATLAB files for CEBus PL (Power Line) signal
generation, GF representation and RS generator polynomial calculations, a
product encoder, an RS encoder, an RS decoder, a convolution encoder, and a
Viterbi decoder are attached.
Chapter 10 covers wireless Ethernet standards of FHSS, DSSS, CCK

(Complementary Code Keying) or 802.11b, and OFDM or 802.11a versions.
The common MAC protocol in terms of frame formats and the CSMA/CA
mechanism are described first followed by descriptions of these four different
physical layer transmission methods. Standards specifications of these physical
layers are summarized in terms of packet formats and encoding/modulation
methods. Corresponding transceiver structures are presented. Channel
capacities under these specific transmission environments are also estimated.
Simulink representations of transceivers as well as silicon realization examples
are included. MATLAB files for RC4 encryption, Gaussian filter coefficients,
complementary code words, a multipath channel model, fast Walsh transform,
and modified fast Walsh transform are attached.
Chapter 11 discusses the basics of HomeRF MAC in terms of super frame

structure, different types of MAC frames, and its encryption algorithm. Physical
layer attributes of HomeRF 1.0 specification are then examined with respect to
packet formats, the data-whitening method, modulation parameters, and
frequency-hopping sequences. Some features of HomeRF 2.0 specification are
also mentioned.
Chapter 12 introduces basics of broadband access network configurations,

peer-to-peer network via NetBEUI protocol, Internet sharing via NAT (Network
Address Translation)/port number translation, and MAC bridging. A few home
network topology configurations are also introduced during the course.
Finally, some other home networkrelated recommendations and activities are

also defined and organized by the following standards organizations: CEA
(Consumer Electronics Association) [23] and HAVi (Home Audio Video
interoperability) [24].
1.4 References
1. www.swhowto.com/
2. standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.3.html
3. www.homepna.org/
4. www.tutsys.com/
5. www.broadcom.com/
6. www.copper-gate.com/
7. www.1394ta.org/
8. www.smarthome.com/x10map.html
9. www.cebus.org/
10. www.homeplug.org/index_basic.html
11. www.adaptivenetworks.com
12. www.cogency.com/
13. www.enikia.com/index.html
14. www.intellon.com/
15. www.itrancomm.com/
16. www.linksys.com/
17. www.netgear.com/
18. www.phonex.com/
20. www.palowireless.com/bluetooth/
22. www.dslforum.org/
23. www.ce.org/
24. www.havi.org/
Chapter 2. Twisted Pair
In this chapter, we will study and construct transmission channel models for
twisted pair cables. The first type of twisted cable is the one used in existing
in-house telephone wiring. This in-house twisted pair wiring usually extends
from the entrance point of a telephone loop to telephone jacks distributed at
many different rooms within a residence. For a multiple-pair twisted pair cable,
the twist is usually applied to each individual pair with a particular twisting
angle. For in-house telephone-wiring twisted pair cable, the twist is normally
applied to all wires. Sometimes, flat cable with no twist is also used for in-
house telephone wiring. The conventional wiring procedure of this in-house
telephone loop extension is called star daisy-chain. At the center of the star is
the telephone loop entrance point. From this center, a few branches of twisted
pair cables are extended throughout the residence reaching all telephone
jacks. Each branch usually connects a few phone jacks along one floor or
within a particular region of residence involving multiple floors. Each star
daisy-chain branch contains a few cascade twisted pair cable sections
sequentially connected at phone jacks along the way. Sometimes, a branch can
become multiple branches along the way. For this type of in-house telephone
wiring, we will examine commonly used types of twisted pair cables, their
transmission and crosstalk characteristics, networking topology, and
impedances of telephony devices connected to this star daisy-chain network
through telephone jacks. Based on this information, we will calculate transfer
function, crosstalk loss, and channel capacity for a broadband communication
link established between two phone jacks of the in-house telephone-wiring
network.
The second type is the data-grade twisted pair cable. They are typically called
Category 3 or Category 5 twisted pair cables. Category 3 and Category 5
twisted pair cables are used as transmission media for 10BaseT and 100BaseT
Ethernet. Both require an active hub to connect all Ethernet transceivers
together. The wiring topology of a 10BaseT or a 100BaseT Ethernet is a star. A
hub with multiple transceivers is at the center of this wiring star. The star
topology telephone wiring can often be found at recently completed homes.
Data-grade twisted pair cables are often used in conjunction with the star
topology telephone wiring. For data-grade twisted pair cables, we will examine
their transmission and crosstalk characteristics and calculate the
corresponding transfer function, crosstalk loss, and channel capacity for a
point-to-point connection of a household dimension.
2.1 Twisted Pair Cable
2.1.1 Specifications of Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cables consist of copper wires of small diameters which are usually
less than 0.1 inch for telephone, in-house, and office applications. Within a
plastic covering shield, there are many individually insulated copper wires
twisted with each other in pairs. Two wires in a tightly twisted pair experience
almost the same physical environment. Therefore, radio emission and noise
pickup are minimized when a differential signal is carried over the twisted pair.
Furthermore, each twisted pair has its own twisting angle to minimize
crosstalk between different pairs. The quality of the insulation material, the
tightness and the precision of twists, and the diameter of the copper wire
determine the transmission quality of a twisted pair cable.
The size of the copper wire is usually measured in American Wire Gauge.
Popular wire sizes for twisted pair cables are 19, 22, 24, and 26 AWG. Table
2.1 shows metric and English equivalences of AWG from 11 to 40. The English
unit is mil, which is 0.001 inch, and the metric unit is millimeter.
No AWG fits exactly an English or metric unit except AWG 36. However, the
ratio between adjacent AWGs is about 0.890524585333. More than 100 years
ago, wire gauges were set pretty much by how much you could reduce the
diameter of the wire in one step through a wire drawing die. For a variety of
reasons, each reduction is about the same ratio, leading to the geometric
sequence we now have. Around the turn of the last century, the AWG group
took the current gauge 10 and gauge 40 and interpolated accordingly. Similar
earlier European wire gauge standards existed, but the current European
definitions are metric based, and diameters of copper wire are specified to the
accuracy of 0.1 mm. For example, the metric equivalents of 24 and 26 AWG
twisted pair cables have diameters of 0.5 and 0.4 mm, respectively.
Table 2.1. AWG Equivalences
AWG mil mm AWG mil mm AWG mil mm
11 90.741 2.3048 21 28.462 0.7229 31 8.9276 0.2268
12 80.807 2.0525 22 25.346 0.6438 32 7.9503 0.2019
13 71.961 1.8278 23 22.572 0.5733 33 7.0799 0.1798

14 64.083 1.6277 24 20.101 0.5106 34 6.3048 0.1601
15 57.067 1.4495 25 17.900 0.4547 35 5.6146 0.1426
16 50.820 1.2908 26 15.940 0.4049 36 5.0000 0.1270
17 45.257 1.1495 27 14.195 0.3606 37 4.4526 0.1131
18 40.302 1.0237 28 12.641 0.3211 38 3.9652 0.1007
19 35.890 0.9116 29 11.257 0.2859 39 3.5311 0.0897
20 31.961 0.8118 30 10.025 0.2546 40 3.1445 0.0799
Twisted pair cables have been used for office wiring mainly to connect
computers over 10BaseT or 100BaseTX Ethernet. Twisted pair cable types
commonly used in office environments are Category 3 or Category 5. The
transmission characteristics of Category 5 cable are better than those of
Category 3 cable. There is also a Category 4 twisted pair cable with
transmission qualities that fall between the two. Detailed cable-type
recommendations as well as installation guidelines are in standards document
TIA/EIA-568A [1], and TIA/EIA-568-B [2]. Transmission qualities of these
twisted pair cables are generally defined by the attenuation at the frequency
of 10 MHz. At that particular frequency, the attenuation should be less than
98, 72, or 65 decibels per kilometer (dB/km) for Category 3, 4, or 5 type of
cable respectively. These cables can usually have 4 or 25 twisted pairs inside a
plastic shield. Category 3 cable consists of 24 gauge copper wires, while
Category 4 and Category 5 cables can be made with either 22 or 24 gauge
wires. Again, the transmission quality of a twisted cable is not just dependent
on the inside copper wire size.
There are no official standards for residential wiring practice. before the
divestiture of the Bell system, wiring practice was very much phone company
and region-dependent. These practices have been followed by regional phone
company technicians and building contractor electricians thereafter. A study
[3] has found most in-premises telephone wirings are either Quad or flat type.
A Quad cable has four wires all twisted together without individual pairing. A
flat cable has 4 wires lying next to each other in one layer without any
twisting. There are also three or six pair cables either all twisted together or
lying flat. The Quad cable usually consists of 22 AWG copper wires, while the
flat cable is usually made with 26 AWG copper wires.
Since transmission qualities of twisted pair cables vary depending on wire size
as well as other manufacturing processes, the performance of a particular
twisted pair cable can be accurately defined only by its primary electric
parameters in terms of resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance
per unit length. Such a definition is not considered as a manufacturing
standard but rather as an industry reference model. Twisted pair cable models
defined by their primary electric parameters have been very useful in
computer simulation studies leading to definitions of advanced broadband
communication systems such as DSL and Ethernet. Electric parameters of a
particular twisted pair cable might be a little different from those of the
reference model owing to temperature, measuring procedure, and
manufacturers. However, the general transmission performance of the
reference model can be maintained if differences are kept minimal.
2.1.2 Primary Parameters of Twisted Pair Cables
The transmission characteristics of a twisted pair cable can be accurately

defined by its primary electric parameters, namely the series resistance R,
series inductance L, shunt conductance G, and shunt capacitance C. Note that
these primary parameters are also frequency-dependent. Values of these
primary parameters are expressed per unit length. Therefore, the values
should be properly scaled for either metric or English measuring system.
Figure 2.1 shows a twisted pair cable equivalent circuit in terms of its primary
parameters for a unit length dx. The equivalent circuit of a twisted pair cable
should consist of many such unit length circuits connected in cascade.
Figure 2.1. Twisted Pair Distributed Parameter Model
Primary parameters of a twisted pair cable can be measured directly or

indirectly with wide bandwidth and high-precision test equipment. However,
data fitting is necessary to cover the whole frequency band and to filter out
some inaccurate spots. Parameterized models [4] for RLGC primary
parameters have been developed to fit the measured values. Parameter
models are
Equation 2.1
where r0C is the copper DC resistance and r0S is steel DC resistance, while aC
and aS are constants characterizing the rise of resistance with frequency in the
"skin effect" for the series resistance
Equation 2.2
where l0 and l are the low-frequency and high-frequency inductances,

respectively, and b is a parameter chosen to characterize the transition
between low and high frequencies in the measured inductance values for the
series inductance
Equation 2.3
where c is the "contact" capacitance and c0 and ce are constants chosen to fit
the measurements for the shunt capacitance, and
Equation 2.4
where g0 and ge are constants chosen to fit the measurements for the shunt
conductance.
r0s is presented to take care of the double skin-effect of some copper-clad drop
wires with steel cores, and its value is normally for copper-only cables
according to measurements. Therefore, the parameterized model for the series
resistance is simplified to
Equation 2.5
Table 2.2 shows parameterized models, parameters in Equations 2.2 to 2.5, for
typical office and residential twisted pair cables.
Table 2.2. Parameterized Models for Primary Parameters
26 AWG 24 AWG Drop Wire Flat Pair Cat. 5 Quad-22 FW-26
R r0c ( /km) 286.176 174.559 180.93 41.16 176.6 252.5 399.6
ac 0.147696 0.053073 0.04972 0.001218 0.050008 0.2643 0.757
L l0 (µH/km) 675.369 617.295 728.87 1000 1090.8 763.2 788.7
l (µH/km) 488.952 478.971 543.43 911 504.5 575.7 591.8
b 0.92931 1.15298 0.75577 1.195 0.705 0.794 0.654
fm (kHz) 806.34 553.76 718.89 174.2 32.570 386 697
C c (nF/km) 49 50 51 22.68 48.55 44.1 42.7
c 0 (nF/km) 0 0 63.8 31.78 0 75.1 24.8
ce 0 0 0.1158 0.1109 0 0.245 0.122
G g0 (nS/km) 43 0.234 89 53 1.4765 26.7 322.3

ge 0.7 1.38 0.856 0.88 0.91 0.8805 0.7423
These parameterized models can be used to generate twisted pair primary

electric parameters for frequencies from near 0 up to 50 MHz with reliable
accuracy compared with real measurements. 26 AWG and 24 AWG types are
commonly used in telephone loops, while Drop Wire and Flat Pair are often
used to connect telephone loops to subscriber households. The Category 5
twisted pair is popular for Ethernet wiring. Quad-22, consisting of four 22 AWG
twisted pairs, and FW-26, 26 AWG of flat wire, are regularly found in in-house
telephone wiring.
A set of secondary parameters for the twisted pair cable consists of

characteristic impedance and propagation constants. The characteristic
impedance of a twisted pair cable is related to primary parameters according to
the following expression:
Equation 2.6
The propagation constant of a twisted pair cable is also related to primary

parameters and can be expressed according to the following expression:
Equation 2.7
Note that the characteristic impedance and propagation constants of a twisted

pair cable are also frequency-dependent. Although the propagation constant is
a function of frequency, we still use the name "propagation constant" following
its original derivation from an ideal transmission line.
For a simple twisted pair cable terminated with its characteristic impedance, its
transfer function or insertion loss is related to the propagation constant
according to the following expression:
Equation 2.8
where d is the length of the twisted pair cable. The measurement of the
transfer function or the insertion loss of a twisted pair cable is relatively
straightforward, and the measurement result is often expressed in terms of
the output-to-input power ratio. Specifically, a scaled version of the logarithm
of the output-to-input power ratio is used to describe the transfer function of a
twisted pair cable. The logarithmic version of transfer function is defined by
the following expression:
Equation 2.9
where a(f) is the real part of propagation constant g(f) . a(f) can be
approximately represented in the following expression:
Equation 2.10
Parameters of a and b for insertion loss are listed in Table 2.3 for different
twisted pair cables and in-house wirings [5]. These parameters should be used
in conjunction with distance d in terms of feet (ft) and frequency f in terms of
Hertz (Hz).
Table 2.3. Parameters for g(f)
Type a b
Cat. 3 8.17 x 10-7 8.07 x 10-11
Cat. 4 7.37 x 10-7 9.12 x 10-12

Cat. 5 7.26 x 10-7 4.56 x 10-12
Quad-22 6.77 x 10-7 4.97 x 10-11
FW-26 9.17 x 10-7 4.87 x 10-11
Figure 2.2 shows insertion losses created according to these estimated

propagation constant model parameters for a distance of 100 m or 328.08 ft.
Figure 2.2. Insertion Loss According to Propagation

Parameter Estimations
2.2 Twisted Pair Cable Channel Model
2.2.1 Wiring Topology
In an office environment, twisted pair cables are wired from each desk to a
central location, usually a dedicated wiring closet, where an Ethernet hub is
used to connect every incoming cable at the center of a star. This is often
called a star wiring configuration. Under this star wiring configuration, a
straight twisted cable is used between a port of the hub and a computer NIC.
With ideal terminations at both ends of a twisted pair cable, the transfer
function of the twisted pairbased transmission channel can be estimated
accurately using its propagation constant (Equation 2.8 or 2.9) for an
identified distance. The star wiring configuration can also be found in some
residences, especially in some newly constructed residential areas where the
awareness of data transmission within a household exists. In a majority of
existing residential premises, however, twisted pair telephone cables are wired
following a daisy-chain fashion. For example, from the NID (Network Interface
Device), one twisted pair cable connects a few telephone jacks on the first
floor, and a second one connects all phone jacks on the second floor. The
homeowner may have added another twisted pair cable to connect the
computers, fax machines, and other auxiliary devices at a few different places.
The star daisy-chain telephone in-house wiring configuration in Figure 2.3

shows four phone jacks in this residential premises [6]. The jacks at both ends
are marked as station 1 and station 2. Each of the other two are terminated
with a capacitor of 500 picofarads (pF) representing an on-hook telephone set.
The Central Office is represented by a 100-ohm load at 8000 ft. For this
general star daisy-chain wiring configuration, we need to know two-port
network representation of all cable sections as well as terminations to estimate
the transfer function.
Figure 2.3. An Example of a Telephone Wiring Configuration

2.2.2 Telephony Devices
A telephone set is often called POTS (Plain Old Telephone Set) in

telecommunications jargon. All telephone sets have followed the original Bell
Systems' 500/2500 series design, but integrated electronics have replaced
some more expensive electromechanical and special-purpose devices. The
general circuit diagram of a 500/2500 telephone set is shown in Figure 2.4
[7]. A telephone set consists of a ringer, which is always connected to the
telephone loop, a transmitter (microphone) or Tx, a receiver (ear piece) or Rx,
and a single transformerbased balance network. The dial is omitted for
simplicity. There are three varistors in a typical 500/2500 series telephone set.
(A varistor is an electrical component whose resistance varies according to its
bias current.)
Figure 2.4. Schematics of a Typical (500) Telephone Set

Varistor V1 is used to compensate loop length differences. A smaller resistance
of V1 under a short loop, and therefore a high bias current, results in a higher
signal loss. Varistor V2 is used for automatic side tone (self-echo) strength
adjustment so that talkers can feel the liveliness of their own speech at a
certain level, while V3 is used to limit the signal from a pulse or tone dialer.
For the broadband home networking over the in-house wiring, POTS presents
only a termination impedance. From that perspective, the POTS circuit can be
simplified to either a ringer, which is represented by a capacitance of about
500 pF because of the distributed capacitances of the ringer coil or the
equivalent electronics at high frequencies, or the ringer plus an impedance
consisting of nonlinear varistors, a resistor, and an inductor as shown in Figure
2.5. Zener diodes have been used in place of varistors for recently
manufactured telephone sets. As long as the broadband signal is low in
amplitude, the equivalent circuit of a telephone set is pretty much linear and
representable by the 500-pF capacitor.
Figure 2.5. A Simplified POTS Equivalent Circuit

Figure 2.6 shows the insertion loss (which is very similar to but a more
accurate representation of transfer function) of the example star daisy-chain
wiring configuration of Figure 2.3 from station 1 to station 2 with the effects of
wiring interconnections and terminations all included. The lower smooth curve
also in Figure 2.6 is the corresponding crosstalk loss between adjacent twisted
pairs. The insertion loss is estimated by first calculating ABCD parameters of
each cable section and termination as a two-port network and then the overall
ABCD parameters of the circuit network between station 1 and station 2. As is
shown later in this section, the use of ABCD parameters is a convenient way of
describing input-to-output current and voltage relationships. The insertion loss
is then calculated based on the overall ABCD parameters. Two deep notches in
Figure 2.6 around 7 and 16.5 MHz are caused by reflections of different cable
branches and mismatched terminal impedances.
Figure 2.6. Insertion Loss of a Telephone Wiring

2.2.3 Two-Port Network and ABCD Parameters
The twisted pair cable transfer function based on the propagation constant,
H(d,f) = e-da(f) e-jdb(f), is only good for a single-gauge twisted pair with ideal
terminations at both ends. In-house telephone wiring, however, usually
consists of many twisted pair cables connected in a star daisy-chain fashion,
with ends that are either open or terminated with telephony devices of
nonideal impedances. To represent accurately an in-house wiring transfer
function from one phone jack to another, a two-port network and its ABCD
parameter representation are used in calculation.
An electronic circuit is usually designed for analog filtering or digital

processing of signals between its input port and output port. The function of
the electronic circuit is to produce a desired output signal based on certain
input signals. A twisted pair cable section or a twisted pair telephone
subscriber loop can also be viewed as having an input port where a signal
arrives and an output port where the signal leaves. The function of an
electronic circuit or the transfer function of a twisted pair telephone loop can
be determined solely according to its input/output current/voltage
relationships. Figure 2.7 shows the model of a two-port network, which can
represent an electronic circuit or a twisted pair telephone cable. V1 and I1 are
input port voltage and current, respectively. V2 and I2 are output port voltage
and current, respectively. Input port voltage and current and output port
voltage and current are related by ABCD parameters of the two-port network.
Note that ABCD parameters are generally not constants but rather frequency-
dependent complex variables.
Figure 2.7. A Two-Port Network
For a stand-alone two-port network, the input and output voltage and current
relationship is represented as
Equation 2.11
Equation 2.12
or in matrix format as
Equation 2.13
where these ABCD parameters are defined as
ABCD parameters for a simple two-port network consisting of a series

impedance as shown in Figure 2.8 can be derived as follows. We have
Figure 2.8. A Series Impedance as a Two-Port Network

Therefore, the ABCD parameter matrix for a series impedance Z as a two-port
network is as follows:
Equation 2.14
ABCD parameters for another simple two-port network consisting of a shunt

impedance as shown in Figure 2.9 can be derived as follows. We have
Figure 2.9. A Shunt Impedance as a Two-Port Network
Therefore, the ABCD parameter matrix for a shunt impedance Z as a two-port

network is
Equation 2.15
ABCD parameters of a twisted pair cable are complex and frequency-
dependent. They are related to characteristic impedance, Z0(s), and
propagation constant, g(s), as
Equation 2.16
Equation 2.17
Equation 2.18
where d is the length of the twisted pair cable.
Many electronic circuits can be divided into a few simpler two-port networks.
These simpler two-port networks are usually connected either in series or in
parallel. A twisted pair telephone loop consists of many twisted pair cables in
series. The use of twisted pair ABCD parameters is convenient because each
section of a twisted pair subscriber loop can be described by its own ABCD
parameters, and the ABCD parameters of the whole subscriber loop are the
matrix product of individual ABCD matrices.
To obtain the ABCD parameters of two two-port networks in series, equate the
output port voltage and current of the first two-port network to the input port
voltage and current of the following network, as shown in Figure 2.10, and
then derive the relationship between the input port voltage and current of the
first two-port network to the output port voltage and current of the following
network.
Figure 2.10. Two Two-Port Networks in Serial
For two two-port networks in series, the input and output voltage and current
relationship is represented as
Equation 2.19
Equation 2.20
and
Equation 2.21
Therefore, the ABCD parameter matrix for two two-port networks in series is
Equation 2.22
We can obtain the ABCD parameters of two two-port networks in parallel by

equating the input port voltages of these two-port networks and the output
port voltages of these two-port networks as shown in Figure 2.11 and deriving
the relationship between input port voltage and the combined input current
and output port voltage and the combined output current of these two two-
port networks.
Figure 2.11. Two Two-Port Networks in Parallel
The voltage and current relationships of two two-port networks in parallel are
represented as
Equation 2.23
Equation 2.24
Equation 2.25
Equation 2.26
Combining V1 = A1V2 + B1I2' and V1 = A2V2 + B2I2" results in
Equation 2.27
We also have
Equation 2.28
which can be expressed as
Equation 2.29
or
Equation 2.30
by using
Equation 2.31
Combining these two expressions results in
Equation 2.32
Therefore, the ABCD parameter matrix for two two-port networks in parallel is
Equation 2.33
The special case of two identical two-port networks in parallel is represented

as
Equation 2.34
Equation 2.35
Equation 2.36
Equation 2.37
where A, B, C, and D are ABCD parameters of each individual two-port

network and Ap, Bp, Cp, and Dp are ABCD parameters of two two-port networks
in parallel.
2.2.4 Impedance, Transfer Function, and Insertion Loss
The ABCD matrix information of a twisted pair telephone loop can be easily
converted into its input impedance or transfer function. Corresponding
calculations can be put into a computer program [8] to generate channel
models in conjunction with a few tables of twisted pair cable primary
parameters.
The input impedance of a twisted pair loop with a terminal impedance of Zt(s)
is expressed as
Equation 2.38
where A(s), B(s), C(s), and D(s) are complex frequency-dependent ABCD
parameters of a twisted pair telephone cable. When the other end of the
twisted pair cable is left open, we have
Equation 2.39
This is also the impedance of a twisted pair cable branch with an open-end. An
open-ended cable branch can be considered as a two-port network with only a
shunt impedance. Therefore, the ABCD parameters of an open-ended branch
are as follows:
Equation 2.40
where Abranch(s), and Cbranch(s) are parts of frequency-dependent ABCD

parameters of the open-ended cable branch.
The transfer function of a twisted pair loop with a source impedance of Zs(s)
and a terminal impedance of Zt(s) is
Equation 2.41
When the effect of source impedance is excluded, that is, Zs(S) = 0 , we have
Equation 2.42
Following earlier practices of the Bell System [9], the insertion loss, which is
defined as
Equation 2.43
has been used as the channel model for DSL system performance simulation
studies. By using insertion loss, we avoid the signal loss caused by the voltage
division between source and loop input impedances while still including the
effect of the source impedance or the voltage division between source and
termination impedances when the loop is very short. For an example of a zero
length or null loop, that is, for
Equation 2.44
the transfer function is
Equation 2.45
while the insertion loss is
Equation 2.46
The insertion loss more accurately represents the effect of a twisted pair cable
inserted between the source and the termination.
The insertion loss of in-house wiring can be studied in terms of wire loss,
branch loss, and reflection loss. Wire loss is relatively insignificant when it is
compared with those losses caused by branching and reflection. While the
branch loss is related to the number of branches, the reflection loss-caused
notch is related to the cable length of the branch. An average-size two-storey
house has a dimension of 20 ft (height) by 30 ft (width) and by 40 ft (length).
The summation of all house dimensions is therefore 90 ft. With the
consideration of some additional routing length, Figure 2.12 shows the
insertion loss of a 150-ft flat 26-gauge telephone in-house wire.
Figure 2.12. Insertion Loss of a 26-Gauge 150-ft Flat Wire

The insertion loss is less than 5 dB below 12 MHz. Figure 2.13 shows the
insertion loss of a 150-ft flat 26-gauge telephone in-house wire and insertion
losses of those in conjunction with one, two, three, and four flat 26-gauge in-
house wire branches that are 15,000 ft. Long-length branches are used to
show the effects of branching only.
Figure 2.13. A 150-ft Flat 26-Gauge Flat Wire with Long

Branches
Compared with the insertion loss without any branch, each additional long
cable branch causes additional energy loss of between 2 and 3 dB. The amount
of branch loss approximately represents power-sharing factors of 2, 3, 4, and
5. Figure 2.14 shows insertion loss of a 26-gauge 150-ft twisted pair cable as
well as insertion losses of those with an in-house wiring branch of 10, 20, and
30 ft.
Figure 2.14. A 150-ft 26-Gauge Flat Wire with 15-ft Branches

Compared with the insertion loss without any branch, a 30-ft cable branch
causes the lowest frequency notch at around 4.8 MHz and the second
frequency notch at around 14.5 MHz. On the other hand, the first frequency
notch of a 10-ft in-house wiring branch is also at around 14.5 MHz. The
frequency notch is caused by reflections from a branch with a 180-degree
phase shift. In other words, the first frequency notch is the result of the
reflection from the branch with a half-wave delay, the second frequency notch
is the result of a one-and-a-half wave delay, and so on. The location of a notch
frequency can be estimated based on branch length according to the following
expression:
Equation 2.47
where fi is the ith frequency notch, l is the branch length, and c is the speed of
transmission over the in-house wiring. We have c 5.8 x 108 feet per second
(ft/sec). With that transmission speed, we can estimate that the first frequency
notch corresponding to a 20-ft branch is at around 7.25 MHz.
2.3 Noise Model
2.3.1 Noise Power and Power Spectrum Density
The severity of a particular noise can be measured from its power level or its
power density level. The magnitude of a noise can be as high as a few tens of
microvolts. The noise power is usually expressed in decibels (dbm), which is
defined as
Equation 2.48
where v is the average voltage of the noise, R = 100 is the receiver input
impedance, and Pm = 0.001 is the reference of 1 milliwatt (mW). The noise
power spectrum density (PSD) is usually expressed in decibels per hertz
(dBm/Hz), which is defined as
Equation 2.49
where B is the bandwidth of noise of particular interest measured in Hertz. For

an example, the background noise power density is about 140 dBm/Hz while
receiver front end electronics thermal noise power density could be made to be
lower than 150 dBm/Hz.
2.3.2 Crosstalk Noise
There are usually at least two pairs within a twisted pair cable or an in-house
telephone wiring. Because of capacitive and inductive in-balance coupling,
there is crosstalk between each pair even though pairs are well insulated at
DC. For broadband systems, where the signal bandwidth is well beyond the
voice frequency, the crosstalk could become a limiting factor to the achievable
transmission throughput. Crosstalk noise can be further divided into Near End
Crosstalk (NEXT) and Far End Crosstalk (FEXT) noises. The severity of
crosstalk could also be related to the system installation scale (i.e., the total
number of pairs used in the same twisted pair cable). Crosstalk coupling loss
models have been developed for NEXT and FEXT by considering the different
numbers of disturbers.
NEXT is defined as the crosstalk effect between a pair of transceivers that

transmit and receive signals at the same end of a twisted pair cable or an in-
house wiring that shares the same frequency band. In other words, the NEXT
noise at a particular transceiver is caused by signals transmitted by other
transceivers at the same end of the twisted cable. Specifically, as indicated by
Figure 2.15, a Near End Transceiver i would experience NEXT noise from the
Near End Transceiver j if they share the same frequency spectrum
simultaneously. Here, twisted pair j is the disturbing pair carrying disturbing
signal and twisted pair i is the disturbed pair.
Figure 2.15. The Principles of NEXT
FEXT is defined as the crosstalk effect between a pair of transceivers located at

opposite ends of two separate pairs within the same twisted pair cable or in-
house wiring. In other words, the FEXT noise at a particular transceiver is
caused by signals transmitted by transceivers of other pairs at the opposite
end of the twisted cable. Specifically, as indicated by Figure 2.16, a Near End
Transceiver i would experience FEXT noise from the Far End Transceiver j if
they share the same frequency spectrum within the same twisted pair cable.
Figure 2.16. The Principles of FEXT

NEXT is usually stronger than FEXT. Exceptional examples, where FEXT
becomes more effective, are Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM) between opposite transmission directions. In an
FDM transmission system, all transmissions on different pairs from point A to
point B use a frequency band of F1, and all transmissions from point B to point
A use a frequency band of F2 where F1 and F2 are non-overlapping. In a TDM
transmission system, all transmissions on different pairs from point A to point
B use a time slot of T1, and all transmissions from point B to point A use a
time slot of T2, where T1 and T2 are alternating in sequence.
2.3.3 NEXT and FEXT Models
The simplified 49 disturber NEXT model developed for DSL simulation studies
has 57 dB of loss at 80 kHz and a linear (log-log scale) slope of 15 dB/decade.
Specifically, the NEXT model can be expressed as
Equation 2.50
where f is in hertz, kNEXT = 8.82 x 10-14, and NEXT49 is a ratio that can be
expressed in decibels by taking base 10 log of NEXT49 and then multipling 10.
This simplified NEXT model can also be generalized for N disturbers as
Equation 2.51
Notice that the loss difference between 1 disturber and 49 disturbers is about
10 dB.
The simplified 49-disturber FEXT model, which was also developed for DSL
studies, is proportional to the square of frequency and the insertion loss of the
twisted pair cable. The model can be expressed as
Equation 2.52
where kFEXT = 8 x 1020 is empirically derived based on the FEXT

measurements, d is the twisted cable length in feet, f is frequency in hertz,
and |H(f)|2 is the insertion loss of the twisted pair cable.
Because NEXT distribution is similar to FEXT distribution, the same power sum
scale for NEXT can also be applied to FEXT, in which case we have
Equation 2.53
NEXT models are more applicable for many Local Area Network (LAN) and
home network transmission simulation studies. Besides the simplified NEXT
model developed for DSL simulation studies, we can also derive NEXT models
for Category 3, Category 4, and Category 5 twisted pair cables as well as other
in-house telephone wirings based on some valid measurements. It was found
that the one disturber Category 3 twisted pair of 50-ft NEXT model is about
the same as that of 49 disturbers developed for DSL simulation studies. NEXT
models for Category 4 and 5 twisted cables have more losses. On the other
hand, some in-house wirings show much poorer NEXT characteristics.
Estimated values of NEXT49 of these twisted pair cables and a relatively poor
in-house wiring are listed in Table 2.4 [5].
Figure 2.17 shows NEXT models based on these estimated parameters. The
poor NEXT characteristics of some in-house wiring are a result of the fact that
each pair is not individually twisted or that there is no twist at all.
Figure 2.17. Estimated NEXT Loss
Table 2.4. Estimated NEXT Parameters
Poor Wire Cat. 3 Cat. 4 Cat. 5
kNEXT 5.88 x 10-12 7.94 x 10-14 2.51 x 10-15 6.31 x 10-16

2.4 Radio Frequency Interference
Twisted pair cable and other in-house wiring are used to carry signals from one
end, within an office or a home, to another end. Part of the signal energy is
lost during transmission; becoming heat and electromagnetic radio waves. At
high frequencies, the signal loss is relatively heavy, and the amount of
radiation could become quite significant to the degree that it could affect other
sensitive radio transmission systems occupying the same frequency band. The
radio interference caused by twisted pair cable or in-house wiring can be
considered as an extension of the crosstalk effect. Crosstalk is an
electromagnetic phenomenon between two pairs of cables laid next to each
other. The same electromagnetic wave that causes crosstalk also propagates
through open space. The fact that there is no electromagnetic shield on a
twisted pair cable or on most in-house wirings makes the radio propagation
worse.
In traditional terms, the pair causing the crosstalk is called the disturbing pair,
and the radio emission from a cable is called the egress. Therefore, the egress
from a twisted pair or an in-house wiring is from the disturbing pair. On the
other hand, the same electromagnetic mechanism causes a twisted pair cable
or in-house wiring to pick up noises from an interference field from other radio
transmission systems. Again, in traditional terms, the pair receiving the
crosstalk is called the disturbed pair, and the radio emission to a cable is called
the ingress. Therefore, the ingress to a twisted pair or in-house wiring is
picked up by the disturbed pair. In practice, a twisted pair cable or in-house
wiring is used to transmit and receive signals acting as both a disturbing and
disturbed pair simultaneously. A twisted pair cable or an in-house wiring needs
to deal with both egress and ingress issues.
For the egress, the amount of radio emission from a twisted pair cable or in-
house wiring needs to be below the limits set forth by the Wireless
Telecommunications Bureau [10] under the Federal Communications
Commission. Specifically, some radiation limits have been imposed by Part 15
(Radio Frequency Devices) of the FCC rules and regulations, which is labeled
Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 47. In Part 15 section 209 of Title 47,
the radiation limits are defined for four frequency bands as shown in Table 2.5.
In Table 2.5, the field strength is measured 3 m from the subject except for
the frequency band of 1.705 to 30 MHz, which is measured 30 m from the
subject. Notice that no specific measurement bandwidth is given and that the
measurement of the whole signal spectrum is assumed. These limits are
derived for narrow band radio transmission systems with a maximum
bandwidth of 9 kHz. For radio transmission systems with wider bandwidths, an
additional 13 dB of signal level is allowed above these limits.
We have expressed the noise power in terms of decibels, which is the power
ratio against 1 milliwatt. On the other hand, the strength of a radio
electromagnetic field is expressed in terms of decibel microvolts per meter
(dBµV/m), which is the ratio against 1 µV/m. An antenna is normally used to
pick up a signal from an electromagnetic field. In the receiving process, an
antenna converts the field strength to electrical power, which is usually
expressed in terms of decibel microvolts on a particular termination
impedance. The difference between the field strength and the electrical power
is expressed as the antenna gain in terms of decibels. In addition, for a
terminal impedance of 100 ohms, the equal power conversion factor between
decibels and decibel microvolts is expressed as
Equation 2.54
Table 2.5. Radiation Limits
Frequency of Emission (MHz) Field Strength (µV/m) Measuring Distance (meters)
1.70530 30 30
3088 100 3
88216 150 3
216960 200 3
Above 960 500 3
For example, an isotropic antenna has an antenna gain of 5 dB [11]. For this
particular isotropic antenna case, the dBm-to-dBµV/m conversion factor is 0
dBmV/m 110 5 = 115 dBm. On the other hand, the dBmV/m-to-dBm
conversion factor is 0 dBmV/m 110 5 = 115 dBm. In other words, an
antenna with 5 dB of antenna gain will generate an electromagnetic field
strength of 105 dBµV/m for a transmit signal of 0 dBm and pick up an electric
power of 0 dBm in an electromagnetic field with a field strength of 115
dBµV/m. A twisted pair cable or in-house wiring can also be characterized for
its equivalent antenna gain, which we call Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
loss. Actually, we let RFI loss equal to the negative of antenna gain. RFI loss of
a particular twisted pair cable or in-house wiring can be measured within an
electromagnetic field of a certain calibrated field strength. Experiments [12]
have shown that the value of RFI loss for different types of twisted pair cables
and in-house wiring is between 40 to 60 dB in the frequency range of between
1 and 30 MHz.
The RFI loss can also be used to calculate field strength, caused by a twisted
pair cable or an in-house wiring carrying a signal of a particular power, at a
certain distance. We can estimate the field strength using the following
expression:
Equation 2.55
where E is the field strength measured in terms of dBµV/m, PSD is the power
spectrum density of the signal on a twisted pair cable or in-house wiring
measured in dBm/Hz, B is the bandwidth of the signal measured in hertz, R is
the terminal impedance measured in ohms, r is the distance from the cable or
wiring measured in meters, and RFI is the RFI loss measured in decibels.
Let us do a calculation example by assuming P = 85 dBm/Hz, B = 2.2 kHz, R =

100 ohms, r = 30 m, and RFI = 40 dB. We have
Equation 2.56
The bandwidth of 2.2 kHz corresponds to that of a HAM radio. A HAM radio
receiver usually has a sensitivity of about 0 dBµV/m. Therefore, a twisted pair
cable or in-house wiring carrying a signal with a power spectrum density of 85
dBm/Hz will not cause any harm to a HAM radio located 30 m away. Even at a
distance closer than 3 m, the field strength is about 2.1 dBµV/m, which is still
below the sensitivity of a HAM radio receiver.
2.5 Channel Capacity
Channel capacities for a twisted pair cable or in-house wiring can be calculated
against background noise and NEXT. The background noise for the twisted pair
cable and in-house wiring environment is about 140 dBm/Hz. The received
signal power depends on the transmit signal power and the insertion loss of a
twisted pair cable or in-house wiring. The transmit signal power is limited by
the radiation from the nearby electromagnetic field strength. Between 1.705
and 30 MHz, the field strength is 29.5 dBµV/m at a distance of 30 m.
Assuming an RFI loss value of 40 dB, the allowed power within a 9-kHz
bandwidth over a twisted pair cable or in-house wiring is calculated as
Equation 2.57
The PSD within a 9-kHz bandwidth is therefore about 40 dBm/Hz. The total
allowed power for a signal with a bandwidth wider than 9 kHz is about 13 dBm.
At a PSD of 40 dBm/Hz, the bandwidth is about 180 kHz. Allowed PSD of
signals with different bandwidths are summarized in Table 2.6.
Channel capacity is defined as the maximum throughput at which a particular

channel can be used to provide reliable communications. Errors might occur
but they can be corrected, in theory, if the transmission throughput is under
the channel capacity limit. Extensive channel and error correction codings are
necessary to combat effects of distortion and noise when the transmission
throughput is pushed near the channel capacity limit. At a particular
frequency, the channel capacity can be calculated according to
Equation 2.58
Table 2.6. Allowed PSD

Bandwidth (kHz) PSD (dBm/Hz)
9 40
180 40
1,000 47.5
5,000 54.4
10,000 57.5
20,000 60.5
where S is the received signal power, N is the noise power, and the channel
capacity C is expressed in terms of bits per hertz. The S/N is expressed in
terms of power ratio. When the S/N is a constant over a frequency band, the
channel capacity of that frequency band can be calculated according to
Equation 2.59
where B is the bandwidth of the channel measured in hertz. When the S/N is a
variable over a frequency band, the channel capacity of that frequency band
can be calculated according to
Equation 2.60
where f1 and f2 are the lower and upper bounds of the frequency band. We will
first calculate channel capacities for different types of cables of a number of
signal bandwidths against a background white noise of 140 dBm/Hz. The lower
bound starts at 1.705 MHz, and the upper bound stops at 30 MHz. Figure 2.18
shows channel capacities of various twisted pair cables and in-house wirings of
100 m against the background white noise in a 9-kHz bandwidth for center
frequencies up to 15 MHz. Channel capacities are between 260 and 300 kbps.
Figure 2.18. 9-kHz Channel Capacity against a Background

Noise of 140 dBm/Hz
Figure 2.19 shows channel capacity of various cables and in-house wirings also
against the background white noise in a 180-kHz bandwidth for center
frequencies up to 15 MHz. Channel capacities are between 5.1 and 5.8 Mbps.
The capacity increase is almost proportional to the increase of bandwidth
because the transmit PSDs are kept the same because the signal power for
signals with a bandwidth wider than 9 kHz was allowed 13 dB more. The 20
times increase in bandwidth is the maximum allowed to meet the 13-dB
allowance without reducing PSD.
Figure 2.19. 180-kHz Channel Capacity against a Background

Noise of 140 dBm/Hz
Figure 2.20 shows channel capacities against the background white noise in a
1-MHz bandwidth for center frequencies up to 14.5 MHz. To satisfy the power
restriction, the signal PSD has been reduced by 7.5 dB to 47.5 dBm/Hz. The
channel capacities are between 26 and 30 Mbps. Channel capacity increase is
about 6 times, corresponding to a bandwidth increase of about 5.6 times and a
proportional signal power decrease.
Figure 2.20. 1-MHz Channel Capacity against a Background

Noise of 140 dBm/Hz
5-MHz bandwidth for center frequencies up to 12.5 MHz. To satisfy the power
restriction, the signal PSD has been further reduced by 7 dB to 54.4 dBm/Hz.
Channel capacities are between 123 and 137 Mbps. The channel capacity
increase is about 4.5 times, corresponding to a bandwidth increase of about 5
times and a proportional signal power decrease.
Figure 2.21. 5-MHz Channel Capacity with a Background Noise

of 140 dBm/Hz
10-MHz bandwidth for center frequencies up to 10 MHz. Again to satisfy the
power restriction, the signal PSD has been further reduced by about 3 dB to
57.5 dBm/Hz. Channel capacities are between 242 and 259 Mbps. Channel
capacity increase is about 1.9 times, corresponding to a bandwidth increase of
about 2 times and a proportional signal power decrease. We see in general
that a wider bandwidth signal results in a higher channel capacity under the
constraint of using the same amount of signal power.
Figure 2.22. 10-MHz Channel Capacity with a Background

Noise of 140 dBm/Hz
We then calculate channel capacities against NEXT. Figure 2.23 shows channel
capacities of various twisted pair cables and in-house wirings of 100 m against
NEXT noise in a 9-kHz bandwidth for center frequencies up to 15 MHz. We see
a wide range of channel capacity variations between different types of cables
and wirings and at different frequencies. The channel capacity of the Category
5 twisted pair cable is more than 100 kbps, and the channel capacities of Quad
and flat in-house wirings are less than 10 kbps at a frequency of 15 MHz.
NEXT noise level is usually higher than that of background white noise. The
NEXT noise level becomes much worse at high frequencies.
Figure 2.23. 9-kHz Channel Capacity against NEXT

Figure 2.24 shows the channel capacity of various cables and in-house wirings
against the NEXT noise in a 180-kHz bandwidth for center frequencies up to
15 MHz. While channel capacities for the Category 5 twisted pair cable are
between 2 and 4.5 Mbps, they are well below 1 Mbps for Quad and flat in-
house wirings especially at high frequencies. The proportionality still exists
between increases of signal bandwidth and channel capacity.
Figure 2.24. 180-kHz Channel Capacity against NEXT

Figure 2.25 shows channel capacities against NEXT noise in a 1-MHz
bandwidth for center frequencies up to 14.5 MHz. Again, to satisfy the power
restriction, the signal PSD has been reduced by 7.5 dB to 47.5 dBm/Hz.
Channel capacities are between 10 and 20 Mbps for Category 4 and Category 5
twisted pair cables. Channel capacities for in-house wirings are below 10 Mbps
for all frequencies and below 5 Mbps when frequency exceeds 2 MHz.
Figure 2.25. 1-MHz Channel Capacity against NEXT

bandwidth for center frequencies up to 12.5 MHz. The signal PSD has been
further reduced by 7 dB to 54.4 dBm/Hz to satisfy the power restriction.
Channel capacities are between 50 and 90 Mbps for Category 4 and Category 5
twisted pair cables. Channel capacity increase is about 5 times, corresponding
to a bandwidth increase of about 5 times and a proportional signal power
decrease. Channel capacities for in-house wirings are below 25 Mbps for all
frequencies and below 10 Mbps when center frequencies exceed 6 MHz.

bandwidth for center frequencies up to 10 MHz. The signal PSD has been
further reduced by about 3 dB to 57.5 dBm/Hz. Channel capacities are
between 110 and 170 Mbps for Category 4 and Category 5 twisted pair cables.
Channel capacity increase is about 2 times, corresponding to a similar
bandwidth increase and a proportional signal power decrease. Channel
capacities are between 10 and 30 Mbps for in-house wirings.

Overall, while the channel capacities of Category 4 and Category 5 twisted pair
cables against background white noise are at least twice that of those against
NEXT noise, the channel capacities of in-house wirings against background
white noise are at least 10 times that of those against NEXT noise.
2.6 MATLAB Files
The following MATLAB files should allow readers to re-create some of the
solutions in this chapter. These files can also be customized to solve variations
problems that a reader might later encounter.
2.6.1 Parametric Model to RLGC
function [r,l,g,c]=RLGCExpQ22(f);
r0c=406.65;
ac=0.2643;
l0=1.229;
linf=0.927;
fm=386e3;
b=0.794;
g0=0.0432;
ge=0.8805;
cinf=0.071;
c0=0.121;
ce=0.245;
r=sqrt(sqrt(r0c^4+ac.*f.^2));
l=(l0+linf*(f./fm).^b)./(1+(f./fm).^b);
g=g0.*f.^ge;
c=cinf+c0.*f.^(-ce);
2.6.2 RLGC to ABCD Parameters
function [a,b,c,d]=abcd(f,r,l,g,d);
jw=(j*2*pi).*f';
rf=interp1(r(:,1),r(:,2),f,'spline');
lf=interp1(l(:,1),l(:,2),f,'spline');
gf=interp1(g(:,1),g(:,2),f,'spline');
cf=0.083*ones(length(f),1);
gamma=((rf+jw.*lf*1e-3).*(gf*1e-6+jw.*cf*1e-6)).^0.5;
z=((rf+jw.*lf*1e-3)./(gf*1e-6+jw.*cf*1e-6)).^0.5;
gammad=gamma*d/5280;
a=cosh(gammad);
sinhg=sinh(gammad);
b=z.*sinhg;
c=sinhg./z;
d=a;
2.6.3 Insertion Loss Calculation
function [ht,h]=abcd2h(a,b,c,d);
r=100;
sz=length(a);
h=2*r*ones(sz,1)./(r*(c*r+d)+a*r+b);
phs=unwrap(angle(h));
phsjt=round(phs(sz)/pi);
phslt=phs(sz-250);
phs=[phs(1:sz-250)' spline([sz-250 sz],[phslt phsjt*pi],[sz-250+1:sz
hma=abs(h).*exp(j*phs);
h(1:sz)=real(hma(1:sz))+sqrt(-1)*imag(hma(1:sz));
h(sz+1:2*sz-1)=real(hma(sz:-1:2))-sqrt(-1)*imag(hma(sz:-1:2));
ht=real(ifft(h);
2.6.4 Channel Capacity against Background White Noise
f=[1:1025]/1025*15e6;
df=max(f)/1024;
psd1=-40;
psd2=-47.5;
psd3=-54.4;
psd4=-57.5;
psdwn=-140;
lpsdwn=10^(-140/10);
d=100/0.3048;
a3=8.17e-7;
b3=8.07e-11;
a4=7.37e-7;
b4=9.12e-12;
a5=7.26e-7;
b5=4.56e-12;
aq=6.77e-7;
bq=4.97e-11;
af=9.17e-7;
bf=4.87e-11;
he3=-(a3.*sqrt(f)+b3.*f).*328.*8.686;
he4=-(a4.*sqrt(f)+b4.*f).*328.*8.686;
he5=-(a5.*sqrt(f)+b5.*f).*328.*8.686;
heq=-(aq.*sqrt(f)+bq.*f).*328.*8.686;
hef=-(af.*sqrt(f)+bf.*f).*328.*8.686;
%Category 3
Sd1e3=10.^((psd1+he3)./10);
Sd2e3=10.^((psd2+he3)./10);
Sd3e3=10.^((psd3+he3)./10);
Sd4e3=10.^((psd4+he3)./10);
%Category 4
Sd1e4=10.^((psd1+he4)./10);
Sd2e4=10.^((psd2+he4)./10);
Sd3e4=10.^((psd3+he4)./10);
Sd4e4=10.^((psd4+he4)./10);
%Category 5
Sd1e5=10.^((psd1+he5)./10);
Sd2e5=10.^((psd2+he5)./10);
Sd3e5=10.^((psd3+he5)./10);
Sd4e5=10.^((psd4+he5)./10);
% Quad-22
Sd1eq=10.^((psd1+heq)./10);
Sd2eq=10.^((psd2+heq)./10);
Sd3eq=10.^((psd3+heq)./10);
Sd4eq=10.^((psd4+heq)./10);
% FW-26
Sd1ef=10.^((psd1+hef)./10);
Sd2ef=10.^((psd2+hef)./10);
Sd3ef=10.^((psd3+hef)./10);
Sd4ef=10.^((psd4+hef)./10);
figure(2)
plot(f,he3,'k',f,he4,'k',f,he5,'k',f,heq,'k',f,hef,'k')
%plot(f,he3,f,he4,f,he5,f,heq,f,hef,f,20*log10(abs(hq(1:1025))),f,20
grid
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)')
ylabel('Insertion Loss (dB)')
figure(3)
%Category 3
Cd0e3=9000*log2(1+Sd1e3/lpsdwn);
Cd1e3=zeros(1,1013);
fCd1e=f(5:1017);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1e3(i)=Cd1e3(i)+df*log2(1+Sd1e3(j)/lpsdwn);
end
end
Cd2e3=zeros(1,957);
fCd2e=f(34:990);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e3=zeros(1,684);
fCd3e=f(171:854);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e3=zeros(1,343);
fCd4e=f(341:683);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Category 4
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
end
end
Cd2e4=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e4=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e4=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Category 5
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
end
end
Cd2e5=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e5=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e5=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Quad 22
Cd0eq=9000*log2(1+Sd1eq/lpsdwn);
Cd1eq=zeros(1,1013);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1eq(i)=Cd1eq(i)+df*log2(1+Sd1eq(j)/lpsdwn);
end
end
Cd2eq=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3eq=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4eq=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%FW-26
Cd0ef=9000*log2(1+Sd1ef/lpsdwn);
Cd1ef=zeros(1,1013);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1ef(i)=Cd1ef(i)+df*log2(1+Sd1ef(j)/lpsdwn);
end
end
Cd2ef=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3ef=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4ef=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
figure(1)
plot(f,Cd0e3,'k',f,Cd0e4,'k',f,Cd0e5,'k',f,Cd0eq,'k',f,Cd0ef,'k')
grid
xlabel('Frequency (dB)')
ylabel('Channel Capacity (Bit/Sec.)')
figure(2)
plot(fCd1e,Cd1e3,'k',fCd1e,Cd1e4,'k',fCd1e,Cd1e5,'k',fCd1e,Cd1eq,'k'
grid
figure(3)
grid
figure(4)
grid
figure(5)
grid
2.6.5 Channel Capacity against NEXT Noise
f=[1:1025]/1025*15e6;
df=max(f)/1024;
hnpw=5.88e-12.*f.^1.5;
hn3=7.94e-14.*f.^1.5;
hn4=2.51e-15.*f.^1.5;
hn5=6.31e-16.*f.^1.5;
lpsdwn=10^(-140/10);
d=100/0.3048;
a3=8.17e-7;
b3=8.07e-11;
a4=7.37e-7;
b4=9.12e-12;
a5=7.26e-7;
b5=4.56e-12;
aq=6.77e-7;
bq=4.97e-11;
af=9.17e-7;
bf=4.87e-11;
he3=-(a3.*sqrt(f)+b3.*f).*328.*8.686;
he4=-(a4.*sqrt(f)+b4.*f).*328.*8.686;
he5=-(a5.*sqrt(f)+b5.*f).*328.*8.686;
heq=-(aq.*sqrt(f)+bq.*f).*328.*8.686;
hef=-(af.*sqrt(f)+bf.*f).*328.*8.686;
%Category 3
S3=10.^(he3./10);
%Category 4
S4=10.^(he4./10);
%Category 5
S5=10.^(he5./10);
% Quad-22
Sq=10.^(heq./10);
% FW-26
Sf=10.^(hef./10);
%Category 3
Cd0e3=9000*log2(1+S3./hn3);
fCd1e=f(5:1017);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1e3(i)=Cd1e3(i)+df*log2(1+S3(j)/hn3(j));
end
end
Cd2e3=zeros(1,957);
fCd2e=f(34:990);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e3=zeros(1,684);
fCd3e=f(171:854);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e3=zeros(1,343);
fCd4e=f(341:683);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Category 4
Cd0e4=9000*log2(1+S4./hn4);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
end
end
Cd2e4=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e4=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e4=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Category 5
Cd0e5=9000*log2(1+S5./hn5);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
end
end
Cd2e5=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3e5=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4e5=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%Quad 22
Cd0eq=9000*log2(1+Sq./hnpw);
Cd1eq=zeros(1,1013);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1eq(i)=Cd1eq(i)+df*log2(1+Sq(j)/hnpw(j));
end
end
Cd2eq=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3eq=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4eq=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
%FW-26
Cd0ef=9000*log2(1+Sf./hnpw);
Cd1ef=zeros(1,1013);
for i=1:1013
for j=i:i+11
Cd1ef(i)=Cd1ef(i)+df*log2(1+Sf(j)/hnpw(j));
end
end
Cd2ef=zeros(1,957);
for i=1:957
for j=i:i+67
end
end
Cd3ef=zeros(1,684);
for i=1:684
for j=i:i+340
end
end
Cd4ef=zeros(1,343);
for i=1:343
for j=i:i+681
end
end
figure(1)
plot(f,Cd0e3,'k',f,Cd0e4,'k',f,Cd0e5,'k',f,Cd0eq,'k',f,Cd0ef,'k')
grid
figure(2)
grid
figure(3)
grid
figure(4)
grid
figure(5)
grid
2.7 References
1. TIA/EIA-568-A, October 6, 1995.
2. TIA/EIA-568-B.1, April 23, 2001.
3. K. Balemarthy, A. Reddy, and J. J. Werner, "Characteristics of in-house

telephone wiring," Lucent T1E1 Contribution, T1E1.4/98-273, September
1998.
4. J. Cook, "Parametric modeling of twisted pair cables for VDSL," BT T1E1

Contribution, T1E1.4/96-015, January 1996.
5. J. J. Werner, "Tutorial on carrierless AM/PMPart II, performance of

bandwidth-efficient line codes," Distributed at ANSI X3T9.5 TP/PMD working
group, February 1993.
6. Proposed by the Home Network Division of Broadcom (formerly known as

Epigram).
7. A. F. Bennet, "An improved circuit for the telephone set," BSTJ, vol. 32, pp.
611626, May 1953.
8. D. G. Messerschmitt, "A transmission line simulator written in C," IEEE

Trans. on Selected Areas in Communications, January 1984.
9. Transmission Systems for Communications, Fifth Edition, p. 267, Bell

Telephone Laboratories, 1982.
10. www.fcc.gov/wtb/
11. P. N. Saveskie, Radio Propagation Handbook, TAB Books Inc., Blue Ridge
Summit, PA, 1980.
12. G. Robb, "EMC measurement results on various aerial telephony plant,"

Broadband Technologies T1E1 Contribution, T1E1.4/96-318, November 1996.
Chapter 3. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables have been used to construct the cable TV distribution network.
At the beginning, a cable TV distribution network was very simple and
consisted of coaxial cables connecting an antenna on a hillside to many homes
that did not get good reception using their rooftop antennas. To compensate
for signal losses caused by branch splitting and cable attenuation, TV signals
picked up by the hillside antenna are usually enhanced by a wide-band
amplifier, whose bandwidth covers TV channels of interests, raising the signal
level by 10 to 25 dB. The off-the-air TV channels of VHF (Very High
Frequency) band cover frequencies from 54 to 72 MHz (channels 2, 3, and 4),
76 to 88 MHz (channels 5 and 6), and 174 to 216 MHz (channels 7 to 13). A
wide-band amplifier might only cover a group of off-the-air TV channels and a
number of wide-band amplifiers; signal splitters and combiners might be
required to cover all TV channels of interests. There are also off-the-air TV
channels allocated in the UHF (Ultra High Frequency) band of between 300
and 3000 MHz. UHF TV channel signals over a cable TV distribution network
also need to be amplified and sometimes down-converted to an unused VHF TV
channel.
Within a particular TV broadcast region, there are always some spare TV

channels available. In fact, off-the-air TV programs in the same region are not
allocated next to each other to avoid interference between adjacent channels.
Exceptions are channels 4 and 5 and channels 6 and 7 because there are
already frequency gaps between them. A TV channel signal usually has a little
energy, at below 42 dB, leaked into its adjacent channels. According to the
regulation, the carrier-to-noise or to adjacent channel interference ratio
should be larger than 36 dB to maintain good-quality TV reception. Because of
different transmission conditions, TV signals from different antenna sites of the
same region can easily have a signal strength difference of more than 12 dB.
That situation could result in a Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) of less than 42 +
12 = 30 dB. Therefore, the leakage signal of an off-the-air TV channel with a
relatively high signal level could disturb that of an adjacent TV channel if they
occupy adjacent channels without any frequency gap in between. On the other
hand, TV channels can be placed next to each other in a cable TV system as
long as signal strengths of adjacent channels are adjusted to similar levels.
Because TV channels are located at high-frequency bands, coaxial cables are

used to construct the cable TV distribution network. A coaxial cable consists of
an inner copper conductor and an external aluminum wrap overlaid with
another shield of copper or aluminum braid. There are also nylon form
insulations between the inner conductor and the aluminum wrap and a plastic
cover over the metal braid. The TV signal is carried over the inner conductor
while the aluminum wrap and the metal braid are connected to electrical
ground. The electromagnetic shielding effect of coaxial cables is pretty
effective especially at high-frequency bands where TV channels are located.
However, this shield is not perfect. There always exists some electromagnetic
field potential between the earth ground, above which the electromagnetic
wave propagates, and the electrical groundespecially when the coaxial cable is
hanging high in the air supported by telephone poles. In other words, the
external shield of a coaxial cable can pick up interferences from
electromagnetic fields and generate ingress noise. Because the strength of
background electromagnetic fields are finite and the shielding effect of coaxial
cable is relatively effective, the desired SNR for a good transmission can be
maintained by defining the TV signal strength at the household entrance point.
The cable TV distribution network is constructed following a tree and branch

structure. The cable TV signal from a main hub is first brought to an optical
node through a glass optical fiber where the cable TV signal is Amplitude
Modulated (AM) to an optical carrier frequency. After demodulation using
Optical-Electronic (O/E) devices in the optical node, the cable TV signal is
carried over a few branches of coaxial cable network to every subscriber. The
root of each tree and branch distribution network is at the optical node. The
main branch of the distribution network consists of distribution coaxial cables.
The common types of distribution coaxial cables are 500-F and 625-F. The
distribution cable is connected to subscribers through a device called a Tap and
drop coaxial cables. A Tap device is inserted by connecting one end of the cut
distribution cable to its input port and the other end of the cable to its output
port. The insertion of a Tap device will reduce the signal level on the
distribution cable by a small amount. The captured signal is distributed to
multiple drop cable ports on a Tap device. The common drop cable types are
RG-6 and RG-59. Drop cables are also used for in-house TV signal wiring.
The in-house TV signal wiring has not been widely publicized as a transmission
medium for home networking for several reasons. First, for most households
where the coaxial cables are installed by cable TV companies as an extension
to their cable TV network, there are usually not many cable connections, and
the cable TV company owns the wiring infrastructure. For households where
the coaxial cable TV wiring is built in and many cable connections are
accessible, the available spectrum for home network is limited once the cable
TV signal is brought into the in-house TV signal wiring infrastructure. Finally,
signal losses between different in-house coaxial cable connections could be
pretty high because of the use of splitters where signal loss between branches
are engineered high to satisfy impedance match requirement and to minimize
reflections. Despite these limitations or constraints, a high throughput home
network can still be constructed over the in-house TV signal wiring within
frequency gaps of cable TV channels using proper modulation methods of
suitable signal strength.
3.1 In-House TV Wiring
3.1.1 In-House Wiring Configuration
In a new construction, coaxial cables are connected from a central location

near the TV signal source, be it a cable TV or a satellite dish, to every room
where an in-house TV wiring connection should be available. This configuration
forms a star topology. A multiport splitter is located at the center of the star.
Depending upon the number of rooms to be served, some times an amplifier is
inserted between the video source and the multiport splitter to raise the signal
level, compensating signal losses caused by branch splitting. Assuming that
signal separation loss is 15 dB between two output ports of every splitter
stage, the minimal signal separation loss is 15 dB between coaxial cable
outlets.
For in-house wiring installed by cable TV companies on existing homes,

splitters are usually randomly installed at the cable TV entrance point and
some other convenient splitting points. This configuration forms a star daisy-
chain topology similar to that of the in-house telephone wiring except a
splitter is used at every cable branch point. The maximum signal separation
loss for the general star daisy-chain follows the same rule of thumb described
for the star topology.
3.1.2 Hybrid Fiber Coaxial and Tree Branch Distribution

Plant
Figure 3.1 shows the general arrangement of the cable TV hybrid fiber coaxial
and tree branch distribution network connecting all subscribers. TV signals are
originated from the head end. Two-way services such as cable modem for
Internet access and POTS are also terminated and managed at the head end. A
dual optical ring is used to connect all head ends and hubs over the SONET
and ATM infrastructure for delivering and exchanging digital programs. AM
fiber links are extended to a number of fiber nodes. From each fiber node, a
few coaxial trunk cables, each of which serves a few hundred subscribers, are
further extended to neighborhoods. Subscribers are connected to trunk cables
through drop coaxial cables. The configuration illustrates that there might be
some possibilities of interference between neighboring cable TV subscribers if
in-house wiring is used for a high throughput home network. However, the
degree of interference is minimized by additional drop cable losses and the
signal-splitting loss introduced inside the Tap devices.
Figure 3.1. A Cable TV Hybrid Fiber Coaxial and Tree Branch

Distribution Network
3.2 Coaxial Cable Model
Traditionally, the only attention that has been paid to signal attenuation has
been the use of different types of coaxial cable. The primary parameters for
twisted pair cables have been published, but similar information is not
available for coaxial cables. To better understand the effects of termination and
branch splitting when trying to identify a suitable transmission system for a
high-throughput home network system over existing in-house TV signal
wiring, we have attempted to estimate the primary parameters for coaxial
cable. These estimates are based on cable loss measurements as well as cable
physical dimensions. They are to be verified and improved by further
experiments and measurements.
Signal attenuation of typical coaxial cables at a few different frequencies are

summarized in Table 3.1. Attenuations are less than 10 dB at frequencies
below 750 MHz for a coaxial cable of 100 feet. These cable losses, Ac, can be
modeled by the following expression of two constant parameters.
Equation 3.1
In Equation 3.1, f is the frequency expressed in megahertz, K1 and K2 are

parameters defining the coaxial cable type, and d is the cable length expressed
in terms of kilofeet. K1 basically indicates the amount of conductor loss while
K2 indicates the amount of dielectric loss. Modeling parameters for different
type of cables are listed in Table 3.2. With this modeling expression and
corresponding parameters, cable attenuations at different frequencies can be
obtained.
To study termination and splitting branch effects, we can estimate the primary
parameters of coaxial cables based on their physical dimensions and
attenuation values. The shunt capacitance C of a coaxial cable can be
calculated according to the geometry of the coaxial cable according to the
following expression:
Table 3.1. Coaxial Cable Loss (dB)
Frequency (MHz) 500-F 625-F RG-6 RG-59

55 0.54 0.46 1.6 2.06
300 1.31 1.10 3.7 4.72
450 1.63 1.35 4.58 5.83
550 1.82 1.51 5.09 6.47
Table 3.2. Parameters of Cable Model
500-F 625-F RG-6 RG-59
K1 0.69 0.6058 2.1144 2.7175
K2 0.0037 0.0016 0.0021 0.0015
Equation 3.2
where a is the diameter of the center conductor, b is the inside diameter of the
outer conductor, and er is the relative permeability. We assume er = 1.
In addition, the characteristic impedance of a coaxial cable is almost constant

and can be expressed in terms of serial inductance L and shunt capacitance C
according to the following expression at high frequency:
Equation 3.3
Therefore, the serial inductance L can be estimated according to the following

expression:
Equation 3.4
The coaxial cable attenuation can also be related to its serial resistance R
according to the following expression:
Equation 3.5
Therefore, the serial resistance R can be estimated according to the following

expression:
Equation 3.6
Table 3.3. Estimated Coaxial Cable Primary Parameters
500-F 625-F RG-6 RG-59
a (inch) 0.123 0.136 0.0403 0.032
b (inch) 0.470 0.563 0.188 0.152
b/a 3.82 4.14 4.67 4.75
R(ohms/mile)
L(mH/mile) 0.377 0.356 0.33 0.324
G 0 0 0 0
C(mF/mile) 0.067 0.0632 0.0587 0.0576

where we have assumed Z0 = 75ohms. Table 3.3 shows estimated coaxial
cable primary parameters.
In Table 3.3, the frequency is expressed in megahertz. These estimates also

assume that only the serial resistance R is a variable of frequency and the
parallel conductance G is negligable. Figure 3.2 shows coaxial cable insertion
losses for 500 feet of different types of cable, estimated according to these
primary parameters.
Figure 3.2. Coaxial Cable Insertion Losses

3.3 Splitters
Splitters are used at coaxial cable branch points where the even distribution of
power and impedance match are both important. There are power splitters
with a different number of output ports. However, all power splitters are built
upon the basic one-to-two power splitter component. A one-to-four power
splitter/combiner is made by cascading three one-to-two power splitters
together (Figure 3.3). Inside a one-to-four power splitter, output ports of the
first one-to-two splitter are connected to input ports of two other one-to-two
splitters resulting in a total of four external output ports. Using this cascading
method, the signal can be evenly distributed among a number of output ports
while maintaining impedance matching at all ports.
Figure 3.3. The Construction of a One-to-Four Splitter
The one-to-two splitter consists of a center-tapped impedance match

transformer and a lumped element power splitter as shown in Figure 3.4. A
splitter is used to serve two purposes. The first is for the impedance matching
of all cables, and the second is for the isolation between two output ports. The
normal impedance of a coaxial cable is 75 ohms. The primary coil with an
intermediate tap on the left side of Figure 3.4 serves as an impedance-
matching mechanism while generating an electromagnetic field for energy
transfer to the second coil. The impedance of each half of the second coil along
with attached coaxial cable appears in parallel to the primary coil. The resistor
across two ends of the second coil is used to introduce an out-of-phase signal
to cancel magnetic coupling between two output ports. The capacitor is used to
fine-tune the frequency response of the splitter across the broad range of the
frequency band. Because the operating frequency is very high, the detailed
component layout inside a splitter could also influence the frequency response.
Figure 3.4. The Structure of a One-to-Two Splitter
To study the interaction between coaxial cables and splitters, the ABCD
parameters of a splitter from the input port to one output port can be derived.
We connect an impedance Z0 to one output port and treat the input port and
the remaining output port as a two-port network. The ABCD parameters for
this two-port network are described by Equations 3.7 and 3.8. Corresponding
to the structure of a splitter, Equation 3.7 has three parts. The first part
represents the primary coil; the second part, the capacitance; and the third
part, the second coil together with the resistor. Equation 3.8 shows details of
the third part.
Equation 3.7
Equation 3.8
a is the tapping ratio, k1 is the coupling coefficient of the primary coil, and k2
is the coupling coefficient of the second coil. L1 is the inductance of the
primary coil, L2 is the inductance of the second coil, C is the capacitance, and
R is the resistance. Typical parameters are listed as follows. We have a =
0.707 for impedance match of 75 to 37.75 ohms,L1 = 40 mH, L2 = 0.1 mH, k1 =
0.9997, k2 = 0.9997, C = 4.5 pF, and R = 220 ohms. Figure 3.5 shows the
frequency responses of a splitter from the input port to one output port with
the other output port either terminated with a resistor of 75 ohms or not
terminated.
Figure 3.5. Transfer Function of a Splitter from Input-to-

Output
With both output ports terminated with coaxial cables of 75 ohms, the splitter
produces a signal-splitting loss of about 3 dB across a broad frequency range
of up to the design specification of 500 MHz for this special case. This is the
expected result because 3 dB corresponds to half of the energy split. When
only one output port is connected, the loss values could vary along the
frequency band.
The ABCD parameters from one output port to the other output port are
Equation 3.9
Equation 3.10
Equation 3.11
Equation 3.12
where Zm = a2Z1 and Z1 is the impedance connected at the input port. Figure
3.6 shows the transfer function of a typical one-to-two splitter from an output
port to the other output port with the input port either terminated by a coaxial
cable of impedance 75 ohms or open. Losses between two output ports are
about 25 dB when the input port is connected with a coaxial cable and very
high when the input port is open.
Figure 3.6. Transfer Function of a Splitter from Output-to-
Output
3.4 Tap
Taps are used to connect drop cables to a distribution cable. A tap introduces a
much higher signal loss to drop cables than is seen in its transmission path
along the distribution cable. A two-port tap consists of a line coupling part and
a two-port splitter as shown in Figure 3.7. In general, an n-port tap consists of
a coupling part and an n-port splitter. Impedances of the distribution cable and
the input port of the splitter are all 75 ohms. The coupling circuit matches
impedances of distribution cables at both input and output ports and of the
splitter while introducing a small loss in the distribution cable, and coupling
the signal to the splitter. Signal coupling is done through a combination of
parallel and serial energy tapping. The transformer B1 is in series with the
distribution cable, while the transformer B2 is in parallel. The ABCD
parameters of the coupling circuit can be derived in the interest of studying
the transmission performance of the cable TV distribution plant. However, for
the purpose of home networking using in-house coaxial cable, we just simply
assume that the drop cable is properly terminated with an impedance of 75
ohms by examining the internal structure of a tap.
Figure 3.7. Structure of a Two-Port Tap

3.5 Cable TV Channel Allocation Scheme
The in-house coaxial cable wiring carries many channels of TV signals. The
conventional TV VHF channels, channels 2 to 13, occupy frequencies from 54
to 216 MHz with frequency gaps in between for FM broadcast stations. The off-
the-air UHF channels, channels 14 to 69, occupy frequencies from 470 to 806
MHz. Table 3.4 shows frequency arrangement for off-the-air TV channels.
This TV channel frequency arrangement is regulated by Part 73 (Radio

Broadcast Services) of FCC rules and regulations, which is labeled as CFR title
47 [1]. Channel 37, occupying 608 to 614 MHz, is reserved exclusively for the
radio astronomy service. Many off-the-air digital TV channels have been
allocated in the UHF frequency band for the analog-to-digital transition period.
Detailed information, including location and channel numbers, can also be
found in the recent Part 73 document.
Table 3.4. Numerical Designation of Off-the-Air Television Channels.
VHF Channel Frequency Band UHF Channel Frequency Band UHF Channel Frequency Band
No. (MHz) No. (MHz) No. (MHz)
2 5460 14 470476 38 614620
3 6066 15 476482 39 620626
4 6672 16 482488 40 626632
5 7682 17 488494 41 632638
6 8288 18 494500 42 638644
7 174180 19 500506 43 644650
8 180186 20 506512 44 650656
9 186192 21 512518 45 656662
10 192198 22 518524 46 662668
11 198204 23 524530 47 668674
12 204210 24 530536 48 674680

13 210216 25 536542 49 680686
26 542548 50 686692
27 548554 51 692698
28 554560 52 698704
29 560566 53 704710
30 566572 54 710716
31 572578 55 716722
32 578584 56 722728
33 584590 57 728734
34 590596 58 734740
35 596602 59 740746
36 602608 60 746752
37 608614 61 752758
62 758764
63 764770
64 770776
65 776782
66 782788
67 788794
68 794800
69 800806
Cable TV channels share the same frequency arrangement as off-the-air TV

only for channels 2 through 13. Immediately above the frequency of channel
13, cable TV channels occupy a continuous frequency band from 210 up to 552
MHz for channel numbers of 23 to 78. Cable TV channels 14 to 22 occupy a
frequency band from 120 to 174 MHz merging to the frequency band of
conventional TV channel 7. There is no conflict with the FM broadcast service
because cable TV signals are contained within coaxial cables. This channel
allocation plan is set forth in the EIA's ''Cable Television Channel Identification
Plan, EIA IS132, May 1994'' (EIA IS132) [2]. Table 3.5 shows this channel
frequency arrangement. Other regulation for the cable TV industry is provided
by Part 76 (Cable Television Service) of FCC rules and regulations which is
labeled as CFR title 47 [3].
Above channel 78 starting at 552 MHz, 33 digital cable channels can be

allocated for a frequency band of up to 750 MHz. Digital cable channels can be
used for cable modem as well as digital TV services. It is expected that the
video carrier of a cable TV channel should have a signal strength of around 0
dBµV at an impedance of 75 ohms.
Table 3.5. Numerical Designation of Cable Television Channels
Channel Frequency Channel Frequency Channel Frequency Channel Frequency

No. (MHz) No. (MHz) No. (MHz) No. (MHz)
2 5460 14 (A) 120126 37 (AA) 300306 54 402408
3 6066 15 (B) 126132 38 (BB) 306312 55 408414
4 6672 16 (C) 132138 39 (CC) 312318 56 414420
5 7682 17 (D) 138144 40 (DD) 318324 57 420426
6 8288 18 (E) 144150 41 (EE) 324330 58 426432
7 174180 19 (F) 150156 42 (FF) 330336 59 432438
8 180186 20 (G) 156162 43 (GG) 336342 60 438444
9 186192 21 (H) 162168 44 (HH) 342348 61 444450
10 192198 22 (I) 168174 45 (II) 348354 62 450456
11 198204 23 (J) 216222 46 (JJ) 354360 63 456462
12 204210 24 (K) 222228 47 (KK) 360366 64 462468
13 210216 25 (L) 228234 48 (LL) 366372 65 468474

26 (M) 234240 49 (MM) 372378 66 474480
27 (N) 240246 50 (NN) 378384 67 480486
28 (O) 246252 51 (OO) 384390 68 486492
29 (P) 252258 52 (PP) 390396 69 492498
30 (Q) 258264 53 (QQ) 396402 70 498504
31 (R) 264270 71 504510
32 (S) 270276 72 510516
33 (T) 276282 73 516522
34 (U) 282288 74 522528
35 (V) 288294 75 528534
36 (W) 294300 76 534540
77 540546
78 546552
For delivering cable modem services, a reverse channel is required to send

user command or information back to the head end. The frequency band below
the conventional TV channel 2 has been allocated for reverse channels. There
is one convention called sub-split where the reverse channel has a frequency
band of 5 to 30 MHz. There is another convention called expanded sub-split
where the reverse channel frequency band is from 5 to 42 MHz. Reverse
channels in the frequency range between 25 and 37 MHz have been proposed
by the IEEE 802.14 study group for a cable modem standard. The
recommended reverse channel signal strengths are in the range of 5 to 55
dBµV or to 58 dBµV for sub-split or expanded sub-split, respectively.
The majority of the frequency band on existing in-house wiring has been
occupied by cable TV channel allocations. CEBus [4] has recommended a dual
coaxial cable wiring system to carry local video signals as well as data traffic.
In case a second coaxial cable is not available, the frequency band between
the upper edge of reverse channel at 42 MHz and the lower edge of TV
channel 2 at 54 MHz can be used to establish a coaxial cablebased home
network. This coaxial cablebased home network should not interfere with
either TV channels or reverse channels by minimizing out-of-band energy at
60 dB below these TV or reverse channel signals.
3.6 Channel Model
A simple in-house coaxial cable wiring configuration is established by assuming

three TV connections involving two splitters and four sections of coaxial cables.
The configuration is shown in Figure 3.8. As is common for most home
networking with in-house coaxial cable wiring, the transmission path between
any TV connection points covers an output port-to-output port connection of a
splitter. Because the coaxial cable distance is relatively short and the
frequency is not very high for the available gap between the reverse channel
and TV channel 2, the output port-to-output port connection produces most
signal-level attenuation.
Figure 3.8. A Simple In-House Coaxial Wiring Model
The channel model from TV A to TV C of this simple configuration can be

established by first cascading ABCD parameter matrices of a 100-ft coaxial
cable section, an output-to-output path of a splitter, a 25-ft coaxial cable
section, an input-to-output path of a splitter, and another 35-ft coaxial cable
section. The resultant ABCD parameter matrix is then converted to the
insertion loss and impulse response of this model in-house coaxial cable wiring
configuration. The insertion loss of this model configuration is shown in Figure
3.9. Estimated RLGC primary parameters of the RG-6 coaxial cable are used in
this channel model calculation. The corresponding impulse response is shown
in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.9. Transfer Function from TV A to TV C
Figure 3.10. Impulse Response from TV A to TV C
Compared with a straight coaxial cable, the insertion loss of this channel
model is much higher and is not even along the frequency scale. The high and
uneven signal loss is mainly related to the output port-to-output port path of a
splitter. When only attenuation is considered for the normal purpose of a
splitter between output ports, the unevenness of the attenuation does not
matter. Depending on the signal bandwidth, proper signal-processing
techniques might be necessary when a signal is sent through the output port-
to-output port path of a splitter. Otherwise, the time domain reflection, as
indicated in Figure 3.10, could limit the signaling baud rate.
This coaxial cable channel model is established based upon limited laboratory
measurements. Improvements to this model can be achieved by further
confirming coaxial cable and splitter models. Transmission characteristics of
splitters vary much depending on manufacturers. The effect of the variation
can be experimented with by changing the coupling coefficients of the first coil
and the second coil of the splitter.
3.7 Noise Environment
Transmission characteristics have been extensively field-tested for the purpose

of implementing cable modem and other digital services [5]. In the reverse
channel frequency band between 5 and 40 MHz, ingress noise level is
relatively high. It was found that ingress spectral contents are confined to
narrow frequency ranges. Sources of ingress include short-wave broadcasts,
HAM band transmission, and CB traffic. In general, the spectral energy density
decreases as frequency increases. Figure 3.11 shows one example of many
field-collected measurements. There are seven visible plots representing
minimum, first decile, first quartile, third quartile, ninth decile, 99th level, and
maximum, respectively, in Figure 3.11. In real time, many of these noise
peaks show noticeable amplitude vibration. This might be related to the analog
modulation nature of these interference signals.
Figure 3.11. Ingress Noise Measurements
This measured ingress noise environment can be modeled using controlled

random variables for transmission performance simulation studies. This noise
environment is a combination of a background noise floor at a level of about
40 dBµV, a frequency-dependent radio background noise, strong radio
interference carriers within short-wave radio frequency bands, and randomly
distributed radio interference carriers. In the implementation of this ingress
noise model, a mask for short-wave radio frequency bands is first established
according to FCC regulations. In addition, eight groups of random radio
inteference frequencies, each of which contains 30 random frequencies, are
generated representing eight different interference magnitudes. These
additional 240 random radio interference frequencies are incorporated into the
short-wave radio mask. Random numbers are then generated representing
amplitudes of potential interference carriers at every (discrete) frequency
point. These random amplitudes are then applied to interference carriers
within short-wave radio bands and those at another 240 random frequencies.
The result is further filtered to emulate the bandwidth of interference carriers.
Figure 3.12 shows this ingress noise model.
Figure 3.12. Noise Environment Model
A digital filter can be constructed according to this noise model. Colored noise
can then be generated by passing white noise through this ingress noise filter
for simulation studies. For relatively narrow band transmission systems
occupying only a part of the frequency spectrum, this ingress noise model can
be multiplied with bandpass filters. The combined narrow band ingress noise
filter might be easier to implement for simulation studies. In the frequency
band between 40 and 52 MHz, the ingress noise level is close to the noise floor
of 40 dBµV. Interference carriers in this particular frequency band are also
relatively few.
Channel capacities of in-house coaxial cable wiring can be calculated based on

coaxial cable channel model, ingress noise model, and the transmit signal PSD.
We use the following expression:
Equation 3.13
where we choose f1 = 42 MHz and f2 = 52 MHz. Channel capacities are shown

in Figure 3.13 for PSD levels from 0 to 50 dBµV.
Figure 3.13. Channel Capacities of In-House Coaxial Cable

Wiring
At a minimal transmit signal level of 0 dBµV, the channel capacity of the in-
house coaxial cable wiring is small in the frequency band between 42 and 52
MHz. This is because the signal level is close to the noise floor of about 40
dBµV when the channel loss is about 30 dBµV. The effect of additional noise
interference carriers further reduces the channel capacity. On the other hand,
when the transmit signal level is relatively strong at 50 dBµV, about 316
millivolts (mV) on an impedance of 75 ohms, the channel capacity becomes
about 60 Mbps. Under this transmit signal level, a home network transmission
system with reasonable complexity of signal processing can be implemented
for a transmission throughput of higher than 30 Mbps in the frequency gap of
between 42 and 52 MHz.
3.9 MATLAB Files
3.9.1 Coaxial Cable Insertion Loss and Impulse Response

Models
function [ht,h]=abcd2hcx(a,b,c,d);
d=a;
r=75;
sz=length(a);
h=2*r*ones(sz,1)./(r*(r*c+d)+(r*a+b));
h(sz+1:2*(sz-1))=real(h(sz-1:-1:2))-sqrt(-1)*imag(h(sz-1:-1:2));
ht=real(ifft(h));
3.9.2 Splitter Input-to-Output Model
function [a,b,c,d]=splitio(f,z0);
l1=4e-5;
l2=1e-7;
k1=0.9997;
k2=0.9997;
a=0.707;
r=220;
C=4.5e-12;
lf=length(f);
W=2*pi*f';
a10=ones(lf,1)/a/k1;
b10=j*W*l1*a*(1-k1^2)/k1;
c10=ones(lf,1)./(j*W*l1*a*k1);
d10=ones(lf,1)*a/k1;
a3=ones(lf,1);
b3=zeros(lf,1);
c3=j*C*W;
d3=a3;
a1=a10.*a3+b10.*c3;
b1=a10.*b3+b10.*d3;
c1=c10.*a3+d10.*c3;
d1=c10.*b3+d10.*d3;
a2=j*W*l2*(2*(1+k2)*z0+r)+r*z0-(1-k2^2)*W.^2*l2^2;
b2=j*W*l2*r*z0-(1-k2^2)*W.^2*l2^2*(r+z0);
c2=2*j*W*l2*(1+k2)+r;
d2=2*j*W*l2*(1+k2)*(r+z0)+r*z0;
a=a1.*a2+b1.*c2;
b=a1.*b2+b1.*d2;
c=c1.*a2+d1.*c2;
d=c1.*b2+d1.*d2;
delt=j*W*l2*(1+k2)*(r+2*z0)+r*z0;
a=a./delt;
b=b./delt;
c=c./delt;
d=d./delt;
3.9.3 Splitter Output-to-Output Model
function [a,b,c,d]=splitoo(f,z1);
l1=4e-5;
l2=1e-7;
k1=0.9997;
k2=0.9997;
a=0.707;
r=220;
C=4.5e-12;
lf=length(f);
W=2*pi*f';
zm=a^2*z1;
a1=zm+j*W*l2;
b1=j*W*l2*(1+k2).*(j*W*l2*(1-k2)+2*zm);
c1=ones(lf,1);
d1=zm+j*W*l2;
a=b1+a1*r;
b=r*b1;
c=C*(r+b1)-(1-a1).^2;
d=b1+a1*r;
delt=r+b1;
a=a./delt;
b=b./delt;
c=c./delt;
d=d./delt;
3.9.4 Coaxial Cable Wiring Channel Model
f=[1:1025]/1025*1.5e8;
l1=100;
l2=25;
l3=35;
z0=75;
z1=75;
load c6.mod
load c59.mod
[a1,b1,c1,d1]=abcdcx(f,c6(:,1),c6(:,2),c6(:,3),c6(:,4),c6(:,5),l1);
[as1,bs1,cs1,ds1]=splitoo(f,z1);
[as2,bs2,cs2,ds2]=splitio(f,z0);
[chip1,h1]=abcd2hcx(a1,b1,c1,d1);
y1=20*log10(abs(h1(1:1025)));
at1=a1.*as1+b1.*cs1;
bt1=a1.*bs1+b1.*ds1;
ct1=c1.*as1+d1.*cs1;
dt1=c1.*bs1+d1.*ds1;
[chip2,h2]=abcd2hcx(at1,bt1,ct1,dt1);
y2=20*log10(abs(h2(1:1025)));
at2=at1.*a2+bt1.*c2;
bt2=at1.*b2+bt1.*d2;
ct2=ct1.*a2+dt1.*c2;
dt2=ct1.*b2+dt1.*d2;
y3=20*log10(abs(h3(1:1025)));
at3=at2.*as2+bt2.*cs2;
bt3=at2.*bs2+bt2.*ds2;
ct3=ct2.*as2+dt2.*cs2;
dt3=ct2.*bs2+dt2.*ds2;
y4=20*log10(abs(h4(1:1025)));
a=at3.*a3+bt3.*c3;
b=at3.*b3+bt3.*d3;
c=ct3.*a3+dt3.*c3;
d=ct3.*b3+dt3.*d3;
[chip,h]=abcd2hcx(a,b,c,d);
y5=20*log10(abs(h(1:1025)));
figure(2)
plot(f,y1,'k',f,y5,'k')
figure(3)
plot([1:1025]/2/1.5e8,chip(1:1025),'k')
3.9.5 Ingress Noise Model
psize=2049;
nsub=500;
perc=0.5;
f=[0:psize-1]/2048*50e6;
f(1)=0.00001;
%define shortwave radio bands
mask1l=5.5e6;
mask1h=6e6;
mask2l=7e6;
mask2h=7.5e6;
mask3l=9e6;
mask3h=9.8e6;
mask4l=11.5e6;
mask4h=12e6;
mask5l=13.5e6;
mask5h=14e6;
mask6l=14.8e6;
mask6h=15e6;
mask7l=17.5e6;
mask7h=18e6;
mask8l=21.5e6;
mask8h=21.8e6;
%define 30 random peaks
rloc1=rand(1,30)*50e6;
%noise floor
nsfllog=-40;
nsflflog=ones(1,psize)*nsfllog;
nsflf=10.^(nsflflog/10);
%radio background noise level, e-filed
efildlog=34.5-20;
efildflog=ones(1,psize)*efildlog;
epowflog=efildflog-44.5;
epowf=10.^(epowflog/10);
%radio interference noise level, random e-field
erfildflog=rand(1,psize)*45;
%spectrum mask
erfmask=ones(1,psize)*0.1;
for i=1:psize
if f(i)>mask1l & f(i)<mask1h
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
for j=1:30
if f(i)>rloc1(j)-100e3 & f(i)<rloc1(j)+100e3
erfmask(i)=0.2;
end
erfmask(i)=0.3;
end
erfmask(i)=0.4;
end
erfmask(i)=0.5;
end
erfmask(i)=0.6;
end
erfmask(i)=0.7;
end
erfmask(i)=0.8;
end
erfmask(i)=0.9;
end
end
end
erfildflog=erfildflog.*erfmask;
%conversion at 10 MHz
erpowflog=erfildflog-44.5;
erpowf=10.^(erpowflog/10);
%sum of background and interference noise power
epowf=epowf+erpowf;
%field to power: propotional to the power of wavelength
epowf=epowf.*(10e6./f).^2;
epowft=perc*epowf+nsflf;
f(1)=0;
nfilt=fir2(900,f/max(f),sqrt(epowft));
[h,w]=freqz(nfilt,1,1024);
px=[1:1024]/1024*50e6;
py=20*log10(abs(h));
plot(px(102:1024),py(102:1024),'k');
grid
ylabel('Noise Level (dBµV)')
3.9.6 Channel Capacity Calculation
coaxmod;
h2=(abs(h(1:1024))).^2;
nmdl;
n2=(abs(h(1:1024))).^2;
df=max(f)/1025;
f1=ceil(1025*42e6/1.5e8);
f2=ceil(1025*52e6/1.5e8);
for psd=0:50
chacap(psd+1)=sum(log(1+10^(psd/10).*h2(f1:f2)./n2(f1:f2)))*df/log(2
end
px=[0:50]
figure(3)
plot(px,chacap,'k');
grid
xlabel('Transmit Signal Level (dBµV)')
ylabel('Channel Capacity (Bits/Sec)')
3.10 References
1. wireless.fcc.gov/rules.html. Code of Federal Regulation title 47, Part 73,

Radio Broadcast Services.
2. global.ihs.com/. Copies of EIA IS132 may be obtained from Global

Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO 80112.

Cable Television Services.
4. G. Evans, The CEBus Standard User's Guide, May 1996.
5. P. T. Schauer, "Two-way cable television system characterization," pp.

94104, Proceedings of SPIE, Hybrid Fiber-coax Systems, October 2324, 1995.
Chapter 4. Electrical Wiring
The current electrical power distribution system is based on the invention of
Alternating Current (AC) power generation and high voltage power
transmission systems in the 1880s and 1890s. Electricity is generated in
power plants by three-phase AC generators driven by hydraulic, thermal, or
nuclear resources. The voltage of the electricity is then increased many times
to tens of thousands of volts through transformers before being connected to
the power distribution grid for better transmission efficiency. Depending on the
state or local regulation, utility companies can own either or both power-
generating plants and/or power distribution grids. Distribution grids of
different regions can be interconnected to buy and sell electrical power on
demand. These electrical power distribution grids cover almost 100% of all
communities. Electricity has become essential to modern life and it is usually
more economical to buy electricity from the distribution grid than to generate
it locally for each individual community. The utility company converts the
electricity to a lower level of about 120 volts (V) for each residential
community again through transformers connected to the distribution grid. Two
opposite phases of AC power are available to each residence. They can be used
individually as 120-V electrical power supplies or combined for a 240-V supply
to drive some heavy-duty appliances such as an electrical dryer.
Because of its broad coverageevery household and every room of a

residencethe use of the electricity distribution grid as a communication
medium has been attempted many times for commercial and residential
markets. Many utility companies can use the grid to exchange data among
different facilities either over the metallic wiring or through some embedded
optical fiber cores. The extra embedded fiber communication capacities are
sometimes sold to business customers as a part of a private communication
system. Besides common signal attenuation and noise problems of a metallic
transmission system, the signal recondition at every transformer location
possesses additional technical challenges to use the grid as a Wide Area
Network (WAN). During the past few decades, some low-throughput (at less
than 100 kbps) transmission systems have been created for WAN and home
networking applications. With the utilization of advanced digital signal
processing and error correction coding techniques, high-throughput
transmission systems at more than 1 Mbps for the home electrical
environment also become feasible. Assuming the privacy issue (for quite a few
residences share the same transformer and are effectively connected as a bus)
can be resolved using some encryption and authentication techniques, we
need to understand the attenuation and noise characteristics as well as the
time-varying nature to realize fully the transmission potential of the in-house
electrical wiring environment.
In this chapter, we will examine physical and electrical parameters of typical

12 and 14 AWG cables used for in-house electrical wiring and their
transmission and crosstalk characteristics. We will also study a statistical in-
house electrical wiring channel model based on the dimensions of a standard
house, assumptions about certain wiring practices, and some typical field
measurements. We will establish a noise model also based on measurements.
In addition, we will carefully interpret FCC radiation regulations related to the
use of electrical wiring to derive allowed transmit power spectrum density
level. Communication channel capacities on the in-house electrical wiring are
then calculated based on these derived models.
4.1 In-House Electrical Wiring Cable
4.1.1 Electrical Wiring Type
The Romex brand from General Cable [1] has been used for many residential
electrical wirings. Within the Romex brand, NM-B type has been used for
indoor branch wiring, and UF-B type, for outdoor use such as the cable to a
post light. SE-U or USE-2 can be used as feeder cable for the service entrance.
Both NM-B and UF-B cables are constructed with individual THHN cables of
class B solid or strands of bare annealed copper conductors with an overall PVC
jacket. THHN is derived from the specification of Thermoplastic insulation
(PVC), High Heat resistance, and Nylon jacket. The THHN cable has a 90°C
rating and is recommended for use at dry or damp locations. NM-B stands for
Non-Metallic sheathed cable with class B THHN individual conductors. Similarly
UF-B stands for Underground Feeder cable with class B THHN individual
conductors. SE-U stands for Service Entrance Unarmored. An SE-U cable is
constructed with individual THHN or individual XHHW conductors with an
overall PVC jacket. XHHW is derived from the specification of XLPE (Cross-
linked polyethylene) insulation, High Heat resistance, for wet and dry
locations. USE-2 stands for Underground Service Entrance. The USE-2 cable is
XLPE insulated and designed for direct burial application. Table 4.1 shows
AWG, conductor diameter, external dimension, and ampacities of NM-B and UF-
B cables for a few popular home installation choices.
These external dimensions are for cables that have a copper ground. Two-
conductor cables are for normal usage, while the three-conductor cables can
be used for providing two phases of electricity for a combined 240 V to supply
an oven or a dryer. A three-conductor cable is also useful for connecting three-
way switches. These ampacities are defined by the National Electric Code [2].
The general guidelines are illustrated by Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1. General Cable Usage

Table 4.2 shows AWG, conductor diameter, external dimension, and ampacities
of SE-U and USE-2 cables for a few popular home installation choices. A
ground wire is not required when connecting from the service drop to the
meter and from the meter to the main breaker. A three-conductor SE-U cable
can be used for these connections while two two-conductor cables can be used
if each phase is connected individually. Multiple USE-2 cables are required
because each cable can have only one conductor.
Table 4.1. NM-B and UF-B Cable Ampacities and Dimensions
Type AWG Ampacity # of Cond. Dia. (mil) Ext. Dim. (inches)
NM-B 14 15 2 64.08 0.16 x 0.35
NM-B 12 20 2 80.81 0.17 x 0.38
NM-B 10 30 2 101.90 0.21 x 0.43
NM-B 14 15 3 64.08 0.33
NM-B 12 20 3 80.81 0.36
NM-B 10 30 3 101.90 0.44
UF-B 14 15 2 64.08 0.20 x 0.39
UF-B 12 20 2 80.81 0.21 x 0.42
UF-B 10 30 2 101.90 0.23 x 0.46
UF-B 14 15 3 64.08 0.20 x 0.57
UF-B 12 20 3 80.81 0.21 x 0.62

UF-B 10 30 3 101.90 0.23 x 0.68
Table 4.2. SE-U and USE-2 Cable Ampacities and Dimensions
Type AWG Ampacity # of Cond. Strand Dia. # of Strands Overall Dia. Ext. Dim. (inches)
SE-U 2 100 2 97.4 7 0.292" 0.56 x 0.99
SE-U 1 110 2 66.4 19 0.332" 0.68 x 1.09
SE-U 1/0 125 2 74.5 19 0.373" 0.70 x 1.17
SE-U 2/0 150 2 83.7 19 0.419" 0.72 x 1.25
SE-U 3/0 175 2 94.0 19 0.470" 0.81 x 1.37
SE-U 2 100 3 97.4 7 0.292"
SE-U 1 110 3 66.4 19 0.332'
SE-U 1/0 125 3 74.5 19 0.373"
SE-U 2/0 150 3 83.7 19 0.419"
SE-U 3/0 175 3 94.0 19 0.470"
USE-2 3 110 1 86.7 7 0.260" 0.39
USE-2 2 130 1 97.4 7 0.292" 0.41
USE-2 1 150 1 66.4 19 0.332" 0.49
USE-2 1/0 170 1 74.5 19 0.373" 0.53
USE-2 2/0 195 1 83.7 19 0.419" 0.58
A 100 ampacity might fit the usage of a small home, while the 175 ampacity
could be required for a large home. Two ampacity estimation examples follow
[3]. The first example is for a small home with a living area of 800 square
feet, a 5-kilowatt wall-mount oven, a 6-kilowatt cooking unit, and a 15-
ampere air conditioner. Besides these heavy-duty applinces, the lighting load is
estimated at 3 watts per square feet (W/ft2). We also give 3 kilowatts (kW) for
small kitchen appliances and 1.5 kW for the laundry room. The breakdown of
ampacities is listed in Table 4.3.
For the combined lighting, appliance, and laundry usage, we can rate the first
3000 W as 100% and the remaining watts at 35% because they are not likely
to be in use at the same time. Therefore, the total wattage for lighting,
appliances, and laundry is reduced to 4365 W and the effective total wattage is
18,965 W. The ampacity requirement for the household is derived by dividing
the effective total wattage by 240 V because 120-V supplies are parts of the
two-phase 240-V supply. This example shows that the AWG 2 cables can be
used to supply electricity to a small home.
The second example is for a large home with a living area of 3800 square feet,
a 12-kW electrical range; a 1-kW, 120-V garbage disposal; a 10-kW, 240-V
strip heater; a 6-kW, 240-V hot water heater; two 28-ampere, 240-V air
conditioners, and four 1/2-horsepower, 120-V blow motors. The lighting load is
also estimated at 3 W/ft2. We still give 3 kW for small kitchen appliances and
1.5 kW for the laundry room. The breakdown of ampacities is listed in Table
4.4.
Again for the combined lighting, appliance, and laundry usage, we can rate the
first 3000 W as 100% and the remaining watts at 35%. Therefore, the total
wattage for lighting, appliances, and laundry is reduced to 7515 W. Because
the heater and air conditioner will not operate at the same time and the air
conditioner takes more electricity, only the ampacity of the air conditioner is
considered in the estimation. For the combined disposal, range, and water
heater, we can rate the first 10,000 W at 100% and the remaining watts at
40%. Therefore, the total wattage for disposal, range, and water heater is
reduced to 13,600 W, and the effective total wattage is (7,515 + 13,600 +
4,704 + 13,440) = 39,259. The ampacity requirement for the household is
163.58 amperes. This example shows that the AWG 3/0 cables can be used to
supply electricity to a large home.
Table 4.3. Ampacities of a Small Home
Usage Watt Voltage Ampere
Lighting 2,400 120 20
Appliances 3,000 120 25
Laundry 1,500 120 12.5
Wall Oven 5,000 240 20.83
Cooking 6,000 240 25

Air Conditioning 3,600 240 15
Total 21,500 120/240 118.33
Effective Total 18,965 240 79.02
Table 4.4. Ampacities of a Large Home
Usage Watt Voltage Ampere
Lighting 11,400 120 95
Appliance 3,000 120 25
Laundry 1,500 120 12.5
Disposal 1,000 120 8.33
Motors 4,704 120 39.2
Range 12,000 240 50
Water Heater 6,000 240 25
Air Condition 13,440 240 56
Strip Heater 10,000 240 41.67
Total 63,044 120/240 352.7
Effective Total 39,259 240 163.58
4.1.2 Ideal Electrical Cable Transmission Characteristics
To carry 120 V of electricity, two insulated conductors as well as a ground wire

are required. These individual conductors and the ground wire are usually
enclosed in a PVC sheath to form an easy-to-handle electrical wiring cable as
shown in Figure 4.2. These two conductor cables are used most often in a
residential environment. Transmission characteristics of electrical cables can
be estimated based on its typical parallel construction [1].
Figure 4.2. Two-Conductor with Ground NM-B Cable
Configuration
Detailed dimension of a two-conductor AWG 12 cable with ground is shown in

Figure 4.3. Ideal primary parameters for this parallel constructed electrical
cable can be estimated as follows assuming the effect of the ground conductor
can be neglected. The series resistance R can be expressed by the following
expression [4].
Equation 4.1
Figure 4.3. 2 Conductor Cable Section Dimension
where r is the conductor radius in meters. The series inductance L can be

expressed by
Equation 4.2
where D is the distance between centers of two conductors. The shunt
capacitance C can be expressed by
Equation 4.3
We have assumed that the shunt conductance G can be neglected. These

primary parameters can be converted to a mile basis by multiplying by 1.609
kilometers per mile (km/mi).
The characteristic impedance of this parallel constructed cable is expressed by

the following expression.
Equation 4.4
For e/e0 1, D/2r = 2.5, r = 2 x 103, and cosh1(D/2r), corresponding to the

12 AWG cable, we have
Equation 4.5
Equation 4.6
Equation 4.7
Equation 4.8
A DC resistance is also included in the above expression for better accuracy.

Based on these primary parameters, the insertion loss of a 100-ft 12 AWG NM-
B cable is calculated and plotted in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4. Insertion Loss of a 1000-f 12 AWG Cable
The insertion loss of an electrical wiring cable can also be approximated by

using
Equation 4.9
where d is measured in feet. We know that a = 5.8 x 108, and b = 1.5 x 105
for this 12 AWG electrical wiring cable. This approximation is also plotted and
is virtually the same as that derived from primary parameters in Figure 4.4.
4.1.3 Crosstalk Characteristics
To carry two phases of 120-V electricity for heavy-duty appliances, three

insulated conductors as well as a ground wire are required. These individual
conductors and the ground wire can be enclosed either in a flat/parallel sheath
as shown in Figure 4.5 or in a round one. These three-conductor cables
provide crosstalk coupling necessary for transmission between two different
phases of the in-house electrical wiring. Crosstalk characteristics of a three-
conductor electrical cable can also be estimated based on its physical
dimensionparallel or round.
Figure 4.5. Three-Conductor with Ground UF-B Cable

Configuration
Dimensions of three-conductor AWG 12 cables with ground are shown in

Figures 4.6 and 4.7 for parallel and round constructions, respectively.
Figure 4.6. Three-Conductor with Ground UF-B Cable Section

Figure 4.7. Three-Conductor with Ground NM-B Cable Section
In the twisted pair telephone cable study, crosstalk was analyzed based on
capacitance unbalances of four conductors among two pairs [5]. For this
electrical wiring case, crosstalk between these two phases of electrical supply
can also be analyzed by examining shunt capacitances among these three
conductors. The effect of crosstalk can be better analyzed by using the concept
of three two-port networks as shown in Figure 4.8. ZH1 is the input impedance
between the first phase and the neutral conductors. ZH2 is the input
impedance between the second phase and the neutral conductors. ZHH is the
input impedance between two conductors of different phases. TP1 consists of
the ZH1 as a shunt impedance. TP2 consists of ZHH as a series impedance. TP3
consists of ZH2 as a shunt impedance.
Figure 4.8. Crosstalk Analysis Based on Two-port Networks

Primary parameters are estimated between a hot phase and a neutral
conductor based on a 12 AWG round construction cable, which is illustrated in
Figure 4.7. For e/e0 1, D/2r = 1.5, r = 2 x 103, and, cosh-1 (D/2r) =
0.962,we have the following primary parameters.
Equation 4.10
Equation 4.11
Equation 4.12
Primary parameters are estimated between two hot phase conductors also for
the 12 AWG round cable. For e/e0 1, D/2r = 2.3, r = 2 x 103, and, cosh-1
(D/2r) = 1.475, we have the following primary parameters.
Equation 4.13
Equation 4.14
Equation 4.15
The following expressions are used to calculate the crosstalk model. The
characteristic impedance of a twisted pair cable is related to primary
parameters according to
Equation 4.16
The propagation constant is calculated using
Equation 4.17
ABCD Parameters for each two-port network is calculated using
Equation 4.18
Equation 4.19
Equation 4.20
The open-ended impedance is calculated using
Equation 4.21
ABCD matrices for TP1, TP2, and TP3 follow:
Equation 4.22
Equation 4.23
Equation 4.24
The ABCD matrix for the crosstalk is then
Equation 4.25
For, ZH1 = ZH2 = ZH, we have
Equation 4.26
Using ABCD parameters in MCrossTalk, the insertion loss is then calculated using
Equation 4.27
For, Zs(f) = Zt(f) = Z, we have
Equation 4.28
By replacing with values of ABCD, we have
Equation 4.29
The insertion loss of the crosstalk model for a three-conductor 100-ft 12 AWG
electrical cable with 200-ohm resistive terminations at the far end Z = 100and
is shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9. Insertion Loss of the Crosstalk Between Two

Phases
4.2 In-House Electrical Wiring Model
Electricity has found its applications in every household for about 100 years.
To ensure the safe use of electricity, the first edition of the National Electrical
Code (NEC) was published during 1897. Since then the NEC has been updated
every two or three years to keep up with technological developments [2]. The
National Fire Protection Association has acted as a sponsor for the NEC since
the 1911 edition. NEC gives guidelines on methods, material, wiring, and
protection for residential and other end-user applications. The essential part of
the NEC has been voluntarily adopted by most states and municipalities. NEC
has provided safety for electricity usage and uniformity in wiring practices.
4.2.1 Wiring Practice
An average residential unit is connected to the distribution transformer

through a service drop as shown in Figure 4.10. A service drop usually has
three conductors: two each for 120 V of opposite phases (for a combined 240
V) and one for a neutral. Starting from the service entrance, service cables go
through a usage meter and are terminated at the service enclosure box.
Feeder cables are then used to connect the service enclosure box and the
feeder panel.
Figure 4.10. Distribution Structure

Branch cables are used to connect lights and appliances to the feeder panel. A
feeder panel can have a few dozen branch cables all individually protected by
circuit breakers as shown in Figure 4.11. A ground is also created for each unit
by inserting an electrode deep into the soil. The ground is bonded to the
neutral at the feeder panel. Any branch cable can include the ground wire for
leakage protection. The ground wire can be connected to metal enclosures of
appliances. Any leakage on the metal enclosure will then go through the
ground wire to neutral forming a short circuit and causing the circuit breaker
to break.
Figure 4.11. Feeder Panel
A circuit breaker and associated branch cable are usually dedicated to a

particular room or area within a household as shown in Figure 4.12.
Sometimes multiple branches might be required for a certain area. For
example, the kitchen area might have a branch for all the lights, a branch for
appliances, and another branch of 240 V for an electrical range. An interlocked
two-phase circuit breaker is used for a 240-V branch cable with three
conductors. Otherwise, two phases of electrical supplies are randomly used for
different branches of 120 V to equalize the load. Sometimes, electrical outlets
on different walls of the same room can come from different phases.
Figure 4.12. In-House Wiring Configuration

Depending on its dimension, the length of a branch cable can be as long as the
sum of the depth, width, and height of a house. A single-storey house of 800
square feet might, for example, have a depth of 26 feet, a width of 30 feet,
and a height of 9 feet. An average-size two-storey home can be 28 feet deep,
38 feet wide, and 18 feet high while a large home of 3800 square feet can
have a depth of 30 feet, a width of 40 feet, and a height of 20 feet plus a
walk-up attic. Therefore the longest branch in a house can range from 65 to
90 feet. Another important factor is that a distribution transformer is shared
among a number of households as shown in Figure 4.13. In North America, a
transformer is usually shared by five households. The number of households
can be increased to 25 in certain areas. Because of this shared nature, an in-
home electrical wiringbased transmission system might interfere with an
similar system of your neighbors. A Media Access and Control protocol layer
should be properly designed to avoid such an interference. Furthermore, some
encryption and authentication measures should also be considered for privacy
issues.
Figure 4.13. General Distribution Structure

4.2.2 Lights and Appliances as Terminals
When electrical devices are turned off, impedances of these devices are not
attached to branch cables. Terminals of branch cables can be considered open
ended except that some capacitors can still be attached for surge protection.
These capacitors can have a capacitance of up to a few microfarads. When a
light is on, its load resistance can be calculated according to its power rating.
For example, a 60 W, 120-V light bulb allows a current of 0.5 amperes and,
therefore, has a load resistance of 240 ohms. On the other hand, a heavy-duty
appliance consuming a few kilowatts has a much smaller load resistance. For
example, a 3600 W, 240-V oven allows a current of 15 amperes and has a load
resistance of only 16 ohms. Most electrical loads are resistive, such as lights,
or partially inductive, such as motors or voltage converting power supplies in
appliances.
Depending on the time of the day and activities, the electrical load within a
household is dynamic, which means that the total load resistance changes
from time to time on the usage time scale of a few minutes by human
intervention. On the other hand, many electrical devices with automatic
control, such as a refrigerator or an air conditioner, can vary their load
resistance on a time scale of a few seconds. Furthermore, some devices such
as a light dimmer or a motor speed controller can turn on and off an electrical
device in a fraction of a second. An electronic dimmer switch uses a transistor-
like device called a TRIAC to switch the electricity on and off 120 times each
second. One cycle of household 60 Hz AC electrical power is shown in Figure
4.14. A TRIAC turns itself off each time voltage reverses direction/sign/polarity
and then on after a certain delay. The rotating or sliding control on the switch
decides the delay time. As the delay time becomes shorter, the light is on more
of the time and is, thus, brighter. As the delay time goes longer, the light is on
less of the time and is, thus, dimmer.
Figure 4.14. The Operation of a Dimmer Switch
Load terminations on electrical wiring are very dynamic. They can be at the
middle or end of a branch cable. We call a load termination in the middle of a
branch cable a bridged load termination. Load terminations can also be
attached and detached from time to time. Even when attached, they can be
switched on and off rapidly. As far as using the electrical wiring as a
transmission medium is concerned, the open-ended, bridged, as well as low-
impedance terminations can all cause significant reflections. Another important
factor is that branch cables are generally imbalanced despite the parallel
construction of the cable as far as the radio emission is concerned. This is in
part because light switches are often used to break only the hot but not the
neutral conductor. Cable imbalance can also be caused by the wiring of three-
way light switches.
4.2.3 Channel Models
A channel model of in-house power lines can be constructed based on a model

wiring configuration, cable model, and two-phase crosstalk model. Figure 4.15
shows a simple wiring configuration with four one-phase branches on each
phase and one two-phase branch across phases. This simplified configuration
model is used as an illustration. Many real wiring configurations can have
more than a dozen one-phase branches on each phase and a few two-phase
branches.
Figure 4.15. A Typical Wiring Configuration

We first construct a channel model within the same phase of this wiring model.
This one-phase channel model starts at point A and ends at point B. Only
effects of other branches of the same phase are included, and the effects of
the other phase is omitted. Figure 4.16 shows the transfer function of this
simple one-phase in-house power line channel model. While the minimum
attenuation is not bad, many notches of 40 to 50 dB can be observed. The
average attenuation can become heavier if some branches are terminated with
lights or appliances or more branches are present. In time domain, Figure 4.17
shows the impulse response of this simple one-phase in-house power line
channel model. The delay spread is about 4 µsec.
Figure 4.16. Frequency Response from Point A and Point B
Figure 4.17. Impulse Response from Point A to Point B

We then consider a channel model across two different phases of this wiring
model. This two-phase channel model starts at point A and ends at point C.
Effects of all branches connected on two phases as well as the crosstalk within
a three-conductor cable are considered. In this example, the coupling effect of
the three-conductor cable is the main transmission mechanism across two
phases. Figure 4.18 shows the transfer function of this simple two-phase in-
house power line channel mode. Attenuations are heavier in general because
of the effect of crosstalk attenuation between two phases of the three-
conductor branch. Notches become deeper and wider because of the increased
number of branches. This two-phase channel model can also become much
worse if some branches are terminated with lights or appliances or more
branches are present.
Figure 4.18. Frequency Response from Point B to Point C

Again in time domain, Figure 4.19 shows the impulse response of this simple
two-phase in-house power line channel model. Alternatively we can generate
random channel models and select those that closely resemble field
measurements. A generic random in-house power line channel model has been
suggested by researchers at the University of Karlsruhe [6]. This random
channel model can be expressed by
Equation 4.30
Figure 4.19. Impulse Response from Point B to Point C

This model consists of N transmission or reflection paths. Parameters a0, a1,
and k correlate to the type of cable used in the in-house power line wiring. di
determines the length of each path. controls the magnitude of the
transmitted or reflected signal and regulates corresponding phases,

where vp = 150 x 106 meters per second (m/sec) is the speed of propagation.
With this approach, a wiring configuration is not required. In fact, sometimes
an accurate wiring configuration is difficult to obtain. With some considerations
on choices of a0, a1, and k based on cable type and experimental experience,
we can let a computer generate random models and pick a few that satisfy our
objectives. For an example, we can set the maximum length of each branch at
150 and let gi be a random number between 0.1 and 0.1. Figure 4.20 shows
the transfer function of a particular channel model of 100 different random
samples. In this simulation, we have used a0 = 0, a1 = 8 x 106, k = 0.5, and N
= 10. Figure 4.21 shows the corresponding impulse response. We only
observed a few strong reflections. Better models might be discovered by
running many more simulations.
Figure 4.20. A Computer-Generated In-House Wiring Model

Figure 4.21. Corresponding Impulse Response
4.3 Electromagnetic Emission and Power Spectrum Density
4.3.1 FCC Regulation
The emission from electrical in-house wiring caused by a home networking

system also needs to be below the limits set forth by the Office of Engineering
Technology (OET) under the Federal Communications Commission. There are
some specific definitions about using the electrical wiring for the purpose of
transmission either over the wiring or through the air. Definitions for carrier
current system, incidental radiator, intentional radiator, and unintentional
radiator can be found in the text of Code of Federal Regulation title 47, Section
15.3 [7] and are of interest to anyone planning to implement an in-house
electrical wiringbased home networking system.
According to Section 15.3, a carrier current system transmits radio frequency

energy by conduction over the electric power lines. A carrier current system
can be designed such that the signals are received by conduction directly from
connection to the electric power lines (unintentional radiator) or reception
through the air as a result of radiation of the radio frequency signals from the
electric power lines (intentional radiator). An in-house wiring-based home
networking system fits the definition of a carrier current system.
An incidental radiator is a device that generates radio frequency energy during

the course of its operation although the device is not intentionally designed to
generate or emit radio frequency energy. Examples of incidental radiators are
DC motors and mechanical light switches. An intentional radiator is a device
that intentionally generates and emits radio frequency energy by radiation or
induction. An unintentional radiator is a device that intentionally generates
radio frequency energy for use within the device, or that sends radio
frequency signals by conduction to associated equipment via connecting
wiring, but it is not intended to emit RF energy by radiation or induction. An
in-house wiring-based home networking system also fits the definition of an
unintentional radiator.
With these terms defined, the related FCC regulation in Section 15.109(e)
says that carrier current systems used as unintentional radiators or
unintentional radiators that are designed to conduct their radio frequency
emissions via connecting wires or cables and that operate in the frequency
range of 9 kHz to 30 MHz shall comply with the radiated emission limits for
intentional radiators provided in Section 15.209 for the frequency range of 9
kHz to 30 MHz. The related radiated emission limit provided in Section 15.209
is shown in Table 4.5. This same limit has been applied to the emission from
twisted pair cables.
4.3.2 Emission Measurement
The measurement standards are also recommended by the text of Code of

Federal Regulation title 47, Section 15.31. It recommends a procedure defined
in American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C63.4-1992 [8]. Some
technical details such as the use of a quasi-peak detector or a spectrum
analyzer are also specified in CISPR 16-1 [9]. Care should be taken when
using a spectrum analyzer such that signal saturation should be avoided, a
bandwidth defined at 6-dB corner points should be observed, and leakage
should be prevented. Section 15.31(d) further states that field strength
measurements shall be made, to the extent possible, on an open field site. Test
sites other than open field sites may be employed if they are properly
calibrated so that the measurement results correspond to what would be
obtained from an open field site. In the case of equipment for which
measurements can be performed only at the installation site, such as a carrier
current system, measurements for verification or for obtaining a grant of
equipment authorization shall be performed at a minimum of three
installations that can be demonstrated to be representative of typical
installation sites.
Table 4.5. Radiated Emission Limits
Frequency Field Strength Measurement Distance
MHz µV/m m
1.70530.0 30 30
Section 15.31(f) also discusses those certain circumstances where the

measurement distance can be less than 30 m. It says that at frequencies below
30 MHz, measurements may be performed at a distance closer than that
specified in the regulations; however, an attempt should be made to avoid
making measurements in the near field. Pending the development of an
appropriate measurement procedure for measurements performed below 30
MHz, when performing measurements at a distance closer than that specified,
the results shall be extrapolated to the specified distance either by making
measurements at a minimum of two distances on at least one radial to
determine the proper extrapolation factor or by using the square of an inverse
linear distance extrapolation factor (40 dB/decade).
Following these guidelines, the measurement of leakage emission from a

power linebased transmission system can be summarized with the aid of Figure
4.22. We first assume that the power lines are wired around the perimeters of
a house and that it is likely that a transmitter of a home networking system
can be connected very close to the perimeters of the house. Based on these
assumptions, the emission pick-up antenna should be located in an open field
and 30 m away from the house. Different types of antennas can be used to
pick up the emission in general. However, the FCC requires a loop antenna.
Effects of a particular antenna resulting from its orientation and attenuation
should be compensated by including the antenna factor provided by antenna
suppliers. When dealing with a broadband emission, a 9-kHz bandwidth filter
whose corner frequencies are defined as being 6 dB off the passband should be
used before the calculation of emission strength. A peak detector can be used
to calculate emission strength for estimation purposes. A quasi-peak detector
is recommended by these regulations. A quasi-peak detector weighs signals
according to their repetition rate, which is a way of measuring their annoyance
factor. For a continuous wave, the peak and quasi-peak are the same. For a
random Gaussian signal from an advanced home network transmission system,
we usually measure the signal strength on the power line with Power
Spectrum Density. The peak of a Gaussian signal can be as high as five to six
times that of the voltage level corresponding to the power measurement.
However, very high peaks occur rarely, and they would probably never be
caught by the measurement device. For 96% of the time, peaks of a Gaussian
signal would not exceed twice the voltage level corresponding to the power
measurement. The readings of a quasi-peak detector depend on the signal
characteristics of a particular home networking system and the circuit
specifications of the detector manufacturer.
Figure 4.22. Emission Measurement
Equipment manufacturers, such as Agilent, have measurement devices

designed according to these regulations with built-in qualified quasi-detectors.
In fact, the use of some special purpose electromagnetic interference (EMI)
analyzers can simplify not only the rule interpretation process but also the
real-time measuring procedure. Figure 4.23 shows an example using Agilent
E7400A for the emission measurement. This EMI analyzer has built-in filters
and detectors according to related regulations.
Figure 4.23. A Special-Purpose Measurement Equipment

Example
Emissions are caused by the home networking transmission system. We can

use a prototype transceiver and connect it to the power line as a source for
emission measurement. Alternatively, we can use a continuous wave (CW)
signal generator or sweeper as a source of emission. These signal generators
usually have only a 50-ohm grounded output interface. A Line Impedance
Stabilization Network (LISN) is normally used to connect a conventional signal
generator to the power line. For accuracy, the PSD on the power line induced
by a signal source also needs to be measured and extrapolated in accordance
with the intended transmit signal strength.
The emission limit of 30 dBµV/meter needs to be adjusted for the Antenna

Factor and filter attenuations according to the following expression:
Equation 4.31
where VdB is measured in decibel microvolts (dBµV), AF is the antenna factor

measured in decibels per meter (dB/m), and Loss is for filter and cable
attenuations measured in decibels. This calibration process is usually
automatically included in these special-purpose EMI measurement devices.
4.3.3 Power Spectrum Density
Once the home networkinginduced electromagnetic field strength is measured

and compared with those of FCC limits, the allowed Power Spectrum Density
can be estimated. The effect of the field strength caused by the in-house
electrical wiring is similar to that caused by an antenna. The effect of an
antenna is called the Antenna Factor (AF), and the effect of in-house electrical
wiring is called the Coupling Factor (CF). Based on the CF, we can estimate the
allowed PSD. The PSD level is usually expressed in decibel millwatts per hertz
(dBm/Hz), while the field strength is expressed in decibel microvolts per meter
(dBµV/m). We need to find some conversion factors to relate these different
terms. We first find the relationship between power (dBm) and voltage (dBµV).
For a terminal impedance of 50 ohms, the equal power conversion factor
between terms of dBm and dBµV is expressed as
Equation 4.32
In the conventional case, an antenna converts the applied voltage to a

corresponding field strength. We define this voltage-to-field strength
conversion as the AF, or the CF in a more general sense, which applies to the
field strength caused by voltage on in-house electrical wiring. We further
define the 0 dB AF or CF as a 0 dBµV voltage to a 0 dBµV/m field strength
conversion. Now we can relate a power on the in-house electrical wiring to the
field strength using
Equation 4.33
where CF is the Coupling Factor. Since the FCC limits are defined for a
bandwidth of 9 kHz, the PSD can be related to the field strength using
Equation 4.34
By imposing a field strength of 30 dBµV/m, the allowed PSD can be estimated

according to
Equation 4.35
Some field measurements have shown that CFs are in the range of between 65
and 45 dB at a distance of about 30 m. Therefore, for the worst case, the PSD
is limited at 72 dBm/Hz.
4.4 Noise Environment
4.4.1 Noise Sources
Without electromagnetic shielding, power line cables are sensitive to ingress

noises from radio frequency devices and other electromechanical equipment.
Partially unbalanced wiring resulting from two-phase appliances and three-way
switches makes the noise pickup a little worse. On the other hand, many
household appliances, except light bulbs, make severe quasi-stationary or
transient noise. Some of them are synchronized to the 60-Hz AC cycle, and
others are impulses. Many of them can also come from nearby neighbors
sharing the same transformer. From time to time, the noise level from a
nearby appliance can exceed the transmit signal level. Information needs to be
spread in both time and frequency domains to establish reliable
communication links. Information spread in the time domain can be realized
using error correction coding techniques while broadband signal should be
designed in frequency domain.
Some field measurements have shown that a stationary background noise

exists at a level of between 150 and 140 dBm/Hz [10] that is 20 to 30 dB
above the thermal noise floor of about 170 dBm/Hz. Above the background
noise, ingress noise from radio sources can be observed. Some ingress noises
are leakages from nearby electrical or industrial equipment and can be
characterized by a broad bandwidth and a moderate intensity of about 10 dB
above the background noise level. Other ingress noises are from radio
stations. Radio station ingresses are characterized by a narrow bandwidth and
a high intensity. Clusters of radio stations can be identified within particular
bands from ingress noise measurements. Depending on its distance, a radio
station ingress noise can be 30 to 40 dB above the background noise. Their
intensities also vary depending on the time of the daywith the worst ingresses
occurring during the late night and early morning when the ionosphere
provides the best conditions for radio transmission. Depending upon the
proximity, noises from appliances can be very disturbing. A blender with its
motor running can raise the noise floor to 80 dBm/Hz, which is 60 to 70 dB
above the background noise. Brush motors of appliances such as a blender or a
hair dryer generate nonsynchronized noise, while appliances using brushless
motors can generate noises synchronized to 60 Hz AC when some TRIACs are
in action. Another example of a synchronized noise source is the light dimmer.
4.4.2 Measurement with LISN
The noise level on a power line can be measured using a spectrum analyzer. A
special coupling device called LISN (Line Impedance Stabilization Network) is
normally used to connect the 50-ohm input of a spectrum analyzer to the
power line. A transient limiter might also be required to prevent surge current
from entering the spectrum analyzer as shown in the middle of Figure 4.24. A
preamplifier might also be necessary between the transient limiter and the
spectrum analyzer because many spectrum analyzers have a relatively high
noise floor of around 110 dBm/Hz. Depending on the noise floor of the
spectrum analyzer, a gain of up to 40 dB might be required for the
preamplifier.
Figure 4.24. Power Line Noise Measurement
The internal circuit of a part of LISN is shown in Figure 4.25. This circuit shows
either the hot or the neutral wire part of an LISN. A switch in the front panel
of an LISN can select either the hot or the neutral wire. When selected, either
the hot or the neutral wire is connected to the spectrum analyzer via a C-L-C-R
network giving a stabilized impedance of 50 ohms at above 100 kHz.
Figure 4.25. A Half Internal Circuit of a LISN

Using an LISN, power line to ground but not differential noise level is
measured. A special balanced coupling circuit can be constructed as shown in
Figure 4.26 to measure the differential noise level. Figure 4.27 shows a typical
power line noise measurement [10].
Figure 4.26. A Balanced Coupling Circuit
Figure 4.27. A Typical Power Line Noise Measurement

4.4.3 Noise Models
This measured noise environment on power lines can also be modeled using
the controlled random variables method developed in Chapter 3 for the coaxial
cable. This noise environment is a combination of the background noise floor
at a level of about 145 dBm/Hz, a frequency-dependent radio background
noise, strong radio interference carriers within short-wave radio frequency
bands, and randomly distributed radio interference carriers. Figure 4.28 shows
the ingress noise model. The MATLAB file for generating this noise model
appears at the end of this chapter.
Figure 4.28. A Power Line Noise Model

Channel capacities for in-house power lines can be calculated against

background and ingress noises. The received signal power is dependent on the
transmit signal power and the insertion loss of a power line connection. The
transmit signal power is limited by the radiation from the nearby
electromagnetic field strength. By imposing a field strength of about 30
dBµV/m, the allowed PSD can be estimated to be between 72 dBm/Hz and 52
dBm/Hz according to
Equation 4.36
where we have used CFs in the range of between 65 and 45 dB at a distance
of about 30 m. Figure 4.29 shows a simulated power line channel model, a
simulated power line noise model, transmit signal PSDs, and received signal
PSDs. In Figure 4.29, the top curve is the power line channel model, the
bottom curve is the noise model, two straight lines are for transmit signal PSD
of 52 and 72 dBm/Hz, and Receive1/Receive2 are for received signals with
transmit PSD of 52 and 72 dBm/Hz, respectively.
Figure 4.29. Signal Level Comparison

With these simulated received signal and noise levels, channel capacity of in-
house power line can be estimated using
Equation 4.37
where f1 is 1 MHz, f2 is 30 MHz, S(f) is the received signal level, and N(f) is
the noise level. For a transmit PSD of 52 dBm/Hz, we have a channel capacity
of 474.18 Mbps; for a transmit PSD of 72 dBm/Hz, we have 282.96 Mbps. They
correspond to 16 and 9 bits per Hertz, respectively. We also calculated channel
capacities of the power line against a flat background noise level of 145
dBm/Hz. Corresponding results are 573.05 and 380.32 Mbps for 52 and 72
dBm/Hz transmit signal PSDs, respectively. Therefore, we found that ingress
noises of this noise model reduced channel capacities by 20 and 34%,
respectively.
4.6 Matlab Files
4.6.1 Power Line Channel Model
for ii=1:100
a0=0;
a1=8e-6;
k=0.5;
j=sqrt(-1);
%di=[150];
di=150*rand(1,10);
%gi=[0.4];
gi=0.2*(rand(1,10)-0.5);
f=[1:1000]/1000*30e6;
for i=1:1000
Hf(i)=sum(gi.*exp(-(a0+a1*f(i)^k).*di).*exp(-2e-6/150*pi*j*f(i).*
Hfcj=real(Hf(1000:-1:1))-j*imag(Hf(1000:-1:1));
HHf=[Hf Hfcj];
imp=real(ifft(HHf));
end
figure(1)
plot(f,20*log10(abs(Hf)))
figure(2)
plot(imp)
pause
end
4.6.2 Power Line Noise Model
psize=2049;
nsub=500;
perc=0.5;
f=[0:psize-1]/2048*50e6;
f(1)=0.00001;
%define shortwave radio bands
mask1l=5.5e6;
mask1h=6e6;
mask2l=7e6;
mask2h=7.5e6;
mask3l=9e6;
mask3h=9.8e6;
mask4l=11.5e6;
mask4h=12e6;
mask5l=13.5e6;
mask5h=14e6;
mask6l=14.8e6;
mask6h=15e6;
mask7l=17.5e6;
mask7h=18e6;
mask8l=21.5e6;
mask8h=21.8e6;
%define 30 random peaks
rloc10=rand(1,30)*50e6;
%noise floor
nsfllog=-145;
nsflflog=ones(1,psize)*nsfllog;
nsflf=10.^(nsflflog/10);
%radio background noise level, e-filed
efildlog=34.5-20;
efildflog=ones(1,psize)*efildlog;
epowflog=efildflog-149.5;
epowf=10.^(epowflog/10);
%radio interference noise level, random e-field
erfildflog=rand(1,psize)*65;
%spectrum mask
erfmask=ones(1,psize)*0.1;
for i=1:psize
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
erfmask(i)=1;
end
for j=1:30
erfmask(i)=0.2;
end
erfmask(i)=0.3;
end
erfmask(i)=0.4;
end
erfmask(i)=0.5;
end
erfmask(i)=0.6;
end
erfmask(i)=0.7;
end
erfmask(i)=0.8;
end
erfmask(i)=0.9;
end
end
end
erfildflog=erfildflog.*erfmask;
%conversion at 10 MHz
erpowflog=erfildflog-149.5;
erpowf=10.^(erpowflog/10);
%sum of background and interference noise power
epowf=epowf+erpowf;
%field to power: propotional to the power of wavelength
epowf=epowf.*(5e6./f).^2;
epowft=perc*epowf+nsflf;
f(1)=0;
nfilt=fir2(900,f/max(f),sqrt(epowft));
[h,w]=freqz(nfilt,1,1024);
px=[1:1024]/1024*50e6;
py=20*log10(abs(h));
plot(px(10:1024),py(10:1024),'k');
grid
ylabel('Noise Level (dBm/Hz)')
4.6.3 Channel Capacity
C1=sum(log(1+((abs(Hf(34:1000))).^2)./((abs(h(34:1000)')).^2)/1.58e5
C2=sum(log(1+((abs(Hf(34:1000))).^2)./((abs(h(34:1000)')).^2)/1.58e7
C3=sum(log(1+((abs(Hf(34:1000))).^2)/5.01e-10))*30e6/1000/log(2)
C4=sum(log(1+((abs(Hf(34:1000))).^2)/5.01e-8))*30e6/1000/log(2)
Ctest=966*log(1+1.9952e7)*30e6/1000/log(2)
4.7 References
1. www.generalcable.com/
2. National Fire Protection Association, Inc. National Electrical Code, 1999

Edition, One Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269.
3. Thomas L. Harman and Charles E. Allen, Guide to the National Electrical

Code, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999.
4. Walter C. Johnson, Transmission Lines and Networks, pp. 8486, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
5. Walter Y. Chen, Section 5.4, DSL Simulation Techniques and Standards

Development for Digital Subscriber Lines, Macmillan, Indianapolis, IN, 1998.
6. M. Zimmermann, and K. Dorstert, "A multipath signal propagation model for

the power line channel in the high frequency range," IEEE Trans. on Comm.,
vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 553559, April 2002.

Carrier Current Systems.
8. American National Standards Institute C63.4-1992, "Methods of

measurement of radio-noise emissions from low-voltage electrical and
electronic equipment in the range of 9 kHz to 40 GHz," Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, July 17, 1992, document number SH15180.
9. International Special Committee on Radio Interference (CISPR), Publication

16: specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and
methods.
10. D. Liu, E. Flint, B. Gaucher, and Y. Kwark, "Wide band AC power line
characterization," IEEE Trans. on Consumer Electronics, vol. 45, no. 4, pp.
10871097, November 1999.
Chapter 5. Radio Wave
In this chapter, we will study the transmission environment and construct
channel models for indoor radio frequency applications. First, we will examine
available radio frequency spectra suitable for indoor home networking devices.
We will then look at transmission characteristics at these frequency bands.
5.1 Available Radio Frequency Spectra
The use of radio frequency is generally regulated by federal or international

authorities. In the United States, the usage of radio frequency is regulated by
the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau [1] under the Federal
Communications Commission. Specifically, radio frequency domestic and
international usages have been defined in detail by Part 2 (Frequency
Allocations and Radio Treaty Matters: General Rules and Regulations) of the
FCC rules and regulations, which is labeled as Code of Federal Regulation title
47. In Part 2 of title 47, the available radio frequency is divided into nine
bands as shown in Table 5.1.
Detailed frequency allocation is available in a tabular format for frequencies

from 9 kHz to 400 GHz. Table 5.1 has frequency usage allocations for the
United States as well as international regions. To facilitate the international
allocating of the radio spectrum, the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) has divided the world into three regions as shown in Figure 5.1. Region 1
includes the area limited on the east by line A and on the west by line B.
Region 2 includes the area limited on the east by line B and the west by line C.
Region 3 includes the area limited on the east by line C and on the west by
line A. The United States reside in region 2.
Figure 5.1. Global Radio Frequency Regions
Table 5.1. Nomenclature of Frequencies
Band No. Frequency Subdivision Frequency Range

4 VLF (Very Low Frequency) Below 30 kHz
5 LF (Low Frequency) 30 to 300 kHz
6 MF (Medium Frequency) 300 to 3000 kHz
7 HF (High Frequency) 3 to 30 MHz
8 VHF (Very High Frequency) 30 to 300 MHz
9 UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300 to 3000 MHz
10 SHF (Super High Frequency) 3 to 30 GHz
11 EHF (Extremely High Frequency) 30 to 300 GHz
12 300 to 3000 GHz
Table 5.2 shows a portion of the Part 2 title 47 radio frequency usage
allocation table for frequencies between 2402 and 2500 MHz. In these three
leftmost columns, radio frequency utilization is authorized for applications
according to individual frequency bands and geographic regions. In the next
two columns near the center of the table, radio frequency bands are allocated
for government and nongovernment U.S. utilization. Corresponding FCC rules
and regulations part numbers as well as special-use frequency notification are
listed in the last two rightmost columns. There are several ways to categorize
how these radio frequencies are used. For two-way communications purposes,
radio frequencies are allocated for land, mobile, maritime, aeronautical mobile,
and aviation applications. Radio frequencies are allocated for broadcast radio
and TV channels, as well as for broadcasting standard time and frequency
signals. There are radio frequency usages for satellite communication, radio
astronomy, meteorological, and navigation purposes. Amateur radios are also
authorized for use at certain frequency bands.
The primary type service for a particular band is annotated by all capital
letters, the secondary service annotation uses normal letters, and permitted
services are annotated also by capital letters but enclosed in oblique strokes
(e.g., /RADIOLOCATION/). Permitted and primary services have equal rights.
However, in the preparation of frequency plans, the primary services, as
compared with the permitted services, have prior choice of frequencies.
Stations of a secondary service should not cause harmful interference to
stations of primary or permitted services to which frequencies are already
assigned or to which frequencies may be assigned at a later date. They cannot
claim protection from harmful interference from stations of a primary or
permitted service; however, they can claim protection from harmful
interference from stations of the same or other secondary services to which
frequencies may be assigned at a later date.
Table 5.2. Portion of the Part 2 Title 47 Radio Frequency

Usage Allocation Table
Radio frequency usages from 4 kHz to 400 GHz are all defined in detail with no
spare gap at all. Defined details are noted in Table 5.2 by either the new "S"
numbering scheme or the old numbering scheme. These notes are included in
the text of the CFR title 47 document in Part 2. For example, S5.150 says
that: "The following bands: 1353313567 kHz (center frequency 13560 kHz),
2695727283 kHz (center frequency 27120 kHz), 40.6640.70 MHz (center
frequency 40.68 MHz), 902928 MHz in Region 2 (center frequency 915 MHz),
24002500 MHz (center frequency 2450 MHz), 57255875 MHz (center
frequency 5800 MHz), and 2424.25 GHz (center frequency 24.125 GHz) are
also designated for industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) applications. Radio
communication services operating within these bands must accept harmful
interference which may be caused by these applications."
These notes specify frequency bands and service types. Technical specifications
of service typessuch as signal level, bandwidth, and modulation methodare
usually also defined in detail in referenced documents. Licenses issued by
government authorized agencies are usually required for operators of
equipment for these services. The combined regulation and licensing procedure
ensures that only authorized services are operational at their desired
performance level within particular frequency bands. Regulated radio
communication applications have been developed since the early 1940s. For
historical reasons, many authorized applications are based on earlier analog
technologies. Recent development of digital transmission technologies have
opened up a tremendous opportunity window for further realization of the
potential of radio frequency spectra. A process involving experimenting,
petition, regulation, and licensing is usually required for the introduction of a
new service within a certain radio frequency band.
Broadband data communication using radio frequency in the form of a Local

Area Network is very convenient and cost-effective to link computers and
peripheral devices together. However, the characteristics of radio signal for
high throughput data traffic might be incompatible with most previously
defined services. On the other hand, ISM radio frequency bands are ideal for
experimenting with broadband data communication services. CFR title 47, Part
15 governs the use of unlicensed transmitters in 902928, 24002483.5, and
57255850 MHz ISM bands. To minimize the effect of interference to others,
only a broadband low power density signal is allowed in the ISM band in the
format of spread spectrum technology. Two formats of spread spectrum
technologies are defined in CFR title 47, Part 15. The first is frequency hopping
and the second is direct sequence.
For the case of frequency hopping, the instantaneous signal power density is
much higher than the background noise if the transmitter and receiver are in
sync. Interference between different frequency-hopping systems could occur
occasionally if some of their hopping frequencies are the same. Interference
could be minimized or avoided if hopping sequences can be coordinated among
different frequency-hopping systems. For the direct sequence case, the
received signal-to-noise ratio is enhanced by the reverse of the spreading
process. The amount of signal-to-noise ratio enhancement is called spread
gain. Different direct sequence spread spectrum systems can occupy the same
frequency band. The desired signal is recovered through the despreading using
a correlation process of the correct sequence code from the rest of other
sequence coded signals. The effective signal-to-noise ratio decreases when
more direct sequence spread systems are occupying the same frequency band.
General transmission parameters of spread spectrum systems are also defined

by Part 15. For frequency-hopping spread spectrum systems operating in the
902- to 928-MHz band, the minimum number of hopping channels should be at
least 25 or 50 depending on if signal bandwidth is more or less than 250 kHz.
The maximum bandwidth of each hopping channel is 500 kHz. The average
time of occupancy at each hopping channel should be less than 0.4 second.
The limit for transmit power is 1 W for systems employing at least 50 hopping
channels and 0.25 W for systems employing fewer than 50 hopping channels.
Frequency-hopping systems operating in the 24002483.5 MHz and 57255850
MHz bands should use at least 75 hopping frequencies. At these frequency
bands, the maximum bandwidth of the hopping channel is 1 MHz. For direct
sequence spread spectrum systems, the minimum bandwidth is 500 kHz. The
transmit power limit is 1 W, and the peak power spectral density at the
antenna interface should be less than 8 dBm in any 3-kHz band. The
processing gain of a direct sequence system should be at least 10 dB. CFR title
47, Part 15 also specifies that the transmit field strength measured at a
distance of 3 m should be less than 94 dBµV/m at these ISM frequency bands.
Because of their relatively broad available bandwidths, many indoor high-

throughput data transmission systems utilize frequency bands at 902928 MHz,
2.42.4835 GHz, or 5.7255.850 GHz after initial trial experiments. Since these
are unlicensed frequency bands, the transition from experimenting to
productization can be relatively efficient as long as FCC regulations are
followed. According to CFR title 47, Part 15, these systems have to rely on
spread spectrum technologies. Such developed radio frequency data
transmission systems are in the secondary category because they cannot claim
any interference protection from other systems.
5.2 Indoor Radio Environment
As shown by Maxwell's equation, radio waves travel at the speed of light which
has been measured at 186,281.7 miles/second or, equivalently, 299,792.8
kilometers/second in open space. For optimal performance, the dimensions of
radio transceiver antenna depend on the radio wavelength. In the normal
condition the wavelength is obtained by dividing the speed of light by the
frequency of the radio wave as in
Equation 5.1
where c is the speed of light and f is the frequency of the radio wave. These
wavelengths are between 0.32 and 0.33 m, 0.12 and 0.125 m, and 0.051 and
0.053 m for the 902928 MHz, 2.42.4835 GHz, and 5.7255.850 GHz frequency
bands, respectively.
Similar to light waves, radio waves at these wavelengths in a home

environment experience reflection when bounced off a wall or any household
object and attenuation when passing through household objects. The received
radio wave is usually a combination of direct, reflected, and attenuated forms
of the original radio wave. Because of the phase differences of these direct,
reflected, and attenuated radio waves, the received radio wave strength might
vary rapidly with distance. This is usually called fast fading. The received radio
wave strength can be estimated using the ray-tracing method for a particular
home structure according to known or estimated dielectric properties of wall
and household objects. Table 5.3 [2] shows typical dielectric properties of some
popular building materials. These dielectric properties along with the physical
location and size of these household objects can be used to calculate the
strength of reflected and diffracted radio waves.
Table 5.3. Typical Dielectric Properties of Residential Material
Material Relative Permittivity, Relative Permeability Conductivity Thickness

Type e r (F/m) m r (H/m) s (ampere/m) d(m)
Thick wall 9 1 0.1 0.35

Thin wall 9 1 0.1 0.15
Wooden
5 1 0 0.03
panel
Glass 2.4 1 0 0.003
Copper
1 1 5.76 0.003
sheet
5.2.1 Directly Received Radio Wave
The power of a directly received radio wave is calculated according to
Equation 5.2
where Pt is the transmit power, Pr(d) is the distance-dependent received power,

Gt is the transmitter antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna gain, d is the
separation distance, and l is the wavelength. Both separation distance and
wavelength should use the same measurement unit, meters for example. The
received power is proportional to the transmit power, the transmit antenna
gain, and the receiver antenna gain. The received power is also proportional to
the square of the wave length and to the inverse of the square of distance.
The permitted transmit power at these ISM bands is 0.25 or 1 W. The antenna
gain is usually between 0 to 6 dB. The wavelengths are approximately 0.32,
0.12, and 0.052 m for the 902- to 928-MHz, 2.4- to 2.4835-GHz, and 5.725-
to 5.850-GHz frequency bands, respectively. The received power to transmit
power ratios are 40 to 52, 48.5 to 60.5, and 55.8 to 67.8 dB for these ISM
frequency bands, respectively, at a distance of 10 m. For a transmit power of 1
W, the directly received powers at a distance of 10 m are 6100, 0.914, and
0.162.8 microwatts (µW), respectively.
5.2.2 Reflected and Penetrated Radio Wave

When a radio wave hits a wall, some of the energy is reflected, and the
remaining energy passes through the wall. To be more specific, there are two
sides, therefore two air interfaces, for a particular wall. The reflected wave
consists of the first reflection when the radio wave reaches the wall as well as
the radio waves reflected at the other side of the wall and between both sides
of the wall and escaped in the reflected wave direction. The radio wave that
passed through the wall also consists of the directly passed wave and waves
reflected between both sides of the wall. We can calculate the reflected and
transmitted waves by using Maxwell's equation as well as boundary conditions.
The wave energy reflection and transmission coefficients can also be similarly
calculated.
Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between the incident, reflected, and
transmitted waves. A wave arrives with an angle of qi and reflected with an
angle of qr. In general, the incident wave angle and the reflected wave angle
are the same (i.e., qi = qr). Incident and transmitted wave angles are related
by their dielectric properties as shown by
Equation 5.3
Figure 5.2. Incident, Reflected, and Transmitted Waves

The reflected electric field is related to the incident electric field through a
constant , i.e., Er. = Ei. More specifically, an electric field can be divided into
a parallel component and a perpendicular component with respect to the
observation plane, which is in parallel with the page surface of Figure 5.2. In
other words, we have Er|| ||Ei|| and Er = Ei , specifically, for
Equation 5.4
where
Equation 5.5
At the boundary interface, the transmitted wave equals the sum of the
incident and the reflected waves; that is, Et = Ei + Er = (1 = )Ei = TEi. For
parallel and perpendicular components, we have Et = T||Ei and Et = T Eifor
Equation 5.6
Equation 5.7
At an air-to-wall interface, we have m1 = m2 = e1 = 1 and e2 = 9. For qi = 30°,

we found qt = 73.22°. We then calculate || and as shown by
Equation 5.8
Equation 5.9
We also calculate T|| and T as shown by
Equation 5.10
Equation 5.11
We find that about 22% of the parallel components and 70% of the
perpendicular components of the incident wave are reflected, while 78% of the
parallel components and 30% of the perpendicular components are
transmitted through the air-to-wall interface. When a radio wave travels
through one medium to another with a higher permittivity, through air to a
wall for this case, the reflected wave has an 180° phase change, while the
phase of the transmitted wave is the same as that of the incident wave. Also
the magnitude of the wave at the interface boundary is reduced.
At the wall-to-air interface, we have m1 = m2 = e2 and e1 = 9. The angle values

are reversed (i.e., we have qi = 73.22° and qi = 30°). We calculate another set
of reflection factors, '|| and ' , as shown by
Equation 5.12
Equation 5.13
We then calculate T|| and T as shown by
Equation 5.14
Equation 5.15
When a radio wave travels from a medium with a higher permittivity to

another, through a wall to air for this case, the reflected, transmitted, and
incident waves all have the same phase. Also the magnitude of the wave at
the interface boundary is enlarged.
The energy transport rate of a radio wave in a direction normal to the

boundary interface is Esinq. More specifically, we have energy transport rates
Ei||sinqi, Ei sinqi, Er||sinqr, Er sinqr, ET||sinqt, and ET sinqr for parallel and
perpendicular components of incident, reflected, and transmitted waves,
respectively. Because the incident wave is divided into a reflected and a
transmitted wave, the total energy of the reflected and the transmitted waves
should equal that of the incident wave. Therefore, we have R + T = 1, where
energy reflection coefficients, R|| for parallel component and R for
perpendicular component, and transmission coefficients, T|| for parallel
component and T for perpendicular component, are defined by the following
expressions:
Equation 5.16
Equation 5.17
Equation 5.18
Equation 5.19
At the first air-to-wall interface, we calculate energy reflection coefficients R||

and R as shown by the following expressions for m1 = m2 = e1 = 1, e2 = 9, qi =
30°, and qi = 73.22°.
Equation 5.20
Equation 5.21
We then calculate energy transmission coefficients T|| and T as shown by
Equation 5.22
Equation 5.23
At the wall-to-air interface, we have mi = m2 = e2 = 1 and e1 = 9. The angle

values are reversed (i.e., we have qi = 73.22° and qt = 30°) and so are
relative permittivities. This double reversal results in the same values for
energy reflection and transmission coefficients. We have
Equation 5.24
Equation 5.25
Equation 5.26
Equation 5.27
Values of reflection and transmit coefficients differ according to relative

permittivity of material as well as incident angle. Figure 5.3 shows the
relationship between incident and transmit angles for an air-to-wall interface
where the relative permittivity of the wall is 9.
Figure 5.3. Relationship Between Incident and Transmit

Angles
The minimum transmit angle is about 70.5°. In fact, when the incident angle
approaches zero, the reflection coefficient approaches one and the transmit
coefficient approaches zero for both parallel and perpendicular components of
the wave. Figure 5.4 shows parallel components of reflection and transmit
coefficients as variables of the air-to-wall incident angle. At an incident angle
of about 19°, the reflection coefficient is about zero while the transmit
coefficient is about one for the parallel component of the wave.
Figure 5.4. Parallel Reflection and Transmit Coefficient
Figure 5.5 shows perpendicular components of reflection and transmit

coefficients as variables of the air-to-wall incident angle. The perpendicular
component of the reflection coefficient decreases as the incident angle and the
perpendicular component of the transmit coefficient increase.
Figure 5.5. Perpendicular Reflection and Transmit Coefficient

The relationship between the wall-to-air incident and transmit angles and the
reflection and transmit coefficients is still determined by relative permittivity
of material and incident angle. However, they look different because the wave
travels from a high relative permittivity material to one with less relative
permittivity; therefore, the existence of a minimum incident angle exists. The
value of the minimum incident angle is the same as that of the minimum
transmit angle when the wave goes from the air to the wall. Below the
minimum incident angle, the wave travels inside the wall. Figure 5.6 shows
the relationship between incident and transmit angles for a wall-to-air
interface.
Figure 5.6. Relationship Between Incident and Transmit

Angles
Figure 5.7 shows parallel components of reflection and transmit coefficients as
variables of the incident angle from inside the wall-to-air interface. Reflection
and transmit coefficients are one and zero, respectively, for incident angles
that are less than the minimum. At an incident angle of about 72°
corresponding to the 19° transmit angle or incident angle for the air-to-wall
example, the reflection coefficient is about zero while the transmit coefficient
is about one for the parallel component of the wave. Consequently, when a
radio wave with an incident angle of about 19° hits the wall, the parallel
component will pass the wall without reflection.
Figure 5.7. Parallel Reflection and Transmit Coefficient

Figure 5.8 shows perpendicular components of reflection and transmit
coefficients as variables of the wall-to-air incident angle. Above the minimum
incident angle of about 70°, the perpendicular component of the reflection
coefficient decreases as the incident angle and the perpendicular component of
the transmit coefficient increase.
Figure 5.8. Perpendicular Reflection and Transmit Coefficient

The reflected wave from a wall includes the first reflection at the air-to-wall
interface and those reflected between two sides of the wall and escaped from
the wall to the air. For example, at an incident angle of 45°, the strengths of
the first reflected wave are 0.13 and 0.37 for parallel and perpendicular
components, respectively. The strengths of the second reflected wave, which
first pass the air-to-wall interface and then reflect at the wall-to-air interface
and finally pass the wall-to-air interface, are estimated for parallel and
perpendicular components as follows. We have the second reflected wave
strength for the parallel component of 0.87 x 0.1 x 0.9 = 0.0783. We also
have the second reflected wave strength for the perpendicular component of
0.63 x 0.4 x 0.6 = 0.1512. Strengths for the third reflected wave are 0.87 x
0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.9 = 0.000783 and 0.63 x 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.4 x 0.6 = 0.024192
for parallel and perpendicular components, respectively. We observe that the
strengths of the second reflections are much weaker than those of the first
reflections especially for the parallel component. The effects of the third
reflection can be ignored for their weaker strength.
5.3 Channel Attenuation Model
In an inside home environment, the field strength of a radio wave can be

enhanced by reflections from surrounding walls and attenuated by barrier
walls. These effects can be included by introducing a modification factor into
the free space field strength expression. The modified field strength estimation
formula is
Equation 5.28
where L is the modification factor whose value could be smaller than one for
the effect of reflection enhancement or larger than one for the effect of barrier
attenuation.
The amount of reflection enhancement can be estimated with knowledge of the

room: the wall enclosure, room dimension, and locations of the transmitter
and the receiver. For a simple illustration (Figure 5.9), we assume incident and
reflection angles are all 45° for the floor, ceiling, and two side walls. At that
angle, strengths of the first reflected wave are 0.14 and 0.37 for parallel and
perpendicular components, respectively. Summarizing all reflected energies
from four interfaces together, strengths of the first reflected wave are 0.56 and
1.48 for parallel and perpendicular components, respectively. However, at 45°,
the travel distance of the reflected wave is times that between the
transmitter and the receiver. That results in a factor of 2 of strength reduction.
Therefore, the first reflected wave strengths counting all four interfaces and
longer travel distance are 0.28 and 0.74, respectively. Depending on the
relative positions of the transmitter and the receiver to two end walls, the
strength can also be enhanced. At 90°, the strength of the first reflected wave
is about 0.25 for both components. Considering all reflection interfaces, the
reflected and directly transmitted strengths can be very close. Therefore, the
value of L can be between 0.5 and 1 to account for the effect of wall
reflections.
Figure 5.9. A Top View of a Room with a Transmitter and a

Receiver
Also at 45°, strengths of the transmitted wave are 0.85 x 0.9 = 0.756 and
0.62 x 0.6 = 0.372 for parallel and perpendicular components, respectively.
Therefore, the value of L can be between 1 and 3 to account for the effect of
wall attenuation.
For a room dimension of 16 ft by 22 ft, a ceiling height of 8 ft, and a distance

of 3 ft from the transmitter or the receiver to the nearby end wall, the
strength is estimated as follows. For the two end walls, the energy reflection
coefficient is 0.25 and the distance factor is (16/22)2. The total strength due
to two end wall reflections is 0.25 x (16/22)2 x 2= 0.264. For the two side
walls, the energy reflection coefficients are 0.14 and 0.37 for parallel and
perpendicular components, respectively. The distance factor is . Total
strengths due to two side wall reflections are 0.14 and 0.37 for parallel and
perpendicular components, respectively. For the ceiling and the floor, we have
an incident angle of 30°. The energy reflection coefficients are 0.05 and 0.5
for parallel and perpendicular components, respectively. The distance factor is
. Total strengths due to ceiling and floor reflections are 0.075 and
0.75 for parallel and perpendicular components, respectively. Overall, by
summing previous results together, strengths are 0.479 and 1.384 for parallel
and perpendicular components, respectively.
Figure 5.10 shows received power to transmit power ratios according to the
modified field strength formula with L = 0.5, 1, and 3 for the 900-MHz
frequency band. The top curve corresponds to L = 0.5 with reflection
enhancement. The middle one corresponds to L = 1 (i.e., the free space
formula). The bottom one corresponds to L = 3 representing additional losses
due to wall barriers.
Figure 5.10. Received Power to Transmit Power Ratio at 900

MHz
Figure 5.11 shows received power to transmit power ratios also according to
the modified field strength formula for the 2.4-GHz frequency band. The top (L
= 0.5), middle (L = 1), and bottom (L = 3) curves are plotted together with
some real indoor signal strength measurements. These measurements are
close to estimations according to the formula. At longer distances, the radio
wave is usually attenuated by multiple wall barriers resulting in heavier losses.
Figure 5.11. Received Power to Transmit Power Ratio at 2.4

GHz with Measurements
Figure 5.12 shows top (L = 0.5), middle (L = 1), and bottom (L = 3) curves
together with some other real indoor signal strength measurements for the
5.7-GHz frequency band. These measurements are also close to estimations
according to the formula.
Figure 5.12. 5.7 GHz with Measurements

Within the same frequency band and with fixed antenna gains, the power loss
defined as the received power to transmit power ratio expressed in decibels is
proportional to the log value of the distance.
To fit general measurements, the power loss model is expressed as
Equation 5.29
where n is usually between 2 and 5.

5.4 Channel Impulse Response Model
We have examined the general transmission characteristics of indoor radio

frequency channels in terms of signal losses. To utilize the transmission
potential of the channel fully, an optimized transceiver architecture is
required. The choice and design of the transceiver architecture including signal
modulation and detection methods depend on the impulse response and the
noise environment of the channel. The impulse response of an indoor radio
frequency channel is useful at determining how fast the signaling rate could be
with or without using certain types of channel equalization techniques. The
channel impulse response can be exactly calculated if the reflection
mechanism is relatively simple. Such a simple channel impulse response is the
combination of the direct received signal and a limited number of reflections
from a few walls. However, measurements show that the reflection mechanism
of an indoor radio channel usually is more complicated because of reflections
from walls and many other household objects. Therefore, the statistical
modeling approach has been taken for the indoor radio environment. The
statistical indoor radio channel model is based on extensive measurements of
indoor radio environment at different locations. Through data analysis,
statistical parameters have been derived depending on separation distance and
whether the radio wave is directly received. We call the directly received case
line of sight (LOS) and the indirectly received case obstructed (OBS).
The measurement of the indoor radio channel can be carried out in the time
domain or in the frequency domain. To measure the indoor radio channel
impulse response in the time domain, we need to send a short time duration
pulse (simulating an impulse) at one point and synchronously receive the
pulse at another point. To represent the channel accurately, the sampling rate
needs to be fast (at least twice the interested bandwidth). At gigahertz
frequency bands, the direct sampling of the radio frequency channel at a high
enough resolution presents a challenge to existing measurement equipment.
In practice, the measurement of the indoor radio frequency channel is usually
carried out in the frequency domain. The channel attenuation at each
frequency is measured step by step to cover the whole spectrum. The time
domain information is obtained through offline Fourier transforms. The step
frequency should be chosen such that the Fourier-transform time domain
response is long enough to cover all possible reflections. For example, a 1-MHz
step frequency results in a time domain duration of 1 microsecond (µs). Since
only the power attenuation level is measured, the Fourier-transform time
domain information represents the squared magnitudes along with different
time delays. The amplitude of the impulse response can be obtained by taking
the square root. However, the phase information is still missing. This is the
shortcoming of the frequency measurement method. A method of random
phase has been used to supplement the information gathered from these
Fourier-transform measurements when a complete channel impulse response
is desired.
The general indoor radio frequency channel impulse response has the format
[4, 5]
Equation 5.30
where ak is the amplitude at kth delay time, qk is the corresponding phase, and
d(t - tk) is the delta function marking that particular delay instant. The
statistical indoor radio frequency channel model gives detailed information for
the sequence of aks based on separation distance and whether the signal is
directly received. There are four statistical characteristics for the channel
impulse response model. First, the amplitude is separation distancedependent.
The amplitude is related to the separation distance as measured in terms of
wavelength. Second, the amplitude is also delay sensitive. In general, the
longer the delay, the smaller the amplitude. Specifically, the average
amplitude at consecutive delay instances of the impulse response channel
model is expressed as
Equation 5.31
where is the average amplitude, d is the separation distance, l is the

wavelength, and n(tk) is the delay-dependent amplitude modifier. n(tk) is
similar to that n used to fit the general power loss measurement except that it
is used here to fit losses associated with excess time delay measured in
nanoseconds (ns). For the LOS case, we have the following relationships:
Equation 5.32
For the OBS case, we have the following relationships:
Equation 5.33
Third, the amplitude at each delay instance is a Gaussian random variable with
the average amplitude as the mean and a standard deviation of 4 or 5 dB for
LOS and OBS cases, respectively. Last, the occurrence of reflections at
subsequent delay instances is a random variable with certain probabilities
according to delay times. Specifically, for the LOS case, we have the following
occurrence probabilities:
Equation 5.34
For the OBS case, we have the following relationships:
Equation 5.35
In summary, amplitudes of the indoor radio frequency channel impulse
response model are Gaussian random variables as described by the following
expression when reflections at particular delay instances exist:
Equation 5.36
Measurements also indicate that delay spread is associated with individual

reflections. In other words, the impulse response consists of a number of
reflections that are disbursed in the time domain because of different channel
distortions. Therefore, the resolution for the number of reflections is
deterministic after the sampling rate has exceeded a certain threshold.
According to studies, a time resolution of 7.8 ns has been used to generate
LOS and OBS impulse response models as shown in Figures 5.13 and 5.14,
respectively. Figures 5.15 and 5.16 show multiple LOS and OBS impulse
response channel models in a three-dimensional arrangement.
Figure 5.13. LOS Impulse Response

Figure 5.14. OBS Impulse Response
Figure 5.15. LOS Impulse Responses

Figure 5.16. OBS Impulse Responses
When a signal is transmitted over a particular radio frequency band, a

modulation process is used to bring a baseband signal with a relatively narrow
bandwidth to that particular radio frequency band. In the receiver, a reverse
process called demodulation is used to get back the baseband signal. Figure
5.17 shows the block diagram of an indoor radio transmission system with
modulation and demodulation processes. The modulation is usually carried out
by combining the transmit shaping filtering and carrier frequency
multiplication. The demodulation process is the combination of carrier
frequency multiplication and low-pass filtering. Very often, the transmit
shaping filter and the low-pass receiver filter have the same frequency
response. For optimal signal detection efficiency, the combined frequency
response of these filters resembles a raised cosine filter.
Figure 5.17. Block Diagram of an Indoor RF System
The following analysis provides equivalent indoor radio frequency channel

impulse response for a transmission system with modulation and demodulation
process. For a transmission system with modulation and demodulation
processes, two independent transmission channels can be realized by using
cosine and sine phases of a carrier frequency. We call the first independent
one an in-phase channel when the carrier frequency is multiplied with the
cosine phase. We call the other independent one a quadrature channel when
the sine phase of the carrier frequency is used in the multiplication. The
baseband equivalent indoor radio frequency channel is analyzed first for the
in-phase channel. The transmission system with shaping filtering, carrier
multiplication, transmission over the channel, carrier frequency multiplication
at the receiver, and low-pass filter can be described by
Equation 5.37
where are baud rate signaling impulses, f(t) is the low-pass pulse
shaping filter, w c is the carrier frequency, is the in-phase part of the
carrier, and h(t) is the indoor RF channel impulse response. When a signal
passes through a filter or a channel, it is going through a convolution process
that is denoted by the X(t) h(t),where X(t) is the signal and h(t) represents
a filter or the channel impulse response.
In particular, the transmit-shaping filtering process is described by
Equation 5.38
Then the modulation process, a combination of the shaping and the carrier
frequency multiplication, is described by
Equation 5.39
After going through the channel, the signal is described by
Equation 5.40
The signal after the receiver carrier frequency multiplication is described by
Equation 5.41
After the whole demodulation process, including receiver low-pass filtering, the
signal is represented by
Equation 5.42
Multiplying the carrier frequency twice results in a baseband signal as well as a

component with twice the carrier frequency. The amplitude of the baseband
signal is slightly modified by the delay phase of the indoor radio frequency
channel impulse response. The frequency shifting and amplitude modification
effects can be described by
Equation 5.43
Because of the low-pass nature of the filter f(t), the filtering process will
eliminate the high-frequency term cosw c(2t - i ). We then have
Equation 5.44
where represents the filter pair comprised of

transmit shaping and the receiver low-pass filtering. Under this transmit and
receiver filter pair , the equivalent in-phase channel impulse response is
Equation 5.45
It can be shown that the same equivalent channel response exists for the
quadrature channel. Figure 5.18 shows the received signal pulse using a raised
cosine frequency response for the transmit and receiver filter pair and a
signaling baud rate of 1 MHz over the 2.4-GHz indoor radio frequency channel.
Figure 5.18. Baseband Channel Response with 1-MHz Baud

Rate
The distortion to the signal represented by this raised cosine pulse at a baud
rate of 1 MHz is relatively small. The differences at baud sampling points of 1
T, 2 T, and so on indicate the magnitude of distortions. Because of the random
nature of the indoor radio frequency channel, some pulse responses might be
a little worse than this example. After observations at many random instances,
it is concluded that a transceiver can be constructed without the use of a
channel equalizer at this baud rate. Figure 5.19 shows the received signal
pulse for a signaling baud rate of 2 MHz over the same 2.4-GHz indoor radio
frequency channel.
Figure 5.19. Baseband Channel Response with 2-MHz Baud

Rate
This example shows that the use of an adaptive channel equalizer is necessary
at a baud rate of 2 MHz. Otherwise, the negative peak before the main one
will seriously affect the performance of a receiver. To make an adaptive
channel equalizer work effectively under the rapidly changing radio frequency
environment, some training sequence along with the random data information
must be sent from the transmitter to the receiver. These training sequences
become an overhead on the data and could reduce the net transmission
throughput of the radio frequency channel. The optimal baud rate with or
without the use of an adaptive channel equalizer can be found by performing
experiments with this indoor radio frequency impulse response channel model.
Most current indoor radio frequency transmission system signals at, around, or
below 1 MHz to avoid using an adaptive channel equalizer.
5.5 Noise Level
The performance of an indoor radio frequency transmission system is

determined by the received signal strength and the noise floor. To compute
equivalent noise floor at the input of a receiver, it is necessary to know the
gains or losses at different receiver stages and the receiver antenna ambient
noise temperature.
5.5.1 Antenna Ambient Noise Temperature
It is critical to know the noise level at the very front end of a receiver because
the signal-to-noise ratio determined there cannot be further improved by
subsequent electronics. For wired communication systems, the minimum noise
level is determined by the thermal temperature of electronic components at
the very front end. Sometimes the noise level of the environment could be
higher than the receiver front end thermal noise level. For the indoor radio
frequency channel, the similar logic of noise level determination applies except
the noise level of the environment is related to the antenna ambient noise
temperature. The ambient noise temperature is measured for the radio
environment where the antenna is located and can be higher or lower than the
temperature of the antenna. This situation is similar to that of the
environment noise level, which can be higher or lower than the wired
communication system. The receiver front-end noise level for the indoor radio
frequency environment is determined by the higher of either environment or
antenna temperature. For the indoor radio frequency environment, this
usually is the room temperature which is between 17 and 27°C, 63 and 75°F,
or 290 and 300°K. The noise power at a particular temperature is expressed
by
Equation 5.46
where k is the Bolzmann's constant, T0 is the ambient temperature, and B is

the bandwidth. The noise level can also be expressed in terms of voltage by
Equation 5.47
where R is the antenna impedance.
For k = 1.37 x 10-23 , T0 = 294°K, and B = 106Hz, the noise power is

calculated by
Equation 5.48
The corresponding power density level is Pn/B = 1.37 x 1023 x 294 = 4.03 x
1021 = 173 dBm/Hz.
5.5.2 Receiver Noise Figure
When a signal passes through an electronic component, either an active device

with gain or a passive device with loss, additional noise level will be
introduced, and the net signal-to-noise ratio will be reduced. For a unit gain
device, the ratio of output noise power to input noise power is defined as the
noise figure, which can be expressed in terms of ratio or decibels:
Equation 5.49
For an active device with gain , the noise figure is defined by
Equation 5.50
Equation 5.50 also applies to a passive device with loss where G will be
smaller than unity in terms of ratio or negative in terms of decibels. If input
and output noise levels are similar because of the ambient temperature for a
passive device, the loss of the passive device becomes the noise figure as
illustrated by
Equation 5.51
5.5.3 Equivalent Noise Floor
A transceiver used in an indoor radio frequency communication system usually

consists of many stages of different gains and noise figures. The noise figure of
the first stage is dominant while the effects of noise figures in the following
stages are reduced by the accumulative gains of previous stages. Specifically,
the noise figure of the receiver is related to noise figures of individual stages
as shown by
Equation 5.52
The equivalent noise temperature is related to the antenna ambient

temperature and the receiver noise figure as shown by
Equation 5.53
If we have a receiver consisting of three stages with F1 = 5 db, F2 = 6 dB, F3 =
7 dB, G1 = 20 dB, G2 = 25 dB, and G3 = 15 dB, the system noise figure is
calculated as
Equation 5.54
Notice again that the front-end noise figure is dominant. With an antenna
ambient temperature of 68°F, or 294°F, the equivalent noise temperature is
calculated by
Equation 5.55
The corresponding noise power density level is calculated by
Equation 5.56
When the temperature rise T0 = 299°K, the equivalent temperature becomes

Te = 2.19 x 299°F = 654.81°F. The noise power density will reach the
following level:
Equation 5.57
5.6 Channel Capacity Calculation
The channel capacity for the indoor radio frequency environment can be
calculated based on the received signal strength and the corresponding noise
level. The received signal strength depends on the transmit signal power level
and the indoor radio frequency channel loss. According to the FCC rule, 1 W of
transmit power is allowed at a spectrum of 1 MHz. This translates to a power
spectrum density level of 30 dBm/Hz. On the other hand, the FCC rule clearly
states that the transmit power spectrum density is limited at 32 dBm/Hz in
every 3-kHz bandwidth. According to Figures 5.11 and 5.12, the worst case
channel losses are 70 and 78 dB at less than 30 ft for frequency bands of 2.4
and 5.7 GHz, respectively. The channel capacity can be calculated according to
Equation 5.58
The answer is expressed in terms of bits per hertz. Assuming a noise power
spectrum density of 168 dBm/Hz. The channel capacity for the 2.4-GHz
frequency band is shown by
Equation 5.59
corresponding to the signal power spectrum density of 32 70 = 102 dBm/Hz.

For the same noise power spectrum density level, the channel capacity for the
5.7-GHz frequency band is shown by
Equation 5.60
corresponding to the signal power spectrum density of 32 78 = 110 dBm/Hz.
These calculations are based on a radio frequency interference-free
environment where the noise floor is determined by the environment thermal
noise. However, this indoor radio frequency channel is within an IMS band and
the channel might be contaminated by radio frequency interference noise from
other IMS band transmission systems. Figure 5.20 shows channel capacity
figures corresponding to different noise power spectrum density levels for 2.4-
and 5.7-GHz frequency bands, respectively. For a signaling bandwidth of 1
MHz, a channel capacity of 12 bits/Hz, which can be maintained with a noise
power spectrum density level of 150 dBm/Hz, can be designed for a
transmission system with a throughput of 10 Mbps. Figure 5.20 indicates that
some research and study activities can be conducted for the development of
high throughput, 10 Mbps and above, indoor radio frequency transmission
systems.
Figure 5.20. Channel Capacity versus Noise Power Density

5.7 MATLAB/Simulink Models
5.7.1 Reflection Coefficient
[View full width]
%clear
m1=1;
m2=1;
e1=1;
e2=9;
n1=sqrt(m1/e1);
n2=sqrt(m2/e2);
thtaid=[0:90];
thtai=thtaid/180*pi;
thtar=thtai;
thtat=acos(cos(thtai).*sqrt(m1*e1/m2/e2));
ii=1;
for i=1:91
if imag(thtat(i))~=0
ii=ii+1;
end
end
whitebg('white')
figure(1)
plot(thtaid,thtat/pi*180,'k')
grid
xlabel('Incident Angle (Degree)')
ylabel('Transmit Angle (Degree)')
R1=ones(91,1);
R2=ones(91,1);
T1=zeros(91,1);
T2=zeros(91,1);
R1(ii:91)=((-n1.*sin(thtai(ii:91))+n2.*sin(thtat(ii:91)))./(n1.*sin(
(thtat(ii:91)))).^2;
R2(ii:91)=((n2.*sin(thtai(ii:91))-n1.*sin(thtat(ii:91)))./(n2.*sin(t
(thtat(ii:91)))).^2;
T1(ii:91)=(4*n1*n2.*sin(thtai(ii:91)).*sin(thtat(ii:91)))./(n1.*sin(
(thtat(ii:91))).^2;
T2(ii:91)=(4*n1*n2.*sin(thtai(ii:91)).*sin(thtat(ii:91)))./(n2.*sin(
(thtat(ii:91))).^2;
whitebg('white')
figure(2)
plot(thtaid,R1,'k',thtaid,T1,'k');
grid
xlabel('Angle (Degree)');
ylabel('Coefficient');
gtext('Parallel Reflection Coefficient')
gtext('Parallel Transmit Coefficient')
whitebg('white')
figure(3)
plot(thtaid,R2,'k',thtaid,T2,'k');
grid
xlabel('Angle (Degree)');
ylabel('Coefficient');
gtext('Perpendicular Reflection Coefficient')
gtext('Perpendicular Transmit Coefficient')
5.7.2 Signal Strength
d=[3:50];
l1=0.32*39.37/12;
l2=0.12*39.37/12;
l3=0.052*39.37/12;
lu=0.5;
ll=3;
data1=[3.5 6; 3.5 14; 3.9 12; 5 11; 5 19; 5 24; 7 15; 7.3 13; 7.3 17
7.3 24; 7.3 27; 7.5 20; 7.5 18; 8.2 21; 8.2 27; 9.0 18; 9.0 28; 9.0
10 20; 10 26; 12 32; 12 35];
data2=[2.3 6; 2.3 12; 3.1 7; 3.1 11; 3.5 13; 4 12; 4 19; 4 24; 5 8;
5 12; 5 15; 5 21; 6 20; 7 16; 7 29; 8 22; 8 32; 9 25; 9 28; 10 24;
10 30; 13 23; 13 26; 13 27; 13 33; 13 39];
whitebg('white')
figure(1)
provptu=10*log10(l1^2/16/pi^2/lu./d.^2);
provpt=10*log10(l1^2/16/pi^2./d.^2);
provptl=10*log10(l1^2/16/pi^2/ll./d.^2);
plot(d,provptu,'k',d,provpt,'k',d,provptl,'k');
grid
xlabel('Distance (ft)')
ylabel('Attenuation (dB)')
whitebg('white')
figure(2)
provpt=10*log10(l2^2/16/pi^2./d.^2);
plot(d,provptu,'k',d,provpt,'k',d,provptl,'k',data1(:,1)*39.37/12,-d
grid
whitebg('white')
figure(3)
provpt=10*log10(l3^2/16/pi^2./d.^2);
plot(d,provptu,'k',d,provpt,'k',d,provptl,'k',data2(:,1)*39.37/12,-d
grid
5.7.3 Channel Impulse Response Model
for j=1:20
ModelType='OBS';
%Separation distance Eexpressed in meet
Dn=5;
switch ModelType
% For line-of-sight
case 'LOS'
% Probability of receiving a multipath
for i=1:14
PTk(i)=1-i*7.8/367;
end
for i=15:25
PTk(i)=0.65-(i*7.8-110)/360;
end
for i=26:64
PTk(i)=0.22-(i*7.8-200)/1360;
end
% Delay related path loss exponent
for i=1:2
nTk(i)=2.5+i*7.8/39;
end
for i=3:32
nTk(i)=3+(i*7.8-15.6)/380;
end
for i=33:64
nTk(i)=3.6;
end
% Mean
mean1=10*nTk*log10(Dn/2.3);
% Standard Deviation
std1=4;
case 'OBS'
for i=1:12
PTk(i)=0.55+i*7.8/667;
end
for i=13:64
PTk(i)=0.08+0.62*exp(-(i*7.8-100)/75);
end
for i=1:39
nTk(i)=3.65+i*7.8/536;
end
for i=40:64
nTk(i)=4.23;
end
% Mean
std1=5;
otherwise
end
OcTk=ceil(PTk-rand(1,64));
Ak1=zeros(1,64);
Ak0=rand(1,64)*std1+mean1;
for i=1:64
if OcTk(i)==1
Ak1(i)=Ak0(i);
end
end
ak1=zeros(1,64);
for i=1:64
if OcTk(i)==1
ak1(i)=10^(-Ak1(i)/20);
end
end
plot([1:64],ak1/max(ak1),'k')
aak1(j,:)=ak1;
end
mesh(aak1/max(aak1(:,1)))
view(30,30)
xlabel('Excess Delay (ns)')
ylabel('Channel Index')
zlabel('Relative Magnitude')
5.7.4 Baseband Channel Model
ModelType='LOS';
%Separation distance Eexpressed in meet
Dn=5;
switch ModelType
% For line-of-sight
case 'LOS'
for i=1:14
PTk(i)=1-i*7.8/367;
end
for i=15:25
PTk(i)=0.65-(i*7.8-110)/360;
end
for i=26:64
PTk(i)=0.22-(i*7.8-200)/1360;
end
for i=1:2
nTk(i)=2.5+i*7.8/39;
end
for i=3:32
nTk(i)=3+(i*7.8-15.6)/380;
end
for i=33:64
nTk(i)=3.6;
end
% Mean
std1=4;
case 'OBS'
for i=1:12
PTk(i)=0.55+i*7.8/667;
end
for i=13:64
PTk(i)=0.08+0.62*exp(-(i*7.8-100)/75);
end
for i=1:39
nTk(i)=3.65+i*7.8/536;
end
for i=40:64
nTk(i)=4.23;
end
% Mean
std1=5;
otherwise
end
OcTk=ceil(PTk-rand(1,64));
Ak1=zeros(1,64);
Ak0=rand(1,64)*std1+mean1;
for i=1:64
if OcTk(i)==1
Ak1(i)=Ak0(i);
end
end
ak1=zeros(1,64);
for i=1:64
if OcTk(i)==1
ak1(i)=10^(-Ak1(i)/20);
end
end
figure(1)
plot([1:64],ak1/max(ak1),'k')
xlabel('Excess Delay (ns)')
ylabel('Channel Index')
%raised cosie pulse
alp=0.15;
xt=[-385:385]/64;
gt=sin(pi*xt)./(pi.*xt).*cos(alp.*pi.*xt)./(1-(2.*alp.*xt).^2);
gt(386)=1;
figure(2)
plot(xt,gt)
gtchnl=zeros(1,834);
for i=1:64
gtchnl(i:i+770)=ak1(i).*cos(2*pi*2.4e9*(i-1)*7.8e-9)*gt+gtchnl(i:
end
figure(3)
plot(gtchnl)
maxgtchnl=max(gtchnl);
mingtchnl=min(gtchnl);
if maxgtchnl>-mingtchnl
gtchnl=gtchnl/maxgtchnl;
else
gtchnl=gtchnl/mingtchnl;
end
for i=1:834
if gtchnl(i)==1;
maxj=i;
end
end
xtgtchnl=([1:834]-maxj)/64;
figure(4)
plot(xt,gt,'k',xtgtchnl,gtchnl,'k')
grid
xlabel('Symbol Interval')
ylabel('Magnitude')
5.8 References
1. www.fcc.gov/wtb/
2. M. C. Lawton and J. P. McGeehan, "The application of a deterministic ray

launching algorithm for the prediction of radio channel characteristics in small-
cell environment," IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 43, no. 4, pp.
955969, November 1994.
3. T. S. Rappaport, G. Durgin, R. Lovestead, R. Skidmore, I. Ghoreishien, and

S. Mahmud, "Indoor path loss measurements for homes and apartments at 2.4
and 5.85 GHz," December 16, 1997.
4. T. S. Rappaport and S. Y. Seidel, "SIRCIM, simulation of indoor ratio channel

impulse response models," version 1.1, VTIP, 1991.
5. A. A.M. Saleh and R. A. Valenzuela, "A statistical model for indoor multipath
propagation," IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communication, vol. SAC-5,
no. 2, pp. 128137, February 1987.
Chapter 6. Ethernet
Ethernet will play a very important role in home networking. It can be directly
installed within a room with a bunch of twisted pair patch cables or in a house
with home run wired Category 5 twisted pair cables. Furthermore, other
existing wiringbased home networking systems are also based on the Ethernet
frame format and the Media Access and Control protocol. Operation principles
of wireless Ethernet and its home networking variations are very close to that
of the original Ethernet. The concept of Ethernet was originated by Bob
Metcalfe and his Xerox PARC colleagues in late 1972 to interconnect personal
workstations. Their first experimental network was called the Alto Aloha
Network. In 1973, Metcalfe changed the name to Ethernet, to make it clear
that the system could support any computer and to point out that his new
network mechanisms had evolved well beyond the Aloha system. He chose to
base the name on the word "ether" as a way of describing an essential feature
of the system: the physical medium (i.e., a cable) carries bits to all stations,
much the same way that the old luminiferous ether was once thought to
propagate electromagnetic waves through space.
After some refinement, the second generation called Ethernet II was widely
used. Ethernet from this period is often called DIX after its corporate sponsors
Digital, Intel, and Xerox. As the holder of the trademark, Xerox established
and published the original standards for a coaxial cablebased Ethernet in 1980.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) was assigned the
task of developing formal international standards for all Local Area Network
technology. It formed the "802" committee to look at Ethernet, Token Ring,
Fiber Optic, and other LAN technology. The thick coaxial media system was the
first media system specified in the IEEE Ethernet, CSMA/CD, standard of 1985.
The thick coaxial cablebased Ethernet is also called 10Base5 and can carry a
transmission data rate of 10 Mbps. 10Base5 uses relatively inflexible coaxial
cable with a diameter of 1 centimeter. A thin coaxial cable version of Ethernet,
named 10Base2, was subsequently developed in 1987. The diameter of a thin
coaxial cable is 0.5 centimeter (cm). This thin coaxial cable is also known as
RG-58 and has an impedance of 50 ohms. In comparison, coaxial TV cables are
either RG-6 or RG-59 and have an impedance of 75 ohms.
10Base5 and 10Base2 have maximum transmission distances of 500 and 185
m, respectively. Although 10Base2 coaxial cables are relatively flexible, they
are still not as easy to handle as twisted pair cables. The IEEE standards for a
twisted pair version of Ethernet, known as 10BaseT, was released during 1990.
10BaseT has a transmission data rate of 10 Mbps over two pairs of Category 3
or Category 5 twisted pair cable. Multiple pairs, 2 or 4, are usually included in
a Category 3 or Category 5 twisted pair cable. Twisted pairbased Ethernet has
a star topology with an active hub at the center in contrast to the bus topology
of coaxial cablebased Ethernet. The first 100-Mbps version of twisted pairbased
Ethernet, known as 100BaseTX, was standardized during 1995. 100BaseTX
utilizes two out of four pairs of a Category 5 twisted pair cable. Another
version of 100-Mbps Ethernet using all four pairs of a Category 3 twisted pair
cable was also standardized during 1995 and known as 100BaseT4. A 100-
Mbps Ethernet using only two pairs of a Category 3 twisted pair cable was
standardized during 1997 and known as 100BaseT2. The 1000-Mbps Ethernet
using all four pairs of a Category 5 cable was standardized during 1999 and
known as 1000BaseT. Today most sites use twisted pair media for Ethernet
connections to the desktop.
In this chapter we will examine details of twisted pairbased Ethernet systems.

They are becoming the most used types. We can witness an evolution of
transmission efficiency and transceiver complexity in terms of Digital Signal
Processing (DSP) and error correction coding techniques by reviewing different
versions starting from 10BaseT. The first twisted pairbased Ethernet 10BaseT
uses no DSP except the Manchester line code. 100BaseTX uses 4B5B and MLT3
line codes and requires a channel equalizer that can be implemented with
either analog operational amplifiers or digitally for a better performance.
100BaseT4 uses 8B6T half duplex line code and also requires some channel
equalization. On the contrary, 100BaseT2 uses extensive DSP techniques
including echo cancellation, NEXT cancellation, and channel equalization.
1000BaseT achieves its very high transmission throughput by using error
correction coding on top of all these DSP techniques over four pairs of a
Category 5 twisted pair cable. All different types of Ethernet use the same
CSMA/CD MAC protocol. All twisted pairbased Ethernet uses the same RJ45
connector. Different versions of twisted pairbased Ethernet can be identified
with the standardized autonegotiation process.
We start this chapter with frame structure and MAC protocol, which are
common features for all versions of Ethernet. We then look into each twisted
pairbased Ethernet version individually in the sequence of 10BaseT,
100BaseT4, 100BaseTX, and 100BaseT2. The discussion of 1000BaseT is
postponed as a future topic. For each version, we highlight features of the
standards, examine its typical transceiver structure, and study corresponding
transmission performance. Other common features known as autonegotiation
and Media Independent Interface are also discussed.
6.1 Media Access and Control Protocol
6.1.1 Frame Format
Figure 6.1 shows the format of an Ethernet frame as defined in the original
IEEE 802.3 standard. An Ethernet frame starts with a preamble and ends with
a Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
Figure 6.1. Ethernet Frame Format
Preamble is a sequence of 56 bits having alternating 1 and 0 values that are

used for synchronization. They serve to give components in the network time
to detect the presence of a signal, and to begin reading the signal before the
frame data arrives. SFD stands for Start Frame Delimiter and is a sequence of
8 bits having the bit configuration 10101011 that indicates the start of the
frame. The Destination Address field identifies the station or stations that are
to receive the frame. The Source Address identifies the station that originated
the frame. The 802.3 standard permits these address fields to be either 2
bytes or 6 bytes in length, but virtually all Ethernet implementations in
existence today use 6-byte addresses. A Destination Address may specify
either an individual address destined for a single station or a multicast address
destined for a group of stations. A Destination Address of all 1 bits refers to all
stations on the LAN and is called a broadcast address. The Length/Type field
normally indicates the number of bytes in the subsequent LLC (Logic Link
Control) Data field. The Length/Type field can also indicate the protocol type of
LLC Data if its value is larger than 1536 or 0600 in hexadecimal. LLC Data
contains the data transferred from the source station to the destination station
or stations. The maximum size of this field is 1500 bytes. If the size of this
field is less than 46 bytes, then the use of the subsequent Pad field is
necessary to bring the frame size up to the minimum length. If necessary,
extra data bytes are appended in this Pad field to bring the frame length up to
its minimum size. The minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes from the
Destination Address field through the Frame Check Sequence.
FCS stands for Frame Check Sequence and contains a 4-byte Cyclical
Redundancy Check value used for error checking. When a source station
assembles a frame, it performs a CRC calculation on all the bits in the frame
from the Destination Address through the Pad fields (that is, all fields except
the Preamble, SFD, and FCS). The source station stores the value in this field
and transmits it as part of the frame. When the frame is received by the
destination station, it performs an identical check. If the calculated value does
not match the value in this field, the destination station assumes that an error
has occurred during transmission and discards the frame.
The operation of the CRC is defined by the following polynomial:
Equation 6.1
Relying on this polynomial, the CRC values are generated with the following
procedure.
1. The first 32 bits of the frame are complemented to avoid initial

zeros normally found in the Destination Address.
The n bits of the frame are considered to be the coefficients of a polynomial

of degree n 1.
The degree of the frame polynomial is raised to n + 31 by multiplying the

original by x32.
The frame polynomial is then divided by G(x) to produce a remainder of

degree <32.
The remainder sequence of 32 bits is complemented to become CRC.
Since coefficients of these polynomials are binary, the Exclusive OR operation

is used when remainders are calculated in the division process. The following
expression shows a simple example of dividing a polynomial of degree 6, x6 +
x4 + x + 1, with a polynomial of degree 5, x5 + x3 + x2 + 1, using the
Exclusive OR operation.
This expression can also be shown in the binary format as follows:
Since we are only interested in the remainder, the operation of CRC can be
implemented on the binary format frame with the following procedure:
1. Complement the first 32 bits of the frame.
Exclusive OR the first 33 bits of the frame with the G(x) binary sequence of
100000100110000010001110110110111.
Throw away zeros to the left of the first one (counting from left) and
combine the remainder binary sequence with the rest of the frame (the frame
before Step 2 minus 33 bits) to form a reduced length frame.
If the number of bits for the new frame is larger than or equal to 33, start
from Step 2 again.
Fill zeros at left side to make the remainder a 32-bit binary sequence, and
complement this sequence for the CRC.
6.1.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
The CSMA/CD protocol of Ethernet belongs to the Random Access technique

group. Other members of this group include the Aloha and Slotted Aloha
protocol. Aloha was developed ahead of and had inspired the creation of
Ethernet. Let us examine features and performance characteristics of Aloha
and Slotted Aloha protocols first as preparation for a better understanding of
the CSMA/CD technique. Campuses of Hawaii University were scattered around
on many different islands. The communication between computers at different
campuses was carried out through radio transmission stations. The Aloha
protocol was developed in the early 1970s to enable multiple campuses to
share the same radio transmission medium. With the Aloha protocol, stations
are allowed access to the radio transmission media whenever they have data
to transmit. Because the threat of data collision exists, each station must
either monitor its transmission or await an acknowledgment from the
destination station. By comparing the transmitted packet with the received
packet or by the lack of an acknowledgment, the transmitting station can
determine the success of the transmitted packet. If the transmission was
unsuccessful, it is resent after a random amount of time to reduce the
probability of recollision.
In a centrally managed communication system such as the telephone network,

the available capacity is not always utilized 100%. Instead, extra capacities
are built in to handle peak traffic loads. However, sometimes the demand can
still exceed the total available capacity (e.g., the calling traffic on Mother's
Day) so that many experience busy signals. Similar behavior can also be
observed in a random access system. Instead of a busy tone, transmissions can
be blocked and delayed to avoid extensive collisions [1]. To analyze the
behavior of the Aloha protocol, let there be N stations contending for the use
of the channel. Each station transmits l packets per second on average. For
simplicity, we also assume that each packet has a length of m in units of time.
The traffic intensity then can be expressed as
Equation 6.2
Because of collision, the average number of packets to be transmitted from
each station becomes l' > l. The traffic intensity with collision can be
expressed by
Equation 6.3
The ratio S/G represents the fraction of messages transmitted without

collision. The probability of no collision for packets of length m and Poisson
arrival rate is e-2G. Therefore, we have the following relationship describing
the behavior of the Aloha protocol:
Equation 6.4
We can find that the maximum traffic intensity is about 0.184 of the available
transmission throughput as far as each newly generated packet is concerned.
By making a small restriction in the transmission freedom of the individual

stations, the throughput of the Aloha protocol can be doubled. The
transmission time is broken into slots of length m. Stations are only allowed to
transmit at slot boundaries. When packets collide, they will overlap completely
instead of partially. This has the effect of changing the probability of no
collision to e-G and has come to be known as Slotted Aloha. The traffic
behavior of the slotted Aloha is described by
Equation 6.5
We can find that the maximum traffic intensity is about 0.368 of the available
transmission throughput as far as each newly generated packet is concerned.
Compared with the Aloha protocol, synchronization is required among all
stations. The preceding expressions only show the general behaviors of these
two protocols. Detailed studies can be conducted with computer simulation. We
can write a computer simulation program with the following inputs: number of
stations, physical transmission throughput, average length of packets, and
average packet arrival rate. With additional specifications of protocol type and
simulation running time, we can observe simulation results of number of
collisions, actual transmission throughput, and transmission delay under
different input values. Figure 6.2 shows simulated results against analytical
expressions for the Aloha protocol on the left and the Slotted Aloha on the
right. The efficiency of the Aloha tends to improve when the random waiting
time window is expanded.
Figure 6.2. Aloha Analytical and Simulation Results
The operation of CSMA/CD protocol can be explained by first looking at the

basic rules for transmitting an Ethernet frame. Before transmission, the
station monitors the transmission medium for a carrier. If a carrier is detected,
the transmission is deferred. The station continues to monitor the network
until the carrier ceases. If a carrier is not detected, and the period of no
carrier is equal to or greater than the interframe gap (IFG), the station then
immediately begins transmission of the frame. IFG provides a brief recovery
time between frames to allow devices to prepare for reception of the next
frame. While sending the frame, the transmitting station monitors the medium
for a collision. If a collision is detected, the transmitting station stops sending
the frame data and sends a 32-bit jam sequence. If the collision is detected
very early in the frame transmission, the transmitting station will complete
sending of the frame preamble before starting transmission of the jam
sequence. The jam sequence is transmitted to ensure that the length of the
collision is sufficient to be noticed by the other transmitting stations. After
sending the jam sequence, the transmitting station waits a random period of
time chosen using a random number generator before starting the
transmission process. The probability of a repeated collision is reduced by
having the colliding stations wait a random period of time before
retransmitting.
The CSMA/CD protocol is similar to those of Aloha and Slotted Aloha in that
both will back off and retransmit if a collision is detected. However, details are
quite different. CSMA/CD does not follow a synchronized slot time to start
transmission. On the other hand, a slot time of 512 bits is defined as the
minimum size of an Ethernet frame for transmission throughputs of 10 and
100 Mbps. The slot time is 4096 bits for Gigabit Ethernet. The size of the slot
time is designed such that collisions can be detected between stations located
furthest away at opposite ends of the transmission medium. The carrier sense
before transmission made the CSMA/CD an efficient random access protocol
because it could avoid some avoidable collisions and end a transmission almost
right after it detects a collision. In addition, the backoff procedure of Ethernet
also reduces the chance of repeated collisions. The backoff algorithm
implemented in Ethernet is known as truncated binary exponential backoff.
Following a collision, each station generates a random number that falls within
a specified range of values. It then waits that number of slot times before
attempting retransmission. The range of values increases exponentially after
each failed retransmission.
The transmission efficiency of the CSMA/CD protocol can be analyzed by

comparing a message with an average length m in time units to the average
time it takes to pass through the transmission medium with a certain
probability of collisions. For a message of length m, it takes time t to travel
from a transmitter to a receiver and takes 2t to detect a collision.
Furthermore, it takes 2nt to resolve a collision. Therefore, the average time
for a message to pass the transmission medium successfully is tv = m + t +
2nt = m[1 + a(1 + 2n)] where a = t / m is the ratio of transmission delay to
message length. It has been found that the value of n approaches e. The
transmission efficiency is then expressed by
Equation 6.6
This shows that the transmission efficiency of the CSMA/CD protocol is
dependent on the packet length for a given network topology. For an average
packet size of 800 bytes or 6400 bits and a transmission delay of 200 bits, the
transmission efficiency is 0.832. When the average packet length decreases to
200 bytes or 1600 bits, the transmission efficiency becomes 0.383. Expression
6.6 shows the general behavior of the CSMA/CD protocols. Detailed studies
can also be conducted with computer simulation. Figure 6.3 shows some
simulated Ethernet traffic efficiency results obtained using the MATLAB
program attached at the end of this chapter. In this simulation, collision can be
detected after one simulation iteration which is about 1000 bits. The
transmission delay is therefore t = 500 bits, a = 500/800 = 0.0625, and the
transmission efficiency is S < 1(1 + 6.44a) = 0.713.
Figure 6.3. Ethernet Analytical and Simulation Results
This analysis is derived based on a bus topology where every transceiver is

directly connected to the same transmission medium. For twisted pairbased
Ethernet, the transmission is relayed through a centralized repeater called a
hub. A conventional hub repeats a message it receives from one port to the
rest of other ports. Every port has the opportunity to sense if the hub, hence
the shared medium, is busy. If the hub receives messages from more than one
port at the same time, it transmits the jam sequence to every port to emulate
a collision of the bus topology. The traffic behavior of twisted pairbased
Ethernet with a conventional hub is therefore the same as that derived for the
bus topology.
Since ports of a hub are not physically connected to each other, traffic between
different transceivers can be intelligently controlled. Collisions can be avoided
if messages from different ports to the same destination port can be queued
and multiple connections can be established simultaneously between pairs of
transceivers. This leads to the general idea of a switched hub. There is no
standard regulating the detailed architecture of a switched hub. If
implemented properly, a switched hub should be able to talk to conventional
twisted pairbased Ethernet transceivers and make a significant improvement in
transmission efficiency. A switched hub can make the transmission efficiency
close to 1 on each individual port and larger than 1 in the aggregate.
6.2 10BaseT
Earlier versions of Ethernet, 10Base5, and 10Base2 were built upon

interconnected coaxial cables. These coaxial cables are not very flexible.
Therefore, the repositioning of a desktop computer in an office might involve
efforts of professional installers. 10BaseT is the first version of Ethernet using
twisted pair cables. 10BaseT supports a 10-Mbps transmission rate over two
pairs of Category 3 or Category 5 twisted pair cable. Because of the
convenience of twisted pair wiring in an office environment, 10BaseT and its
higher throughput variations have become the norm for most new Ethernet
installations. Category 3 or Category 5 twisted pair cable contains four pairs of
wires. 10BaseT uses one pair of wires for transmitting data and the other pair
for receiving data. 10BaseT is designed for using Category 3 twisted pair cable
over a connection distance of 100 m. The connection distance is increased to
150 m if a better quality Category 5 twisted pair cable is used instead.
Although Category 3 twisted pair cable is characterized as voice grade with

transmission capabilities similar to those of in-house telephone wiring, the
conventional in-house telephone wiring cannot be used for Ethernet
application because it usually has only one available pair after the telephone
usage and multiple branches normally exist on each pair. The other distinction
is that telephone wiring uses a four-position RJ-11 connector while each end of
a Category 3 or Category 5 cable for the Ethernet application is terminated
with an eight-position RJ-45 connector (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4. RJ-45 Connector for Twisted Pair Ethernet (From

IEEE Std. 802.3. Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Each pair of a Category 3 or Category 5 cable is distinguished with different

colors. Solid colors are used for cables with solid conductors, while color stripes
are used for those with stranded wires. There are two conventions for
connecting each pin of the connector to a particular wire identified by its color.
Type A and Type B conventions are listed in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2,
respectively.
For a cable with striped wires, wires sharing the same color form a pair. It is
interesting to note that wires of the orange pair for Type A and of the green
pair for Type B are not connected to adjacent pins. This design allows the
wiring to be shared with a telephone connection where the center two pins are
normally utilized and the RJ-11 plug can be inserted into an RJ-45 wall
connector. When RJ-45 connectors at both ends of a twisted pair cable are
connected to colored wires according to the same convention, Type A or Type
B, a straight through cable is created. When two different types of conventions
are applied at different ends of a twisted pair cable, it becomes a crossover
cable.
Table 6.1. Type A Color Codes for RJ-45
Contact Pin # Solid Color Striped Version 1 Striped Version 2
1 White White with Green Stripe White with Green Stripe
2 Blue Green with White Stripe Green
3 Black White with Orange Stripe White with Orange Stripe
4 Red Blue with White Stripe Blue
5 Green White with Blue Stripe White with Blue Stripe
6 Yellow Orange with White Stripe Orange
7 Slate White with Brown Stripe White with Brown Stripe
8 Brown Brown with White Stripe Brown
Table 6.2. Type B Color Codes for RJ-45
Contact Pin # Solid Wire Striped Version 1 Striped Version 2
1 Black White with Orange Stripe White with Orange Stripe
2 Yellow Orange with White Stripe Orange
3 White White with Green Stripe White with Green Stripe
4 Red Blue with White Stripe Blue

5 Green White with Blue Stripe White with Blue Stripe
6 Blue Green with White Stripe Green
7 Brown White with Brown Stripe White with Brown Stripe
8 Slate Brown with White Stripe Brown
All 10BaseT connections are point-to-point. This implies that a 10BaseT cable
can have a maximum of two Ethernet transceivers, with one at each end of the
cable. One end of the cable is typically attached to a 10BaseT hub. The other
end is attached directly to a computer station's Network Interface Card. These
point-to-point cable connections of 10BaseT result in a star network topology,
which consists of a central hub and many radiated NICs. Straight through
cables are used to connect a NIC to the hub. An embedded crossover function
is implied inside the hub to match the transmitter of a NIC to a receiver of the
hub and vice versa (Figure 6.5). Two 10BaseT NICs may be directly attached to
each other without a hub using a crossover cable (Figure 6.6). The
independent transmit and receive paths of the 10BaseT allow the full-duplex
mode of operation to be optionally supported. The full-duplex mode can
effectively double the transmission throughput over that particular connection.
To support full-duplex mode, both the NIC and the hub must be capable of, and
be configured for, full-duplex operation.
Figure 6.5. Embedded Crossover Function inside a Hub (From

Figure 6.6. External Crossover Function with a Crossover

Cable (From IEEE Std. 802.3. Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All
rights reserved.)
The transmission integrity of a particular connection can be verified during

both regular data transfer and idle periods. When no data are to be
transferred, transceivers still send link pulses to each other periodically to
verify the integrity of the connection. 10BaseT transceivers normally provide a
link light that remains lit as long as the transceiver receives frames or link
pulses from the other end of the segment.
6.2.1 Summary of 10BaseT Ethernet Standards
Standards are usually established to maintain product performances at certain

functional levels while not violating existing regulations. Standards are also
necessary to make the same product from different vendors interoperable at
the required functional level. For these goals, standards sometimes getting
into certain technical details; however, standards are generally not
specifications of related products. Nor do standards provide all necessary
information and means for making a particular product. Ethernet standards for
different types usually provide information on transmission environments such
as cable channel and crosstalk models, electrical characteristics such as time
and frequency domain masks, signaling formats such as line and error
correction codings, and set-up procedures such as hand-shake and negotiation
sequences.
Some operation details of the 10BaseT Ethernet are specified in Chapter 14 of

IEEE 8032.3 standards. Specifically, the Category 3 twisted pair channel
model, output differential voltage level, signal time domain masks, output
impedance, and timing jitter are defined in Section 14.3.1.2. Near End
Crosstalk models of different numbers of disturbers can be found in Section
14.4.2. The transmission characteristics of a 100-m Category 3 twisted pair for
the 10BaseT Ethernet application are specifically defined in terms of a circuit
model consisting of passive R, L, and C components. The topology and
component values of this transmission media model are shown in Figure 6.7.
This twisted pair model can be further divided into four second-order T, 100-
ohm, input-output impedance matched networks of identical topology but
different component values. Four T networks are chosen such that enough
degree of freedom can be provided to fit attenuations of this model in the
frequency range of interest very close to those of the twisted pair cable. At a
very low frequency, the attenuation of each T network is determined by
shorting the inductance and opening the capacitance. At a very high
frequency, the attenuation of each T network is determined by shorting the
capacitance and opening the inductance. The attenuation of the cable model is
the sum of these four T networks. Some T network design theories can be
useful in selecting each component value during an iterative process.
Figure 6.7. Channel Model (From IEEE Std. 802.3. Copyright ©

2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
By defining proper ABCD matrices for different sections of this circuit and after
several steps of parallel and serial two-port network combination, the insertion
loss of this model is shown in Figure 6.8 together with that obtained according
to the propagation model of Chapter 2. Insertion losses are about 9.5 and 15
dB at frequencies of 10 and 20 MHz, respectively.
Figure 6.8. Channel Transfer Function

Typical crosstalk losses of the corresponding twisted pair are specified by
Equation 6.7
Equation 6.8
The frequency is measured in megahertz. Equations 6.7 and 6.8 are for
Category 3 cables with 25 and 4 pairs, respectively. Figure 6.9 shows the
crosstalk coupling losses corresponding to these expressions as well as one, in
the middle, according to the NEXT model of Chapter 2 with 25 disturbers. The
specified Category 3 cable crosstalk loss is around 26 and 30 dB at 10 MHz for
25 and 4 pairs, respectively. Although there exists only 1 crosstalk pair in a
practical 10BaseT setting, multiple-pair crosstalk models can be used for a
better transceiver design. The four-pair crosstalk model has less crosstalk loss
and, therefore, produces more crosstalk noises. It has been chosen for
following 10BaseT transmission simulation studies.
Figure 6.9. Worst Case NEXT Insertion Loss
Information bits are converted to signal levels applied to the twisted pair using
the Manchester encoding where a 0 bit is represented by a positive to negative
transition and a 1 bit is represented by a negative to positive transition as
shown in Figure 6.10. This encoding process can be implemented by switching
between two opposite phases of a bit-rate clock that alters between positive
and negative amplitude during each bit interval.
Figure 6.10. A Manchester Encoding Example
The differential voltage level across two wires of a twisted pair with a nominal
impedance of 100 ohms is specified to be between 2.2 and 2.8 volts (V). The
transmit power is therefore between 48.4 and 78.4 milliwatts (mW) or
between 17 and 19 dBm. The normalized Power Spectrum Density of a
Manchester encoded signal can be described by
Equation 6.9
where T is the duration of a bit interval. Figure 6.11 shows the PSD of this
Manchester encoded signal at 10 Mbps based on a signal level of 2.8 V on an
impedance of 100 ohms. This PSD is obtained by multiplying the normalized
PSD for Manchester encoding with the power factor of P = V2/R = 2.82/100 =
0.0784.
Figure 6.11. PSD of Manchester Encoding
To meet the standards requirements on transmit signal, a high-order low-pass

filter is necessary to make the PSD of above 20 MHz at least 20 dB lower. The
transfer function of a typical 10th-order low-pass Butterworth filter is shown in
Figure 6.12 together with the filtered PSD of a Manchester encoded 10BaseT
transmit signal. In time domain, the transmit signal should fall within the
shaded area of the mask defined by the standards as shown in Figure 6.13.
After passing through the twisted pair and another receiver low-pass filter
(used for out of band noise reduction), the received signal needs to conform to
either of two time domain masks (Figure 6.14 and Figure 6.15, respectively)
depending on if there is an information bit transition. Based on a transmit
signal peak voltage of 2.8 V, the maximum allowed peak signal loss is about 13
dB.
Figure 6.12. PSD of 10BaseT
Figure 6.13. Transmit Signal Mask (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Figure 6.14. Received Signal I (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

Figure 6.15. Received Signal II (From IEEE Std. 802.3.
6.2.2 10BaseT Transceiver Structure and Performance

Analysis
Standards are usually established based on some prototype products made

possible by validated technologies. Technical debates based on working
prototypes, in these early days, or computer simulation results, most recently,
are normally parts of the standardization process. However, these standards do
not usually document the details of techniques currently under debate.
Theoretically, one can produce a compliant product by following the details of
standard documents using primarily off-the-shelf but a few specific, sometimes
patented, technologies. To produce standards conforming signals and decode
them after a specific transmission medium for the Ethernet case, lots of
implementation details must be verified using computer simulations.
An Ethernet device consists of a transmit part for producing the information-

bearing signal and a receive part for recovering the information from the
signal after the transmission medium. There are different methods for
producing a standards-compliant signal. Computer simulations are normally
used to test these different alternatives and to select the optimal choice based
on available means of manufacturing. Computer simulations are also useful as
a reference model for confirming implementation details at every functional
level. There are also different ways of recovering and decoding a signal after a
transmission medium. The synchronization of the decoding circuits to that of
the transmitter is often an important part of the receiving process. Some
compensation measures such as filtering and equalization are also parts of the
receiving process. Important choices of the receiver circuits are also validated
through computer simulation.
The 10BaseT Manchester encoding can be implemented by using a clock of 10

MHz with two opposite phases and a multiplexer selecting switch. The original
clock phase is selected by the multiplexer for a 0 bit, and the opposite phase is
selected for a 1 bit. At the receiver, two phase comparators, using opposite
phases of the 10-MHz clock as references, can be used to detect the original
information bits. The 10-MHz clock at the receiver end is recovered by a
phase-locked loop. Corresponding transceiver block diagrams of 10BaseT are
illustrated in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16. A Basic Transceiver Structure
In Figure 6.16, shift registers are used in the transmitter as well as in the
receiver to get in and send out information bits. The clock in the transmitter
on the left side of the block diagram drives the shift register, and its two
phases are inputs to the multiplexer switch. The information bits coming out of
the shift register determine which clock phase to be used as the transmit
signal. The phase-locked loop recovers the 10-MHz clock in the receiver. The
received signal and the recovered clock as well as its opposite phase are used
by a pair of phase detectors. Outputs of phase detectors are compared to
determine the correct phase of the received signal. The phase-locked loop
should be designed to be invariant to the frequent 180 phase shift of the
received signal while recovering a stable 10-MHz clock. Additional important
functions are also required in a real implementation of a 10BaseT transceiver.
Collision detection and link integrity tests are partially implemented in the
transceiver physical layer as well. Additional details of an example
implementation of a 10BaseT transceiver can be found in the data sheet of the
National Semiconductor's DP83907 chip [2].
The theoretical performance of a 10BaseT transceiver under the worst case

environment as defined by the standards can be analyzed by comparing the
Signal-to-Noise Ratio at the front of the receiver. Figure 6.17 shows receiver
front-end signal and crosstalk PSDs for a frequency band of up to 20 MHz. The
R-, L-, and C-based channel and the four-pair crosstalk models are used to
generate these PSDs, respectively. The corresponding SNR is shown in Figure
6.18.
Figure 6.17. Received Signal and Crosstalk Noise PSD
Figure 6.18. Receiver Front-End SNR

Based on these receiver front-end SNRs, the channel capacity for the 10BaseT
transmission environment is found using
Equation 6.10
At about 60 Mbps, the channel capacity is about six times the throughput of
the 10BaseT transmission protocol.
The performance of a typical 10BaseT transmission system under different

channel and noise environments can be studied through computer simulation.
A Simulink simulation model can visually show the transceiver architecture
and hierarchically provides implementation details while presenting timing-
accurate simulation results. Figure 6.19 shows a 10BaseT Simulink model
block diagram at its highest hierarchical level. This Simulink model consists of
a random binary sequence generator as the signal source, a 10BaseT
transmitter to convert the information sequence into Manchester encoded line
voltage on the twisted pair cable, another pair of binary sequence generator
and transmitter as the crosstalk source, a four-pair Category 3 channel model,
and a 10BaseT receiver. Four scopes are placed after the information sequence,
after the transmitter, after the channel, and after the receiver to collect
simulation results.
Figure 6.19. 10BaseT Transceiver and Category 3 Cable
Channel Simulink Model
Figure 6.20 shows the structure of this model 10BaseT transmitter. The
Manchester encoding is accomplished with a 10-MHz clock signal and a phase
modulator. The original or the opposite phase of a 10-MHz clock is selected
depending on the input data sequence through a switch multiplexer. The
original phase is selected if the data bit is one, and the opposite phase is
selected otherwise. The phase-modulated clock, with zero and positive levels,
is then converted into positive, +1, and negative, 1, levels. This signal is
passed through an eighth-order Butterworth low-pass filter with a corner
frequency of 15 MHz before entering the transmission channel.
Figure 6.20. 10BaseT Transmitter Simulink Model
Figure 6.21 shows the structure of this model 10BaseT receiver. It consists of a
Costas Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) with the received signal as its input and a
recovered clock and its 90° phase-delayed version as outputs, a phase
comparator, and a sample-and-hold device. The phase comparator compares
the input signal and its negated version with the recovered clock and
generates corresponding zeros and ones as recovered data bits. The glitches at
phase transitions are effectively removed by the sample-and-hold device
driven by the 90o phase-delayed clock.
Figure 6.21. 10BaseT Receiver Simulink Model
Figure 6.22 shows the structure of the Costas PLL for the clock recovery. The
amplitude-adjusted received signal is multiplied by the sine and cosine phases
of a local clock signal generated from a VCO (Voltage-Controlled Oscillator)
individually. Voltages dependent only on phase differences are derived after
loop filters of second-order Butterworth low-pass type with corner frequencies
at 796 kHz. The effect of the received signal polarity is void in the product of
these two phase differences. Therefore, this Costas PLL is blind to the frequent
180° phase reversal in the received signal. When the phase of the VCO is
lagging behind that of the received signal, a positive voltage is generated and
applied to the VCO to raise the frequency slightly, therefore eliminating the
phase difference.
Figure 6.22. Clock Recovery Costas Loop

The Category 3 channel model consists of a Category 3 twisted pair channel
model and a 15-dB/decade crosstalk model. These channel and crosstalk
models have a complex frequency s, that is dependent as shown in Equations
6.11 and 6.12, where s = j2pf. The input of the channel model is connected to
the transmitter driven by the information sequence, while the input of the
crosstalk model is connected to the transmitter driven by the crosstalk
sequence. The channel model is constructed based on the circuit channel
model of R, L, and C components as defined in the standards. ABCD matrices
are established for each or a group of components representing a simple serial
or shunt impedance. Each ABCD parameter is a two-element vector
representing the first- and zero-order coefficients of the polynomial. For
example, the polynomial for an impedance of a resistor R, in serial with an
inductance L, is and the corresponding two-element vector is [L R]. ABCD
matrices are then obtained for each section of the RLC network through
parallel or serial ABCD matrix manipulations. Because of the polynomial
representation, multiplications between different ABCD parameters are carried
out through convolution. Four sections of the RLC networks are finally
combined to form the ABCD matrix of the circuit cable model. The insertion
loss of this circuit cable model in the complex frequency s domain is described
by
Equation 6.11
The 15-dB/decade crosstalk model with a loss of 26 dB at 10 MHz is

approximated with an RLC network using the basic sectional structure of the
circuit channel model. Figure 6.23 shows the insertion loss of this RLC network
as well as that of the 15-dB/decade model. Loss differences are less than 0.5
dB in the frequency range of 130 MHz. The insertion loss of this RLC crosstalk
model is described by
Equation 6.12
Figure 6.23. Crosstalk s Model

By comparing the input sequence to the recovered one in the Simulink
simulation, some errors can be observed only after amplifying the crosstalk
signal by more than four times. This corresponds to a crosstalk noise margin of
about 12 dB.
6.3 100BaseT4
All versions of Ethernet with a transmission throughput of 100 Mbps belong to

the group of 100BaseT. They include 100BaseT4 on four pairs of a Category 3
or better twisted pair cable, 100BaseTX on two pairs of a Category 5 twisted
pair cable, 100BaseFX on two multimode fibers, and 100BaseT2 on two pairs of
a Category 3 or better twisted pair cable. All twisted pairbased 100BaseT
Ethernet will be discussed in the remainder of this chapter. All these twisted
pairbased Ethernet versions use the same RJ-45 connector. To recognize each
Ethernet transceiver's physical layer capabilities and to obtain the best
performance match between multimode transceivers, an autonegotiation
process, which will be discussed at the end of this chapter, is normally used at
the beginning of each transmission session. On the other hand, a Media
Independent Interface between different physical layers and the common MAC
layer is also defined as a part of the Ethernet standard.
All four twisted pairs of a Category 3 cable are occupied by 100BaseT4. Among
these four pairs, one is always used for transmitting, another one is always
used for receiving, and the remaining two are used for either activity,
depending on the data traffic direction. The 100-Mbps transmission throughput
is equally divided among three transmitting pairs. Each byte (8 bits) group of
binary information bits on one twisted pair is further converted into a group of
six ternary symbols of three possible values: 1, 0, and +1. The symbol baud
rate on each twisted pair is therefore 100/3 x 6/8 = 25 MHz. The always
transmitting pair is connected to pin #1 and pin #2 and the always receiving
pair is connected to pin #3 and pin #6 on an RJ-45 connector for a 100BaseT4
NIC as shown in Figure 6.24. These transmitting and receiving pair pin
positions are consistent with those of 10BaseT; therefore, the autonegotiation
procedure can be carried out without signaling conflict. Two 100BaseT4 NICs
can also be connected directly with a crossover cable as defined in Figure 6.25.
Figure 6.24. Internal Crossover (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

Figure 6.25. External Crossover (From IEEE Std. 802.3.
6.3.1 Summary of the 100BaseT4 Ethernet Standards
The transmission characteristics of a 100-m Category 3 twisted pair for the

100BaseT4 Ethernet application is redefined in terms of a differential circuit
model. The topology and component values of this transmission media model
are shown in Figure 6.26. The insertion loss of this differential model can also
be calculated through proper ABCD matrices manipulation. Each section of this
model can be grouped into five two-port networks with corresponding ABCD
matrices. These five two-port networks for the first section are shown in Figure
6.27. This section can be considered as three two-port networks, N1, N2, and
N3 in parallel. N3 can be further divided into three two-port networksN31, N32,
and N33in series. The ABCD matrix for a two-port network with impedances Z1,
as R8 of N1, in the top path and Z2, as R34 of N1, in the bottom path is
Equation 6.13
Figure 6.26. Differential Channel Model (From IEEE Std.

802.3. Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Figure 6.27. Two-Port Network Equivalence

Figure 6.28 shows insertion loss of the differential model in comparison with
that specified for 10BaseT. For this differential model, insertion losses are
about 10 and 15 dB at frequencies of 10 and 20 MHz, respectively. The
insertion loss defined by this differential circuit model is closer to that of the
propagation model, while the cable model for 10BaseT is closer to a particular
measurement.
Figure 6.28. Insertion Loss

Based on the differential circuit model and its ABCD matrices representations,
the insertion loss can be described by a fraction polynomial in complex
frequency, s, domain as follows. We will use this model in later Simulink
simulation for the convenience of sampling rate independence.
Equation 6.14
NEXT models are defined as 24.5 and 21.4 dB at 12.5 MHz for single- and
multiple-pair disturbers by Equations 6.15 and 6.16, respectively.
Equation 6.15
Equation 6.16
The 15-dB/decade three-pair crosstalk model with a loss of 21.4 dB at 12.5
MHz is approximated with an RLC network using the basic sectional structure
of the circuit channel model. Figure 6.29 shows the insertion loss of this RLC
network as well as that of the 15-dB/decade model. Loss differences are less
than 0.5 dB in the frequency range of 130 MHz. This circuit multiple pair NEXT
model can also be described by a fractional polynomial in complex frequency,
s, domain as
Equation 6.17
Figure 6.29. Crosstalk Loss
The mapping between a byte and a group of six ternary symbols is specified in
the Appendix of the IEEE standard and is repeated in Table 6.3 here for
convenience. It is worth noting that the coding table is not zero balanced
because there is a positive bias if you add all ternary groups together. To be
exact, there are 122 ternary groups of symbols with 1 net positive pulse when
positive and negative pulses within a symbol are compared. The DC balance on
the twisted pair is maintained by the DC balance algorithm built into the
transmitter. A bit is reserved to monitor the accumulation of DC balance. The
bit is set to zero at the beginning. If the bit is zero while a positive biased
ternary group is encountered, the bit is set to 1, and the ternary code is
transmitted. However, if the bit is one when a positive biased ternary group is
encountered, the bit is reset to zero, and every ternary symbol of this group is
negated and then transmitted. The negated group of ternary symbols can be
revised in the receiver since only groups of ternary symbols with zero or
positive bias are defined.
Normalized transmit pulse masks are defined in the standards for two
examples of a zero-separated positive and negative pulse sequence and an
adjacent positive and negative pulse sequence as shown by Figures 6.30 and
6.31. In Figure 6.30, the positive and negative pulses are separated by five
zeros. Each pulse can be formulated with a 100% excessive bandwidth raised
cosine filter followed by a third-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a corner
frequency of 25 MHz. Figure 6.32 shows the PSD of the 100BaseT4 signal with
filters in comparison with that formed by rectangle pulses. These filters
significantly reduce the energy level at above 25 MHz.
Figure 6.30. Positive and Negative Pulses Separated by Zeros

(From IEEE Std. 802.3. Copyright © 2000 IEEE. All rights
reserved.)
Figure 6.31. Adjacent Positive and Negative Pulses (From
Figure 6.32. 100BaseT4 PSD
Table 6.3. 8B6T Encoding
00 +-00+- 2B 0--+0+ 56 +0++-- 81 ++-0-0 AC +--++- D7 -+++0-
01 0+-+-0 2C 0--++0 57 0+++-- 82 +-+0-0 AD --+-++ D8 0+00-+

02 +-0+-0 2D --00++ 58 +++0-- 83 -++0-0 AE -+--++ D9 00+-+0
03 -0++-0 2E -0-0++ 59 +++-0- 84 -++00- AF +---++ DA 0+0-+0
04 -0+0+- 2F 0--0++ 5A +++--0 85 ++--00 B0 0-000+ DB +00-+0
05 0+--0+ 30 +-00-+ 5B ++0--0 86 +-+-00 B1 00-0+0 DC +000-+
06 +-0-0+ 31 0+--+0 5C ++0--+ 87 -++-00 B2 0-00+0 DD 00++0-
07 -0+-0+ 32 +-0-+0 5D ++000- 88 0+000- B3 -000+0 DE 0+0+0-
08 -+00+- 33 -0+-+0 5E --+++0 89 00+0-0 B4 -0000+ DF +00+0-
09 0-++-0 34 -0+0-+ 5F 00-++0 8A 0+00-0 B5 00-+00 E0 +-0++-
0A -+0+-0 35 0+-+0- 60 0-0++0 8B +000-0 B6 0-0+00 E1 0+-+-+
0B +0-+-0 36 +-0+0- 61 00-+0+ 8C +0000- B7 -00+00 E2 +-0+-+
0C +0-0+- 37 -0++0- 62 0-0+0+ 8D 00+-00 B8 -+-00+ E3 -0++-+
0D 0-+-0+ 38 -+00-+ 63 -00+0+ 8E 0+0-00 B9 --+0+0 E4 -0+++-
0E -+0-0+ 39 0-+-+0 64 -00++0 8F +00-00 BA -+-0+0 E5 0+--++
0F +0--0+ 3A -+0-+0 65 00-0++ 90 +-+--+ BB +--0+0 E6 +-0-++
10 +0+--0 3B +0--+0 66 0-00++ 91 ++--+- BC +--00+ E7 -0+-++
11 ++0-0- 3C +0-0-+ 67 -000++ 92 +-+-+- BD --++00 E8 -+0++-
12 +0+-0- 3D 0-++0- 68 -+-++0 93 -++-+- BE -+-+00 E9 0-++-+
13 0++-0- 3E -+0+0- 69 --++0+ 94 -++--+ BF +--+00 EA -+0+-+
14 0++--0 3F +0-+0- 6A -+-+0+ 95 ++-+-- C0 +-+0+- EB +0-+-+
15 ++00-- 40 +0+00- 6B +--+0+ 96 +-++-- C1 ++-+-0 EC +0-++-
16 +0+0-- 41 ++00-0 6C +--++0 97 -+++-- C2 +-++-0 ED 0-+-++

17 0++0-- 42 +0+0-0 6D --+0++ 98 0+0--+ C3 -+++-0 EE -+0-++
18 0+-0+- 43 0++0-0 6E -+-0++ 99 00+-+- C4 -++0+- EF +0--++
19 0+-0-+ 44 0++00- 6F +--0++ 9A 0+0-+- C5 ++--0+ F0 +-000+
1A 0+-++- 45 ++0-00 70 -++000 9B +00-+- C6 +-+-0+ F1 0+-0+0
1B 0+-00+ 46 +0+-00 71 +-+000 9C +00--+ C7 -++-0+ F2 +-00+0
1C 0-+00+ 47 0++-00 72 ++-000 9D 00++-- C8 0+00+- F3 -0+0+0
1D 0-+++- 48 000+00 73 00+000 9E 0+0+-- C9 00++-0 F4 -0+00+
1E 0-+0-+ 49 000-++ 74 -0+000 9F +00+-- CA 0+0+-0 F5 0+-+00
1F 0-+0+- 4A 000+-+ 75 0-+000 A0 0-0++- CB +00+-0 F6 +-0+00
20 00-++- 4B 000++- 76 +0-000 A1 00-+-+ CC +000+- F7 -0++00
21 --+00+ 4C 000-+0 77 0+-000 A2 0-0+-+ CD 00+-0+ F8 -+000+
22 ++-0+- 4D 000-0+ 78 0--+++ A3 -00+-+ CE 0+0-0+ F9 0-+0+0
23 ++-0-+ 4E 000+-0 79 -0-+++ A4 -00++- CF +00-0+ FA -+00+0
24 00+0-+ 4F 000+0- 7A --0+++ A5 00--++ D0 +-+0-+ FB +0-0+0
25 00+0+- 50 +0+--+ 7B --0++0 A6 0-0-++ D1 ++--+0 FC +0-00+
26 00-00+ 51 ++0-+- 7C ++-00- A7 -00-++ D2 +-+-+0 FD 0-++00
27 --+++- 52 +0+-+- 7D 00+00- A8 -+-++- D3 -++-+0 FE -+0+00
28 -0-++0 53 0++-+- 7E ++---+ A9 --++-+ D4 -++0-+ FF +0-+00
29 --0+0+ 54 0++--+ 7F 00+--+ AA -+-+-+ D5 ++-+0-
2A -0-+0+ 55 ++0+-- 80 +-+00- AB +--+-+ D6 +-++0-
Data nibbles (4 bits) from the MII interface are recombined into three
sequences of bytes and evenly distributed among three twisted pairs for
transmission according to frame structures as shown in Figure 6.33. Preambles
are initiated after data nibbles become available and are inserted before data
ternary symbols. Depending on a particularly identified twisted pair, a
preamble contains a combination of groups of P3, P4, SOSA, or SOSB ternary
symbols. P3 consists of a pair of adjacent positive and negative ternary pulses.
P4 consists of two adjacent P3s for a total of four ternary pulses. SOSA is a
sequence of three P3s for a total of six ternary pulses. SOSB consists of a P4
followed by a negated P3 also for a total of six ternary symbols. At the
transmitter side, data ternary symbols appear on the BI_D4 twisted pair first,
on the TX_D1 pair next, and on the BI_D3 pair last. Data symbol group
latencies are two ternary symbols apart from one pair to the next. The
preamble on the BI_D4 pair consists of a P4, a SOSA, and a SOSB in sequence
and lasts 16 ternary symbols. The preamble on the TX_D1 pair consists of two
SOSAs and one SOSB and lasts 18 ternary symbols. The preamble on the
BI_D3 pair consists of a P3, two SOSAs, and a SOSB in sequence and lasts 20
ternary symbols.
Figure 6.33. 100BaseT4 Frame Structures (From IEEE Std.

Groups of End of Packets (EOP) ternary symbols are appended at the end of
data ternary symbols at each of these three transmitting twisted pairs. The
pair with the last group of data ternary symbols is appended with an EOP_3
consisting of two positive ternary symbols followed by two negative ternary
symbols (and followed by two zeros) or [+1 +1 1 1 0 0]. The pair with the
next-to-the-last group of data ternary symbols is appended with EOP_2 ([+1
+1 +1 +1 1 1]) and EOP_5 ([1 1 0 0 0 0]). The remaining pair is appended
with EOP_1 ([+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1]) and EOP_4 ([1 1 1 1 1 1]). The last group
of data ternary symbols could be at any of these three transmitting twisted
pairs depending on the length of data from MII.
6.3.2 100BaseT4 Transceiver Structure and Performance
Estimation
A possible 100BaseT4 transceiver structure is shown in Figure 6.34. The

transmit part consists of three transmitters of similar functionalities. Data are
separated one byte at a time and equally distributed among these three
transmitters. Each transmitter has its own framing, 8B6T encoding, and
shaping functions. Similarly, the receive part also consists of three receivers
for corresponding twisted pairs. Each receiver has its own equalization, three-
level decision, 8B6T decoding, and deframing functions. The recovered data
are then combined byte by byte for external consumption. A phase-locked loop
is also used inside the receive part for timing recovery.
Figure 6.34. 100BaseT4 Transceiver Structure
The theoretical performance of a 100BaseT4 transceiver under the worst case

NEXT environment as defined by the standards can be analyzed by comparing
the SNR at the front of the receiver. Figure 6.35 shows receiver front-end
signal and crosstalk PSDs for a frequency band of 0 to 25 MHz. The R-, L-, and
C-based differential channel and the multidisturber crosstalk models are used
to generate these PSDs, respectively. The corresponding SNR is shown in
Figure 6.36.

Based on these receiver front-end SNRs, the channel capacity for the
100BaseT4 transmission environment is found using
Equation 6.18
At about 108 Mbps, the channel capacity is about 3.3 times the throughput of
the 100BaseT4 transmission protocol.
Computer simulation can be used to study the performance of a typical

100BaseT4 transmission system under different channel and noise
environments. Figure 6.37 shows a 100BaseT4 Simulink model block diagram
at its highest hierarchical level. This Simulink model consists of a random
binary sequence generator as the signal source, a 100BaseT4 transmitter to
convert the information sequence into 8B6T encoded line voltage on the
twisted pair cable, another pair of binary sequence generator and transmitter
as the crosstalk source, a four-pair Category 3 channel model, and a
100BaseT4 receiver. Four scopes are placed right after the information
sequence, the transmitter, the channel, and the receiver to collect simulation
results.
Figure 6.37. 100BaseT4 Simulink Model
Figure 6.38 shows the internal structure of the Simulink model transmitter.
The data are separated byte-by-byte into three streams. The separated data
stream is passed through an 8B6T encoder consisting of a lookup translation
table. The line voltage is produced by driving the combination of a 100%
excessive bandwidth raised cosine and a third-order Butterworth low-pass
filter with these ternary symbols.
Figure 6.38. 100BaseT4 Transmitter Simulink Model

Figure 6.39 shows the internal structure of the Simulink model receiver. The
received data are first passed through a fixed or an adaptive channel equalizer.
A phase-locked loop is used to recover the timing information. The equalized
signal is then sampled based on the recovered clock and quantized into three
levels. The 8B6T decoder part is similar to that of the transmitter and is not
implemented in this Simulink model for simplicity.
Figure 6.39. 100BaseT4 Receiver Simulink Model
According to this Simulink simulation, an equalizer, at least a fixed one, is

necessary for an 100BaseT4 receiver to recover data from the received signal.
Figure 6.40 shows the eye diagram right after the Simulink 100BaseT4
transmitter. Without using a channel equalizer, the eye is completely closed
after the Category 3 twisted pair channel model. Figure 6.41 shows the eye
diagram after the simple fixed equalizer inside the Simulink 100BaseT4
receiver. This simple fixed-channel equalizer can be implemented with two
resistors and a capacitor as shown in Figure 6.42. The transfer function of this
simple fixed equalizer is expressed as
Equation 6.19
Figure 6.40. Eye Diagram at the Transmitter

Figure 6.41. Eye Diagram at the Receiver with an Equalizer
Figure 6.42. The Implementation of the Fixed Equalizer

A fixed compromise equalizer to accommodate different lengths of twisted pair
cables or an adaptive analog channel equalizer can be defined to achieve a
better data detection performance.
6.4 100BaseTX
100BaseTX and 100BaseFX form the subgroup of 100BaseX, which is a part of

the 100-Mbps Ethernet group of 100BaseT. Physical layers of both 100BaseTX,
which uses two pairs of Category 5 unshielded twisted pair cables, and
100BaseFX, which uses two multimode fibers, are borrowed from existing FDDI
standards to save the technology development time. Basics of physical layer
100BaseTX are defined in ANSI X3.263, FDDI Token Ring Twisted Pair Physical
Layer, with modifications specified in Ethernet standards 100BaseX and
100BaseTX. The ANSI X3.263 standards define the MLT-3 line code, line
voltages, and waveforms, as well as channel and crosstalk models. The
100BaseX standards specify the 4B5B encoding, while the 100BaseTX
standards clarify transmit and receive pair connections on the RJ45 connector.
With the 4B5B encoding, every 4 bits of information are converted into a 5-bit
code resulting in an effective bit rate of 125 Mbps over the transmission
media. 100BaseTX uses a higher grade unshielded twisted pair cable of
Category 5 instead of the Category 3 cable used by 10BaseT and 100BaseT4.
The Category 5 cable is rated for transmission at frequencies up to 100 MHz,
while the Category 3 cable is rated for only 16 MHz. In other words, Category
5 cable has less attenuation and crosstalk. On the other hand, signaling at a
rate of 125 Mbps requires adaptive channel equalization to compensate for
intersymbol interferences caused by amplitude and phase distortions of twisted
pair cables of different lengths. The adaptive channel equalization for
100BaseTX transceiver can be implemented in either analog or digital circuits.
The digital adaptive channel equalizer performs better but demands a high-
speed Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) and digital circuits.
6.4.1 Summary of 100BaseX and 100BaseTX Ethernet

Standards
The 4B5B encoding table is defined in the 100BaseX part of the Ethernet
standards and appears here as Table 6.4 for your convenience.
There are a few groups of 4B5B codes. The first is the data group of 16 codes
that maps any combination of 4 bits to a unique 5-bit code. As far as this
group is concerned, the code utilization is 80%. The second is the code group
for control purposes that includes character representation of J, K, T, and R.
Enough transitions are chosen for the selection of these two code groups to
ensure clock recovery in cases when scrambling is not used. The last group is a
collection of idle, dead, and error (represented by the character H). Besides
other details, the 100BaseX also defines the MAC encapsulation frame. The
encapsulation simply adds an SSD (Start-of-Stream Delimitor) and an ESD
(End-of-Stream Delimiter) at the beginning and at the end of each MAC frame.
The SSD consists of characters of J and K and the ESD consists of characters of
T and R.
Table 6.4. 4B5B Encoding
Data Code Data Code Data Code Data Code
0000 11110 0110 01110 1100 11010 K 10001
0001 01001 0111 01111 1101 11011 T 01101
0010 10100 1000 10010 1110 11100 R 00111
0011 10101 1001 10011 1111 11101 H 00100
0100 01010 1010 10110 idle 11111 dead 00000
0101 01011 1011 10111 J 11000
Note that there is no DC balance issue for these 5-bit codes because the MLT-3
encoder will use these codes to drive the line to the +1, 0, or 1 signal level.
Each "1" bit in these codes will cause a signal-level transition, and transitions
are made in the sequence of ..., 0, +1, 0, 1, 0, +1, . . . . The 100BaseTX
standards specify that the transmit and receive pairs should be connected in
the same fashion as those defined for 10BaseT. In other words, the transmit
pair is connected to pins 1 and 2 and the receive pair is connected to pins 3
and 6 of an RJ45 connector for a conventional NIC card. Similar rules of
10BaseT for crossover cable and hub side connection also apply.
6.4.2 Summary of Relevant FDDI (ANSI X3.263) Standards
Instead of specifying a detailed worst-case Category 5 twisted pair cable

channel model, the ANSI X3.263 defines signal attenuations of five Category 5
test cables at the frequency of 16 MHz. These attenuations are 0.5, 2.5, 5,
7.5, and 10 dB and approximately correspond to worst-case loss Category 5
twisted pair cables of lengths 25, 100, 195, 290, and 385 ft, respectively.
Figure 6.43 shows insertion losses of these five test cables based on the
propagation constant Category 5 twisted pair model. In a similar manner,
crosstalk models are also defined as losses of 35, 35, 37.5, 40, and 42.5 dB at
16 MHz corresponding to these test cables of approximate lengths of 25, 100,
195, 290, and 385 ft, respectively. Notice that only four crosstalk models are
defined for five different cable lengths. Figure 6.44 shows these four crosstalk
models. The 15-dB/decade Category 5 twisted pair cable crosstalk model with
a loss of 42.5 dB at 16 MHz can be approximated with a linear phase Finite
Impulse Response (FIR) filter. Figure 6.45 shows the insertion loss of this FIR
filter as well as that of the 15-dB/decade model. Figure 6.46 shows
corresponding filter coefficients in time domain.
Figure 6.43. Insertion Losses of Category 5 Test Cables
Figure 6.44. NEXT Losses of Category 5 Test Cables

Figure 6.45. Crosstalk Loss Models
Figure 6.46. Crosstalk Model Impulse Response

A scrambler is used in the transmitter after 4B5B encoding to spread out
signal energy, especially during the idle transmit state. A pseudo-random
sequence of length 2047 is generated according to
Equation 6.20
This pseudo-random sequence can be generated with a shift register of 11

delay elements and initialized with at least one 1. The scrambled stream is
created by Exclusive OR operation of the bit out of the 4B5B encoder and a bit
of the pseudo-random sequence as follows:
Equation 6.21
A descrambling process is required to recover the 4B5B-encoded stream at the

receiver. A descrambled stream is obtained by Exclusive OR operation of the
received bit and a bit of the same pseudo-random sequence as follows:
Equation 6.22
where d(n) is the synchronized pseudo-random sequence and is the received

bit. A process at the receiver end is necessary to synchronize the pseudo-
random sequence generator to that of the transmitter. A hypothesis stream of
11 bits, h(n), is created by Exclusive OR operation of received bits using
Equation 6.23
The pseudo-random sequence generator is loaded with the following pattern:
Equation 6.24
when the pattern of h(k:k - 10) = [11111111111] or equivalently c(k:k - 21)

= [0101010111101110111111] is detected. After the initial synchronization,
the receiver-side pseudo-random sequence generator is independently updated
according to the same formula as described by
Equation 6.25
MLT-3 stands for Multi-Level Transition encoding of three levels: negative,

zero, and positive. The input to an MLT-3 encoder is a binary sequence
consisting of ones and zeros. The corresponding output from the same encoder
is a sequence of the same rate but consists of minus ones, zeros, and plus
ones. The encoding rules are changing the output signal level for a 1-bit input
and keeping the same output signal level for a 0-bit input. An MLT-3 encoder
can be implemented with the assistance of a flag in association with these
signal levels. The flag is set when the signal level reaches +1 and is reset
when it reaches 1. The signal level change direction from zero is decided based
on the flag. A 1-bit input causes the output from 0 to 1 if the flag is set and to
+1 if the flag is reset. An MLT-3 decoder can be implemented by simply
translating a signal-level change to an 1-bit output and generating 0 bits if the
signal level stays the same.
Line signal shape is defined in terms of a nominal voltage of ±1 V and a

nominal rising and falling time of 4 ns in the ANSI X3.263 standards. In
comparison, the duration of each bit is 8 ns. Figure 6.47 shows the PSD of the
100BaseTX signal. This PSD shape is pretty unique owing to both 4B5B code
word selection and MLT-3 encoding. This PSD has a lower high-frequency
spectrum density compared with those of other line codes to meet FCC radio
emission requirements at frequencies above 30 MHz.
Figure 6.47. 100BaseTX PSD
6.4.3 100BaseTX Transceiver Structure and Performance

Estimation
A possible 100BaseTX transceiver structure is shown in Figure 6.48. The

transmit part in the top of the figure consists of a shift register to take
information bits in, a 4B5B encoder, a scrambler, an MLT-3 encoder, and a
rising/fall time filter. The receive part consists of an adaptive channel
equalizer, a timing recovery circuit, a three-level decision device, a
descrambler, a 4B5B decoder, and a shift register to send information bits out.
Extensive phase and frequency distortions induced by the Category 5 twisted
pair cable at a signaling rate of 125 MHz make signal detection impossible
without the use of an adaptive channel equalizer. In other words, the eye of
the corresponding eye diagram is completely closed at the receiver end.
Figure 6.48. 100BaseTX Transceiver Structure
Earlier implementations of 100BaseTX transceivers used an analog adaptive

channel equalizer [3]. An adaptive analog equalizer can be realized with three
amplifiers of different frequency responses in parallel. The first amplifier's
frequency response has a relatively flat slope with a little high gain, 1 dB, at
the high-frequency end of the 0- to 30-MHz band. The second amplifier's
frequency response has a higher gain, 4 dB, at the high-frequency end. The
third amplifier has 8 dB more gain at the high-frequency end. The first
amplifier is always active for compensating frequency distortion of short loops.
The second amplifier becomes active when longer loops are encountered.
When all three amplifiers are active, a total frequency compensation of 13 dB
can be provided for longest loops. The activation of these amplifiers are
dependent on received signal level and are controlled by a circuit similar to
Automatic Gain Control (AGC). An analog phaselocked loop is usually
associated with an analog adaptive channel equalizer for timing recovery.
Digital adaptive channel equalization techniques have been used for most
current versions of 100BaseTX transceivers. An ADC is used to sample the
received signal at the bit rate of 125 MHz. The length of a digital adaptive
equalizer is related to the duration of the longest Category 5 twisted pair cable
channel impulse response. Figure 6.49 shows the impulse response of a typical
long Category 5 twisted pair cable. The channel delay to the beginning of the
impulse response is about 400 ns. We mark the peak of the impulse response
as the cursor. The precursor duration (from the beginning to the cursor) of the
channel impulse response is then about 100 ns, or 12 samples, and the
postcursor duration (from the cursor to the end of the impulse response) is
about 400 ns, or 50 samples. The length of a digital channel equalizer is then
about 62 taps. Among them, 12 can be feedforward filter taps, and 50,
feedback filter taps.
Figure 6.49. Category 5 Twisted Pair Cable Channel Impulse

Response
Figure 6.50 shows the structure of a decision feedback channel equalizer. The
received signal is first sampled by the A/D convertor and sent to the
feedforward as its input. Past decisions are sent to the feedback filter as its
input. The feedforward filter compensates for reflections in the precursor, while
the feedback filter cancels the postcursor based on previous decisions.
Feedforward and feedback filter coefficients are adjusted adaptively according
to
Equation 6.26
Figure 6.50. The Structure of an Adaptive Decision Feedback
Channel Equalizer
Equation 6.27
where is the feedforward filter coefficient vector, is the
feedback filter coefficient vector, is the received signal vector,
is the previous decision vector, µ1 is the adaptation coefficient for

the feedforward filter, and µ2 is the adaptation coefficient for the feedback
filter. µ1 and µ2 must be small enough to ensure the convergence of this
adaptation LMS (Least Mean Square) algorithm, while their values affect both
initial convergence speed and residual error level.
The timing recovery is a very important part along with the channel
equalization. Not just the operation of the equalizer needs to be in
synchronization with the baud rate of the received signal, but the sampling
phase should also be selected to optimize equalization performance. A
traditional analog phaselocked loop can be used in conjunction with digital
equalization, but some baud ratebased digital timing recovery circuits are
preferred. Timing information can be recovered from the equalizer output with
reference to corresponding signal levels [4]. A digital phaselocked loop can
then be used to refine the recovered clock signal.
The MLT-3 seems like a DC balanced line code except that there is still a slight
probability that it can stay at the +1 or 1 level for a long duration. This might
occur for a sequence whose scrambled version consists of a long sequence of
zeros; therefore, the MLT-3 encoded line voltage will stay at one level during
that duration. Since a line transformer is used to couple the transceiver circuit
to the twisted pair cable, low-frequency components caused by long zero
sequences experience more attenuation. Effectively, a long-lasting +1 or 1
sequence tends to lose its amplitude toward zero. DC wandering compensation
circuits are utilized in some transceiver implementations to avoid this problem.
The theoretical performance of a 100BaseTX transceiver under the worst-case

NEXT environment, as defined by the standards, can be analyzed by comparing
the SNR at the front of the receiver. Figure 6.51 shows receiver front-end
signal (at the top) and crosstalk PSDs for a frequency band of 065 MHz. The
propagation constant channel model of 385 ft and the corresponding crosstalk
model are used to generate these PSDs, respectively. The corresponding SNR
is shown in Figure 6.52. Based on these receiver front-end SNRs, the channel
capacity for the 100BaseTX transmission environment is found using
Equation 6.28

At about 500 Mbps, the channel capacity is about four times the throughput of
the 100BaseTX transmission protocol.
The performance of a typical 100BaseTX transmission system under different

channel and noise environments can be studied through computer simulation.
Figure 6.53 shows a 100BaseTX Simulink model block diagram at its highest
hierarchical level. This Simulink model consists of a random binary sequence
generator as the signal source, a 100BaseTX transmitter to convert the
information sequence into MLT-3 encoded line voltage on the twisted pair
cable, a Category 5 twisted pair cable channel, and a 100BaseTX receiver.
Three scopes are placed right after the information sequence, the transmitter,
and the receiver to collect simulation results.
Figure 6.53. 100BaseTX Simulink Model
Figure 6.54 shows that the internal structure of the Simulink model
transmitter consists of a 4B5B encoder and an MLT-3 encoder. Since the
simulation is carried out at a sampling rate of 125 MHz, the rise and fall time
filter is omitted. The scrambler and descrambler are also omitted for simplicity.
Figure 6.54. Transmitter Model
Figure 6.55 shows the internal structure of the model 4B5B encoder. The serial
data stream is converted into 4-bit parallel. Each 4-bit group is used as the
input to the 4B5B encoding lookup table. The 5-bit parallel output from the
table is reconverted to serial stream.
Figure 6.55. 4B5B Encoder
Figure 6.56 shows the internal structure of the model MLT-3 encoder. The 125-
MHz clock is masked by the input data. In other words, only input 1's result-
to-output signal level changes. Every 125-MHz clock pulse will cause the first
D flip-flop on the left to change its output from a 0 to a 1 and vice versa. Using
the output of the first D flip-flop as its CLK input, the second D flip-flop
changes its output from a 0 to a 1 and vice versa for every two 125-MHz clock
pulses. Meanwhile the output of the second D flip-flop determines the sign of
the MLT-3 encoder output. A zero output from the second D flip-flop negates
the output of the first D flip-flop.
Figure 6.56. MLT-3 Encoder
Figure 6.57 shows the Category 5 channel model consisting of a signal

attenuation and a crosstalk noise coupling loss. Both are defined by discrete
transfer functions which are MATLAB variables preloaded at the activation of
this Simulink simulation. The crosstalk model is driven by another MLT-3
encoder emulating a disturbing transmitter.
Figure 6.57. Channel Model
Figure 6.58 shows the internal structure of the Simulink model receiver
consisting of an adaptive channel equalizer and an MLT-3 decoder. The 4B5B
decoder can also be implemented using a lookup table with a structure similar
to that of the 4B5B encoder and is omitted because the implementation of bit
group synchronization can be quite involved. Also because of the 125-MHz
sampling rate simulation, the function of a digital timing recovery circuit is not
included in this Simulink simulation model.
Figure 6.58. Receiver Model
Figure 6.59 shows the internal structure of the adaptive equalizer consisting of
a feedforward filter and a feedback filter. A received signal detector is used to
activate the adaptation process. There is no training sequence defined in the
100BaseTX standards. The equalizer can be converged during the idle time
based on the principle of blind equalization [5] because only three output
levels are involved. The convergence can be further assured by preloading
some filter coefficients representing some typical Category 5 twisted pair
channels.
Figure 6.59. Adaptive Equalizer
Figure 6.60 shows the internal structure of the MLT-3 decoder model. The
decoder simply generates a 1 bit if two consecutive inputs are not equal and a
0 bit otherwise.
Figure 6.60. MLT-3 Decoder

6.5 100BaseT2
100BaseT2 is the latest member of the 100BaseT 100-Mbps Ethernet group.

The 100BaseT2 IEEE activity was established in March 1995, and the standard
was approved in March 1997. 100BaseT2 is the only Ethernet standard that
supports a 100-Mbps transmission rate over two pairs of Category 3 twisted
pair cabling. If the cable has more than two twisted pairs, it also permits the
additional pairs to carry other services such as digital phone, 10BaseT, or more
100BaseT2 connections. Extensive digital signal processing techniques, such as
fractionally spaced adaptive channel equalization, echo cancellation, and NEXT
noise cancellation, are utilized to enable a very high transmission throughput
over this voice-grade Category 3 twisted pair cable.
100BaseT2 employs a "dual duplex baseband transmission" scheme to transmit

data over each wire pair in each direction simultaneously. In a 100BaseTX and
100BaseT4 tradition of utilizing zero voltage as a possible signal level,
100BaseT2 transmits quinary (five-level) data symbols that can have values of
2, 1, 0, +1, or +2 on each twisted pair. Each quinary symbol carries only two
bits. In comparison with a four-level signaling system of the same level
separation value, the use of quinary symbols has an energy penalty of 5/6 in
return for some coding redundancy. In fact, each pair of two bits is first
mapped to only four signal levels: +1, 0, 1, and 2. The +2 signal level is
produced through the sign reverse operation under the control of a binary
pseudo-random sequence. Therefore, the probability of occurrence for +2 and
2 is only half that for +1, 0, and 1 signal levels. With two pairs each carrying
five signal levels, a joint constellation of 5 by 5 is created for carrying four
information bits during each symbol time interval. The 100-Mbps transmission
throughput is achieved with a symbol rate of 25 MHz.
Full duplex operation is made possible by echo cancellation technology. On the

other hand, the same cancellation technology is also applied to reduce the
amount of NEXT noise level. In general, the operation of channel equalizer is
synchronized to the received signal while the echo and NEXT cancellation
operations are in synchronization with the clock frequency of the transmitting
data. For implementation simplicity, the same timing clock is used by both
transmitter and receiver parts of a transceiver. Only one transceiver, the
master, can be synchronized to the clock frequency of transmitting data. The
slave transceiver recovers its clock from the received signal. This arrangement
is also called loop timing.
6.5.1 Summary of 100BaseT2 Ethernet Standards

The data bit to line voltage encoding method of 100BaseT2 seems very
complicated, but it can be analyzed by looking into the basic bit
mapping/scrambling process and the pseudo-random sequence generator
separately. Figure 6.61 shows the basic structure for bit mapping and bit/sign
scrambling. Current data bits, one nibble, are represented by TXDn(0),
TXDn(1), TXDn(2), and TXDn(3). The first pair of data bits and TXDn(3)is
fed to twisted pair A and the second pair of data bits and TXDn(1)is fed
to twisted pair B, where and denote complements of TXDn(2) and
TXDn(0), respectively. Each pair of data bits is first scrambled by a
corresponding 2-bit-wide random sequence, San or Sbn. The scrambled 2-bit-
wide data bits are sent through the bit mapper, M. Four mapper output line
signal levels of +1, 0, 1, and 2 correspond to input bits of 01, 00, 10, and 11,
respectively.
Figure 6.61. Data Encoding
Meanwhile, the sign block S converts 0's and 1's of pseudo-random sequences
of an and bn to +1's and 1's respectively. Because of this sign-scrambling
process involving an, S, and the multiplier for line A, the final line signal
consists of 2, 1, 0, +1, and +2 levels, while the occurrence probability of 2 or
+2 level is only a half of those for 1, 0, or +1 level. The same sign-scrambling
process involving bn, S, and another multiplier also applies to line B. A 5 by 5
square constellation is thus obtained with a nonuniform distribution of
occurrences as shown in Figure 6.62.
Figure 6.62. 100BaseT2 Constellation
All random sequences used for bit/sign scrambling are from a single pseudo-
random sequence generator of length 233 1 = 8,589,934,591. The random
sequence of the master transmitter is generated according to
Equation 6.29
The corresponding random sequence generator can be implemented using an

MLSR (Maximum Length Shift Register) structure as shown in Figure 6.63. The
random sequence of the slave transmitter is generated according to
Equation 6.30
Figure 6.63. Master Transmitter Random Sequence Generator

reserved.)
The corresponding random sequence generator can be implemented using an
MLSR structure as shown in Figure 6.64.
Figure 6.64. Slave Transmitter Random Sequence Generator

reserved.)
As shown in Figure 6.65, random sequences an and bn are directly from the
same pseudo-random sequence generator. Specifically, we have
Equation 6.31
Figure 6.65. Random Sequence Generator

and
Equation 6.32
San and Sbn are a swapped version of Xn and Yn. San equals Xn and Sbn equals
Ynwhen sn is 1, and San equals Yn and Sbn equals Xn when sn is 0. sn itself is the
current output of the the same pseudo-random sequence generator (i.e., sn =
s[n]). Values of Xn and Yn are dependent on random sequences of xn and yn as
well as the odd/even sequence index according to Tables 6.5 and 6.6. The
values in Table 6.5 apply when the local receiver is ready. Only values defined
for the even index are used otherwise. The values in Table 6.6 apply all the
time despite the readiness of the receiver. xn and yn are also obtained from the
same pseudo-random sequence generator according to
Equation 6.33
Equation 6.34
If mapped directly without Exclusive OR operations with data bits, TXDn(0),
TXDn(1), TXDn(2), TXDn(3), and Xn generate signal levels of 1 and +1, and Yn
generates signal levels of 0 and 2. This characteristic leads to the interesting
idle constellation shown in Figure 6.66 when data bits are all zeros and with
the additional help of random swapping between Xn and Yn according to the
value of sn. Between data and idle transmissions, the beginning of a data
stream is marked by the Start-of-Stream Delimiter, and the end of a data
stream is marked by the End-of-Stream Delimiter. Both SSD and ESD last two
symbols and consist of line levels of An = ±2, Bn = ±2, An+1 = ±2, and Bn+1 =
0.
Figure 6.66. 100BaseT2 Idle Constellation
Table 6.5. Table for Xn
xn k Xn
0 even [1,0]
0 odd [0,1]
1 even [0,1]
1 odd [1,0]
Table 6.6. Table for Yn

yn k Yn
0 even [0,0]
0 odd [1,1]
1 even [1,1]
1 odd [0,0]
The pseudo-random sequence generator at the receiver side needs to be

synchronized to that of the transmitter side before correct descrambling of
data bits can be performed. During the initialization process, s(n) can be
directly observed by examining the alternation of subsets {1, +1} and {2, 0,
+2} of the idle constellation while an = s(n - 1) s(n - 5)and bn = s(n - 2)
s(n - 12) can also be identified by looking at sign changes of ±2 signal levels.
After a particular pattern of 33 bits is identified, the receiver random sequence
generator can be synchronized by also starting at this particular sequence. A
few different patterns of similar time intervals apart can be selected to reduce
the synchronization search time since the random sequence generated by this
33 delay element MLSR is relatively long. Once synchronized, the demapping
(DM) and descrambling of data bits can be carried out as shown in Figure 6.67
where DM produces bit pairs of 00, 01, 10, and 11 for input signal levels of 0,
+1, 1, and ±2 respectively.
Figure 6.67. Demapping and Descrambling of Data Bits
The Category 3 twisted pair cable channel model defined by the 100BaseT2
standards is given in the frequency domain by
Equation 6.35
Equation 6.36
l is the length of the cable measured in meters, and f is the frequency

measured in Hertz. Figure 6.68 shows this model in the frequency domain.
Figure 6.69 shows this model in the time domain. Notice that the net
transmission time delay is not included in this Category 3 cable model. The
transmission delay is about 570 ns for 100 m of Category 3 cable.
Figure 6.68. 100-Meter Category 3 Twisted Pair Cable

Transfer Function
Figure 6.69. Corresponding Impulse Response

NEXT coupling loss for the 100BaseT2 transmission environment is defined for
a single disturber by an attenuation of 19.3 dB at 16 MHz and a slope of 16.6
dB/decade as shown in
Equation 6.37
NEXT coupling loss for multiple disturbers is also defined by an attenuation of

19 dB at 16 MHz and a slope of 16.6 dB/decade as shown in
Equation 6.38
Assuming the effect of NEXT can be minimized using the digital cancellation
technique, the FEXT noise will then dominate the performance of a 100BaseT2
transmission system. Since the transmitted data sequence is not readily
available at the receiver end, the FEXT cancellation is not as easy to
implement and not recommended in the 100BaseT2 standards.
FEXT coupling loss for a 100-m Category 3 twisted pair cable is defined for a
single disturber by an attenuation of 20.9 dB at 16 MHz and a slope of 20
dB/decade as shown in
Equation 6.39
FEXT coupling loss for multiple disturbers is also defined by an attenuation of

19.9 dB at 16 MHz and a slope of 20 dB/decade as shown in
Equation 6.40
Figure 6.70 shows corresponding NEXT and FEXT models.
Figure 6.70. 100-Meter Category 3 Twisted Pair NEXT and

FEXT Coupling Losses
According to the 100BaseT2 standards, the peak voltage corresponding to the
+2 signal level should be at around 1.8 V, and a normalized single nonzero
symbol should be within the mask limits as shown in Figure 6.71. Figure 6.72
shows corresponding PSDs without using any transmitter filter and with a FIR
digital filter whose coefficients are defined within the limits of the time domain
mask.
Figure 6.71. Time Domain Mask

Figure 6.72. Frequency Domain Template
The 100BaseT2 standards specify that the same two pairs of a four-pair
Category 3 cable should be connected for transmission as those defined for
10BaseT. In other words, one pair is connected to pins 1 and 2 and the other
pair is connected to pins 3 and 6 of an RJ45 connector for a conventional NIC
card. During autonegotiation, the transmit is connected to the pair of pins 1
and 2 and the receive is connected to the pair of pins 3 and 6. Similar rules of
10BaseT for crossover cable and hub side connection also apply.
6.5.2 Performance Estimation for 100BaseT2
A possible 100BaseT2 transceiver structure is shown in Figure 6.73. The

transmit path shown in the top part of Figure 6.73 consists of a pair of similar
circuits of transmit filter, D/A, and anti-aliasing filters. A pair of echo/NEXT
cancellers are connected in between the transmit and receive paths. For the
receive path, a pair of similar circuits is there for the receive filter, A/D,
channel equalizer, and symbol decision. The echo canceller, NEXT canceller, and
channel equalizer are all adaptive filters whose coefficients are identified
during the initialization process and updated continuously during normal
operation. Echo cancellers, NEXT cancellers, and feedback filters can operate
at the symbol rate of 25 MHz, while feedforward filters need to operate at a
higher rate, two to three times the symbol rate, to gain some noise
suppression capabilities. The bit mapper contains the pseudo-random sequence
generator, bit/sign scrambling, and signal-level mapping functions. The
demapper contains a synchronized pseudo-random sequence generator,
bit/sign descrambling, and bit mapping functions.
Figure 6.73. 100BaseT2 Transceiver Block Diagram
The theoretical performance of a 100BaseT2 transceiver under the worst-case

noise environment as defined by the standards can be analyzed by comparing
the SNR at the front of the receiver. Because of the use of NEXT cancellers, the
worst-case performance environment is dominated by the FEXT noise. Figure
6.74 shows receiver front-end signal and crosstalk PSDs for a frequency band
of 050 MHz. The 100-m Category 3 channel model and the single pair FEXT
model are used to generate these PSDs, respectively. The corresponding SNR
is shown in Figure 6.75. Based on these receiver front-end SNRs, the channel
capacity for the 100BaseT2 transmission environment is found using
Equation 6.41
Figure 6.74. Received Signal and Noise PSDs

At about 156 Mbps, the channel capacity is about three times the throughput
of the 100BaseT2 transmission protocol because each pair carries half of the
traffic.
Computer simulation can be used to study the performance of a typical

100BaseT2 transmission system under different channel and noise
environments. Figure 6.76 shows a 100BaseT2 Simulink model block diagram
representing one of two pairs at its highest hierarchical level. This Simulink
model consists of a random binary sequence generator as the signal source, a
100BaseT2 transmitter to convert the information sequence into a five-level
line voltage, another binary random sequence generator as the FEXT source,
another transmitter to convert the binary sequence to crosstalk noise, a
Category 3 twisted pair cable channel, and a 100BaseT2 receiver. Four scopes
are placed right after the information sequence, the transmitter, the channel,
and the receiver to collect simulation results.
Figure 6.76. 100BaseT2 Simulink Model
Figure 6.77 shows the internal structure of the Simulink model transmitter
consisting of a binary to four-level mapper, a sign scrambling function using a
random sequence generator, a unit negative gain, a switch, a transmit filter
function with an interpolation filter, a FIR filter, and a third-order Butterworth
low-pass antialiasing filter.
Figure 6.77. Transmitter Model
Figure 6.78 shows the internal structure of the bit to four-level mapper. The
input to the mapper is the binary data stream, and the output is the four-level,
2, 1, 0, and 1, line signal. The buffer converts the data stream to 2-bit wide
and the lookup table generates the line signal.
Figure 6.78. Bit-to-Line-Signal Mapper
Figure 6.79 shows the Category 3 channel model consisting of a digital

transfer function for the cable insertion loss, a digital transfer function for the
FEXT crosstalk noise coupling loss, and an additional FEXT attenuation. The
insertion loss block uses time domain channel impulse responses as defined in
the standards, which are MATLAB variables preloaded at the activation of this
Simulink simulation. The FEXT time domain impulse response of the standards
is used for the FEXT crosstalk model with the adjustment of additional 3-dB
loss by the FEXT attenuator. Only the effect of FEXT is considered because the
NEXT is virtually removed by adaptive cancellation circuits.
Figure 6.79. Channel Model
Figure 6.80 shows the internal structure of the Simulink model receiver
consisting of a down sampling filter, an adaptive decision feedback channel
equalizer, a five-level decision device, and a data bit demapper. For simplicity,
the echo and NEXT cancellation circuits are not included in this simulation
model. They can be constructed using adaptive filters.
Figure 6.80. Receiver Model

Figure 6.81 shows the internal structure of the adaptive equalizer consisting of
a fractionally spaced feedforward filter and a baud rate feedback filter. The
feedforward filter takes the input at twice the baud rate while updating its
coefficients at the baud rate. Two down-sampling filters are used to combine
the feedforward and feedback filters. In a practical system, coefficients of
these two filters are identified based on the idle constellation using the blind
adaptation technique during the initialization period. Some good initial values
are used for this simulation model to ensure a proper convergence under the
data constellation.
Figure 6.81. Adaptive Equalizer
Figure 6.82 shows the internal structure of the demapper model. The decoder
simply generates 1 if two consecutive inputs are not equal and 0 otherwise.
The sign descrambling function consists of a random sequence generator, a
delay element, a unit negative gain, and a switch. The descrambled signal
level is used to drive a two-dimensional lookup table for recovering the data
bit stream.
Figure 6.82. Bit Demapper

6.6 Autonegotiation
We have looked at four versions10BaseT, 100BaseT4, 100BaseTX, and

100BaseT2of twisted pairbased Ethernet transmission systems all using the
same RJ-45 connector. Although each system has its own unique physical layer
and different physical layers do not communicate with each other, it will be
very beneficial for a pair of Ethernet transceivers to at least recognize each
other and to find out the optimal common physical layer with which they can
communicate when they are connected. Because the 10BaseT transmission
system requires the simplest transceiver circuits, an autonegotiation procedure
has been defined in the Ethernet standards based on its link integrity test
pulse sequence, and no packet or upper layer protocol overhead is required.
The autonegotiation function allows Ethernet transceivers at both ends of a
link segment to advertise abilities, to acknowledge receipt and understanding
of common modes of operation that both devices share, and to reject the use
of operational modes that are not shared. Where more than one common
mode exists between the two devices, a Priority Resolution function is provided
to allow the devices to resolve to a single mode of operation. The
autonegotiation function also provides a Parallel Detection function to allow an
Ethernet transceiver to be recognized properly in case it may not have the
autonegotiation capability.
The Priority Resolution function includes Table 6.7, which represents the
relative priorities of different twisted pairbased Ethernet transmission systems,
where the system in the higher row poses the higher priority. The rationale for
this hierarchy is straightforward. 10BaseT is the lowest common denominator
and therefore has the lowest priority. Full-duplex solutions are always higher
in priority than their half-duplex counterparts. 100BaseT2 is ahead of
100BaseTX and 100BaseT4 because 100BaseT2 runs across a broader spectrum
of copper cabling and requires only two pairs. 100BaseT4 is ahead of
100BaseTX because 100BASET4 runs across a broader spectrum of copper
cabling. It should be noticed that the 1000BaseT transmission system,
although not examined here because it will probably not be used in homes in
the near future, has a higher priority than 100-Mbps technologies.
Table 6.7. Selection Priority
Type
100BaseT2 full duplex
100BaseTX full duplex

100BaseT2
100BaseT4
100BaseTX
10BaseT full duplex
10BaseT
The Parallel Detection function allows detection of Ethernet transceivers that

support 100BaseT4 and 100BaseTX but do not support the autonegotiation
procedure. Prior to detection of the autonegotiation capability, the transceiver
performs receive link integrity tests of corresponding Ethernet transmission
systems. The detected transmission system capability information is
incorporated into the following autonegotiation process. The Parallel Detection
of the 10BaseT transmission system is not required because it will be detected
during the autonegotiation procedure. The Parallel Detection of the 100BaseT2
transmission system is also not specified in the standards. When selecting the
highest common denominator through the Parallel Detection function, only the
half-duplex mode corresponding to the selected physical layer may
automatically be detected.
6.6.1 Link Test Pulse
For the original coaxial cablebased Ethernet, the transmission medium is

completely silent when there are no data packets to be transmitted from one
transceiver to the other. For 10BaseT and 100BaseT4 twisted pairbased
Ethernet, the medium is almost silent during the data idle state except for
some test pulses. Whenever 10BaseT is in the data idle state, a TP_IDL pulse is
transmitted after a period of silence, which is followed by a repeating sequence
of a 16 ± 8-ms period of silence and a link test pulse. TP-IDL and link test
pulses are defined in the time domain by mask templates as shown in Figures
6.83 and 6.84, respectively. The 10BaseT link pulse activity is also referred to
as the Normal Link Pulse (NLP) sequence.
Figure 6.83. TP_IDL Pulse Template (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

Figure 6.84. Link Test Pulse Template (From IEEE Std. 802.3.
The 100BaseT4 idle signal is similar to the 10BaseT idle signal, but with
100BaseT4 ternary signal levels and a faster repetition rate. The 100BaseT4
idle signal is called TP_IDL_100. The TP_IDL_100 signal is a repeating
sequence formed from one 1.2 ± 0.6-ms period of silence and one link test
pulse. Each link test pulse is a succession of two ternary symbols having
logical values of 1 and 1.
6.6.2 Fast Link Pulse

Autonegotiation's method of communication builds upon the link pulse
mechanism employed by 10BaseT to detect the status of the link. A 10BaseT
transceiver transmits link integrity test pulses as a mechanism to determine if
the link segment is operational in the absence of packet data. Autonegotiation
substitutes the Fast Link Pulse (FLP) burst for the single 10BaseT link integrity
test pulse within the NLP sequence as shown in Figure 6.85. The FLP burst
encodes the data that is used to perform the autonegotiation function.
Figure 6.85. FLP and NLP mapping (From IEEE Std. 802.3.
The first pulse in an FLP burst is always a clock pulse. Clock pulses within an
FLP burst are spaced at 125 ± 14 µs. A logic one is represented by a pulse
occurring 62.5 ± 7 µs after the preceding clock pulse. A logic zero is
represented by a mission pulse within two adjacent clock pulses at least 111
µs apart as shown in Figure 6.86. Each clock or data pulse lasts 100 ns. Each
FLP burst lasts 2 ms, and FLP bursts are scheduled 16 ms apart just like those
of NLPs.
Figure 6.86. FLP Encoding (From IEEE Std. 802.3. Copyright ©

2000 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
In each FLP burst, 16 bits of data can be encoded. Among these bits, the first 5
bits belong to the selector field, and the next 8 bits belong to the technology
ability field for the Base Link Code Word or Base Page as shown in Figure 6.87.
The selector field code is used to identify the type of standards and the code
for 802.3 Ethernet is 00001. The technology field encoding for the 802.3
selector is shown in Figure 6.88.
Figure 6.87. Base Page Encoding (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

Figure 6.88. Technology Field Encoding for Ethernet (From

The 14th bit, D13, of the Base Page is used for Remote Fault (RF) indication.
The 15th bit, D14, is an acknowledgment (Ack) to indicate that a device has
successfully received its Link Partner's Link Code Word. The 16th bit, D15, is
used for Next Page (NP). The NP is set to one if a transceiver is willing to
exchange a Next Page. The Next Page can have either a Message Page or an
Unformated Page encoding. The Message Page Encoding is shown in Figure
6.89. These first 11 bits of a message page belong to the Message Code Field.
The message code indicating the 100BaseT2 capability is 11100000000
starting with bit M0. In the message page, bit D11, Toggle (T) is used by the
arbitration function to ensure synchronization with the transceiver at the
other end during Next Page exchange. This bit shall always take the opposite
value of the Toggle bit in the previously exchanged page. The initial value of
the Toggle bit in the first Next Page transmitted is the inverse of bit 11 of the
base page. Bit D12, Acknowledge 2 (Ack2), is used by the Next Page function
to indicate that a device has the ability to comply with the message. Bit D13,
Message Page (MP), is used by the Next Page function to differentiate a
Message Page from an Unformated Page. MP is set to one for a message page.
Bit D14, Ack, is defined the same as for the Base Page. Bit D15, Next Page
(NP), is used by the Next Page function to indicate whether or not this is the
last Next Page to be transmitted. NP is set to zero if this is the last page.
Figure 6.89. Message Page Encoding (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

A transceiver can set its Ack bit to one after it receives three consecutive and
consistent FLP bursts from the other end. The arbitration function of the
transceiver can then compare its own capabilities with those at the other end
and determine the transmission method for both ends according to the same
priority resolution procedure. Initialization for that particular transmission
method can proceed to establish the communication link. The Parallel
Detection function should have already identified the transmission method of
the transceiver at the other end, if FLP bursts are not received, and the
transceiver can therefore start an initialization procedure.
6.7 Media Independent Interface
All Ethernet transmission systems defined by the 802.3 standards share the
same MAC protocol. The 802.3-defined MAC basically needs to know if the
medium is free before the transmission and if there is a collision during the
transmission. Therefore, different physical layers can be presented to the MAC
through a common interface encompassing these sensing and transmission
capabilities. A Media Independent Interface is defined in the Ethernet
standards to separate the common MAC function from different physical layer
transmission systems. This separation is very valuable to a multiple physical
layer capable Ethernet transceiver as well as to the organization of technology
development efforts. Besides these media-sensing and data-transmitting
capabilities, a management interface is also defined as a part of the MII to
enable functions such as autonegotiation.
The data transmitting capabilities of the MII include transmit clock, transmit
enable, transmit error, and 4 bits of transmit data, in the transmit direction,
and receive clock, receive enable, receive error, and 4 bits of receive data in
the receive direction. Because the transmit and receive paths are separate,
MII is capable of full-duplex operation. There are also a carrier sense pin and a
collision detection pin defined for media sensing. For management purposes, a
Management Data Clock (MDC) pin and a Management Data I/O (MDIO) pin
are defined, but a 40-pin connector is also defined in case that physical layer
and the MAC circuits are implemented separately. On this 40-pin connector, 4
power supply pins and 18 ground pins are also defined in addition to these 18
media sensing, data transmission, and management clock and I/O pins.
6.7.1 Data Interface
For the transmit path, the clock, TX_CLK, is supplied by the physical layer
(PHY) and can be present all the time. Because the data path is 4 bits wide,
the TX_CLK frequency is a quarter of the bit rate of a particular Ethernet
transmission system (i.e., 2.5 MHz for 10BaseT and 25 MHz for 100BaseT4,
100BaseTX, and 100BaseT2). The transmit enable, TX_EN, coincides with the
presence of data bits, TXD<3:0>, and they are all from the MAC. Meanwhile,
the carrier sense, CRS, detects the same transmission on the media by the
PHY and becomes active after a little delay as shown in Figure 6.90. Any
transmission error detected by the PHY is relayed to the MAC over the TX_ER
pin.
Figure 6.90. Transmit Timing Diagram (From IEEE Std. 802.3.
For the receive path, the clock, RX_CLK, can also be present all the time. The
RX_CLK frequency should also be one fourth of the transmission throughput
(i.e., 2.5 MHz for 10BaseT and 25 MHz for 100BaseT4, 100BaseTX, and
100BaseT2). The receive data valid, RX_DV, starts during the preamble and no
later than the Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) as shown in Figure 6.91. Any
receive error detected by the MAC is relayed to the PHY over the RX_ER pin.
All receive path signals are from the PHY.
Figure 6.91. Receive Timing Diagram (From IEEE Std. 802.3.

6.7.2 Management Interface
MDC is sent from the MAC to the PHY as the timing reference for transfer of
information on the MDIO signal. MDC is an aperiodic signal that has no
maximum high or low times. The minimum high and low times for MDC shall
be 160 ns each, and the minimum period for MDC shall be 400 ns. MDIO is a
bidirectional signal between the MAC and the PHY. It is used to transfer control
information and status. Control information is driven by the MAC
synchronously with respect to MDC and is sampled synchronously by the
physical layer. Status information is supplied by the PHY synchronously with
respect to MDC and is sampled synchronously by the MAC.
A management frame structure is defined in the standards for transferring

information over the MDIO as shown in Figure 6.92. The IDLE condition on
MDIO is a high-impedance state. At the beginning of each transaction, the
MAC sends a sequence of 32 contiguous logic one bits of preamble, PRE, on
MDIO with 32 corresponding cycles on MDC to provide the physical layer with
a pattern that it can use to establish synchronization. A physical layer shall
observe a sequence of 32 contiguous 1 bits on MDIO with 32 corresponding
cycles on MDC before it responds to any transaction. The start of frame, ST, is
indicated by a <01> pattern. This pattern ensures transitions from the default
logic one line state to zero and back to one. The operation code, OP, for a read
transaction is <10>, while the operation code for a write transaction is <01>.
The physical layer address, PHYAD, is 5 bits, allowing the identification of 32
different physical layer entities. The register address, REGAD, is also 5 bits,
allowing 32 individual registers to be addressed within each physical layer. The
register accessed at zero <00000> is the control register, and the register
accessed at one <00001> is the status register. The turnaround time, TA, is a
2-bit time spacing between the REGAD and DATA to avoid contention during a
read transaction. For a read transaction, both the MAC and the PHY remain in
a high-impedance state for the first bit time of the turnaround. The PHY drives
a 0 bit during the second bit time of the turnaround. During a write
transaction, the MAC drives a 1 bit for the first bit time of the turnaround and
a 0 bit for the second bit time of the turnaround. The data field, DATA, is 16
bits.
Figure 6.92. Management Frame Structure (From IEEE Std.

The MII has been very well adapted by the Ethernet manufacturers such that a
qualified stand-alone PHY device can be used in conjunction with any other
qualified MAC components over this interface.
6.8 MATLAB Files
6.8.1 CRC Process
gx=[1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
x=ceil(2*rand(1,8000)-1);
xs=~x(1:33);
for i=1:length(x)-33
if xs(1)~=0
xs=xor(xs,gx);
end
xs(1:32)=xs(2:33);
xs(33)=x(i+33);
end
fcs=~xs
6.8.2 Aloha and Slotted Aloha Simulation
%SIMULATION PARAMETERS
%simulation for pure Aloha protocol
%total simulation time in seconds
runtime=0.2;
%total number of stations
nstation=10;
%transmission throughput of the media in bits per second
netthrou=10e6;
%frame size in bits
fsize=8000;
%avarage frame arrival rate per second for each station
%frate=10;
for frate=1:5:150
%average frame arrival rate per simulation iteration
trh=frate/10000;
%random wait window in number of simulation iterations
wwind=100;
%EVENTS VARIABLES
%transmit active
tr=zeros(1,nstation);
%transmit queue
tq=zeros(1,nstation);
%transmit progress counter
tcnt=zeros(1,nstation);
%collision keeper
colis=zeros(1,10000*runtime);
%collision station index
colin=zeros(1,nstation);
%random wait after collision
rwait=zeros(1,nstation);
%transmit keeper
trkeep=zeros(nstation,10000*runtime);
%packet arrival keeper
pakeep=0;
for i=1:10000*runtime
for j=1:nstation
%check if the transmitter is active
if tr(j)==1
trkeep(j,i)=1;
end
%check if the packet has been sent
if tcnt(j)>0
tcnt(j)=tcnt(j)-1;
if tcnt(j)==0
tr(j)=0;
%check if the transmission is collision free
if colin(j)==1
rwait(j)=ceil(wwind*rand(1,1));
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
colin(j)=0;
end
end
else
if tq(j)>0 & rwait(j)==0
tr(j)=1;
tcnt(j)=ceil(fsize/netthrou*10000);
tq(j)=tq(j)-1;
end
end
%check if a new packet has arrived
pa=rand(1,1);
if pa<trh
pakeep=pakeep+1;
%if the transmit is ready
if tr(j)==0 & rwait(j)==0
tr(j)=1;
else
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
end
end
%decrease random waiting count
if rwait(j)>0
rwait(j)=rwait(j)-1;
end
end
%check for collision
if sum(tr)>1
colis(i)=1;
for k=1:nstation
if tr(k)==1
colin(k)=1;
end
end
end
end
px1(frate)=(pakeep-sum(tq));
py1(frate)=pakeep;
end
g1=[0:0.01:1.2];
s1=g1.*exp(-2*g1);
figure(1)
plot(px1*8000/runtime,py1*8000/runtime,'x',s1*1e7,g1*1e7,'-')
grid
xlabel('Throughput (bps)')
ylabel('Arrival Rate (bps)')
6.8.3 Slotted Aloha Simulation
%simulation for slotted Aloha protocol
runtime=0.2;
nstation=10;
netthrou=10e6;
%frame size in bits
fsize=8000;
%frate=10;
for frate=1:5:150
trh=frate/10000;
%random wait window
wwind=100;
%EVENTS VARIABLES
%transmit active
%transmit queue
%collision keeper
%transmit keeper
pakeep=0;
for j=1:nstation
if tr(j)==1
trkeep(j,i)=1;
end
if tcnt(j)>0
tcnt(j)=tcnt(j)-1;
if tcnt(j)==0
tr(j)=0;
if colin(j)==1
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
colin(j)=0;
end
end
else
if tq(j)>0 & rwait(j)==0 & mod(i,8)==0
tr(j)=1;
tq(j)=tq(j)-1;
end
end
pa=rand(1,1);
if pa<trh
pakeep=pakeep+1;
if tr(j)==0 & rwait(j)==0 & mod(i,8)==0
tr(j)=1;
else
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
end
end
if rwait(j)>0
end
end
if sum(tr)>1
colis(i)=1;
for k=1:nstation
if tr(k)==1
colin(k)=1;
end
end
end
end
py2(frate)=pakeep;
end
g2=[0:0.01:1.2];
s2=g2.*exp(-g2);
figure(2)
plot(px2*8000/runtime,py2*8000/runtime,'x',s2*1e7,g2*1e7,'-')
grid
6.8.4 CSMA/CD Simulation
%simulation for Ethernet protocol
runtime=0.2;
nstation=10;
netthrou=10e6;
%frame size in bits
fsize=8000;
%frate=10;
for frate=1:5:150
trh=frate/10000;
%random wait window
wwind=100;
%EVENTS VARIABLES
%transmit active
%transmit active at previous iteration
trp=zeros(1,nstation);
%transmit queue
%collision keeper
%transmit keeper
pakeep=0;
%save the media status
trp=tr;
for j=1:nstation
if tr(j)==1
trkeep(j,i)=1;
end
if tcnt(j)>0
if colin(j)==1
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
colin(j)=0;
tcnt(j)=0;
else
tcnt(j)=tcnt(j)-1;
end
if tcnt(j)==0
tr(j)=0;
end
else
if tq(j)>0 & rwait(j)==0 & sum(trp)==0
tr(j)=1;
tq(j)=tq(j)-1;
end
end
pa=rand(1,1);
if pa<trh
pakeep=pakeep+1;
if tr(j)==0 & rwait(j)==0 & sum(trp)==0
tr(j)=1;
else
tq(j)=tq(j)+1;
end
end
if rwait(j)>0
end
end
sum(tr)
if sum(tr)>1
colis(i)=1;
for k=1:nstation
if tr(k)==1
colin(k)=1;
end
end
end
end
py2(frate)=pakeep;
end
figure(1)
plot(px2*8000/runtime,py2*8000/runtime,'x')
grid
6.8.5 Model RLC Block
function [a,b,c,d]=blockabcd(r1,r2,r3,r4,r5,r6,l,c,f);
dm=length(f);
j=sqrt(-1);
jw=j*2*pi*f;
a1=ones(1,dm);
b1=r1*ones(1,dm);
c1=zeros(1,dm);
d1=ones(1,dm);
a2=ones(1,dm);
b2=r2+l*jw;
c2=zeros(1,dm);
d2=ones(1,dm);
a3=ones(1,dm);
b3=r3*ones(1,dm);
c3=zeros(1,dm);
d3=ones(1,dm);
a4=ones(1,dm);
b4=r4*ones(1,dm);
c4=zeros(1,dm);
d4=ones(1,dm);
a5=ones(1,dm);
b5=zeros(1,dm);
c5=ones(1,dm)./(r5+r6./(r6*c*jw+ones(1,dm)));
d5=ones(1,dm);
a12=(a1.*b2+b1.*a2)./(b1+b2);
b12=(b1.*b2)./(b1+b2);
c12=((b1+b2).*(c1+c2)-(a1-a2).*(d1-d2))./(b1+b2);
d12=(b1.*d2+d1.*b2)./(b1+b2);
a34=a3.*a4+b3.*c4;
b34=a3.*b4+b3.*d4;
c34=c3.*a4+d3.*c4;
d34=c3.*b4+d3.*d4;
a345=a34.*a5+b34.*c5;
b345=a34.*b5+b34.*d5;
c345=c34.*a5+d34.*c5;
d345=c34.*b5+d34.*d5;
a=(a12.*b345+b12.*a345)./(b12+b345);
b=(b12.*b345)./(b12+b345);
c=((b12+b345).*(c12+c345)-(a12-a345).*(d12-d345))./(b12+b345);
d=(b12.*d345+d12.*b345)./(b12+b345);
6.8.6 100-Meter Category 3 Channel Model
f=[1:1025]/1025*20e6;
r1=133;
r2=14;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=68.1;
r6=649;
l=5.6e-6;
c=560e-12;
[a1,b1,c1,d1]=blockabcd(r1,r2,r3,r4,r5,r6,l,c,f);
r1=2320;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=3.83;
r6=11300;
l=0.68e-6;
c=68e-12;
r1=14000;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=1;
r6=10000;
l=0.82e-6;
c=82e-12;
r1=22600;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=0;
r6=11800;
l=0.82e-6;
c=82e-12;
a12=a1.*a2+b1.*c2;
b12=a1.*b2+b1.*d2;
c12=c1.*a2+d1.*c2;
d12=c1.*b2+d1.*d2;
a34=a3.*a4+b3.*c4;
b34=a3.*b4+b3.*d4;
c34=c3.*a4+d3.*c4;
d34=c3.*b4+d3.*d4;
a1234=a12.*a34+b12.*c34;
b1234=a12.*b34+b12.*d34;
c1234=c12.*a34+d12.*c34;
d1234=c12.*b34+d12.*d34;
[imp,h]=abcd2hbk(a1234,b1234,c1234,d1234);
figure(1)
plot(f,20*log10(abs(h(1:1025))));
grid
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)')
6.8.7 100-Meter Category 3 Cable Model in s Format
%fisrt block
r1=133;
r2=14;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=68.1;
r6=649;
l=5.6e-6;
c=560e-12;
[aa,ba,ca,da,adn]=sablockclc(r1,r2,l);
aa=aa(2:3);
ba=ba(2:3);
ca=ca(2:3);
da=da(2:3);
adn=adn(2:3);
[ab,bb,cb,db,bdn]=sbblockclc(r3,r4,r5,r6,c);
[A1,B1,C1,D1,Dn1]=sblockclc(aa,ba,ca,da,adn,ab,bb,cb,db,bdn);
%second block
r1=2320;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=3.83;
r6=11300;
l=0.68e-6;
c=68e-12;
aa=aa(2:3);
ba=ba(2:3);
ca=ca(2:3);
da=da(2:3);
adn=adn(2:3);
%third block
r1=14000;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=1;
r6=10000;
l=0.82e-6;
c=82e-12;
aa=aa(2:3);
ba=ba(2:3);
ca=ca(2:3);
da=da(2:3);
adn=adn(2:3);
%fourth block
r1=22600;
r2=1;
r3=95.3;
r4=95.3;
r5=0;
r6=11800;
l=0.82e-6;
c=82e-12;
aa=aa(2:3);
ba=ba(2:3);
ca=ca(2:3);
da=da(2:3);
adn=adn(2:3);
a12=conv(A1,A2)+conv(B1,C2);
b12=conv(A1,B2)+conv(B1,D2);
c12=conv(C1,A2)+conv(D1,C2);
d12=conv(C1,B2)+conv(D1,D2);
dn12=conv(Dn1,Dn2);
a123=conv(a12,A3)+conv(b12,C3);
b123=conv(a12,B3)+conv(b12,D3);
c123=conv(c12,A3)+conv(d12,C3);
d123=conv(c12,B3)+conv(d12,D3);
dn123=conv(dn12,Dn3);
a1234=conv(a123,A4)+conv(b123,C4);
b1234=conv(a123,B4)+conv(b123,D4);
c1234=conv(c123,A4)+conv(d123,C4);
d1234=conv(c123,B4)+conv(d123,D4);
dn1234=conv(dn123,Dn4);
f=[1:200]/200*20e6;
hsn=200*dn1234;
hsd=100*100*c1234+100*d1234+100*a1234+b1234;
h=freqs(hsn,hsd,2*pi*f);
figure(1)
plot(f,20*log10(abs(h)))
grid
function [aa,ba,ca,da,adn]=sablockclc(r1,r2,l);
a1=1;
b1=r1;
c1=0;
d1=1;
dn1=1;
a2=[0 1];
b2=[l r2];
c2=[0 0];
d2=[0 1];
dn2=[0 1];
b1pb2=conv(b1,dn2)+conv(b2,dn1);
c1pc2=conv(c1,dn2)+conv(c2,dn1);
a1ma2=conv(a1,dn2)-conv(a2,dn1);
d1md2=conv(d1,dn2)-conv(d2,dn1);
b1b2=conv(b1,b2);
b1d2pd1b2=conv(b1,d2)+conv(d1,b2);
a1b2pb1a2=conv(a1,b2)+conv(b1,a2);
dn12=conv(dn1,dn2);
adn=conv(b1pb2,dn12);
ca=conv(b1pb2,c1pc2)-conv(a1ma2,d1md2);
aa=conv(a1b2pb1a2,dn12);
ba=conv(b1b2,dn12);
da=conv(b1d2pd1b2,dn12);
function [ab,bb,cb,db,bdn]=sbblockclc(r3,r4,r5,r6,c);
a3=1;
b3=r3;
c3=0;
d3=1;
dn3=1;
a4=[r6*r5*c r5+r6];
b4=[0 0];
c4=[r6*c 1];
d4=[r6*r5*c r5+r6];
dn4=[r6*r5*c r5+r6];
a5=1;
b5=r4;
c5=0;
d5=1;
dn5=1;
a34=conv(a3,a4)+conv(b3,c4);
b34=conv(a3,b4)+conv(b3,d4);
c34=conv(c3,a4)+conv(d3,c4);
d34=conv(c3,b4)+conv(d3,d4);
dn34=conv(dn3,dn4);
ab=conv(a34,a5)+conv(b34,c5);
bb=conv(a34,b5)+conv(b34,d5);
cb=conv(c34,a5)+conv(d34,c5);
db=conv(c34,b5)+conv(d34,d5);
bdn=conv(dn34,dn5);
function [A1,B1,C1,D1,Dn1]=sblockclc(aa,ba,ca,da,adn,ab,bb,cb,db,bdn
%Parallel matrix calculation
bapbb=conv(ba,bdn)+conv(bb,adn);
capcb=conv(ca,bdn)+conv(cb,adn);
aamab=conv(aa,bdn)-conv(ab,adn);
damdb=conv(da,bdn)-conv(db,adn);
babb=conv(ba,bb);
badbdabb=conv(ba,db)+conv(da,bb);
aabbpbaab=conv(aa,bb)+conv(ba,ab);
abdn=conv(adn,bdn);
dn1=conv(bapbb,abdn);
c1=conv(bapbb,capcb)-conv(aamab,damdb);
a1=conv(aabbpbaab,abdn);
b1=conv(babb,abdn);
d1=conv(badbdabb,abdn);
%remove zeros at the highest order
if a1(1)==0
a1=a1(2:length(a1));
b1=b1(2:length(b1));
c1=c1(2:length(c1));
d1=d1(2:length(d1));
dn1=dn1(2:length(dn1));
end
%remove common roots
a1norm=a1(1);
b1norm=b1(1);
c1norm=c1(1);
d1norm=d1(1);
dn1norm=dn1(1);
a1n=a1/a1norm;
b1n=b1/b1norm;
c1n=c1/c1norm;
d1n=d1/d1norm;
dn1n=dn1/dn1norm;
rtn=roots(a1n);
rtd=roots(dn1n);
n=0;
for i=1:length(rtn)
for j=1:length(rtd)
if abs(rtn(i)-rtd(j))<1e-3
n=n+1;
compoly(n,:)=[1 -rtn(i)];
end
end
end
for i=1:n
a1n=deconv(a1n,compoly(i,:));
b1n=deconv(b1n,compoly(i,:));
c1n=deconv(c1n,compoly(i,:));
d1n=deconv(d1n,compoly(i,:));
dn1n=deconv(dn1n,compoly(i,:));
end
A1=a1n*a1norm;
B1=b1n*b1norm;
C1=c1n*c1norm;
D1=d1n*d1norm;
Dn1=dn1n*dn1norm;
6.8.8 Four-Pair Category 5 Cable Crosstalk Model in s

Format
%first block
R11=200e3;
R12=18e3;
R13=3e3;
R14=3e3;
R15=0.04e3;
R16=200e3;
C1=0.35e-12;
L1=3.8e-6;
a1=1;
b1=R11;
c1=0;
d1=1;
dn1=1;
a2=[C1 0];
b2=[R12*C1 1];
c2=[0 0];
d2=[C1 0];
dn2=[C1 0];
b1pb2=conv(b1,dn2)+conv(b2,dn1);
c1pc2=conv(c1,dn2)+conv(c2,dn1);
a1ma2=conv(a1,dn2)-conv(a2,dn1);
d1md2=conv(d1,dn2)-conv(d2,dn1);
b1b2=conv(b1,b2);
b1d2pd1b2=conv(b1,d2)+conv(d1,b2);
a1b2pb1a2=conv(a1,b2)+conv(b1,a2);
dn12=conv(dn1,dn2);
adn=conv(b1pb2,dn12);
ca=conv(b1pb2,c1pc2)-conv(a1ma2,d1md2);
aa=conv(a1b2pb1a2,dn12);
ba=conv(b1b2,dn12);
da=conv(b1d2pd1b2,dn12);
if adn(3)==0 | ca(3)==0 | ba(3)==0 | aa(3)==0 | da(3)==0
aa=aa(1:2);
ba=ba(1:2);
ca=ca(1:2);
da=da(1:2);
adn=adn(1:2);
end
a3=1;
b3=R13;
c3=0;
d3=1;
dn3=1;
a4=[(R15+R16)*L1 R15*R16];
b4=[0 0];
c4=[L1 R16];
d4=[(R15+R16)*L1 R15*R16];
dn4=[(R15+R16)*L1 R15*R16];
a5=1;
b5=R14;
c5=0;
d5=1;
dn5=1;
a34=conv(a3,a4)+conv(b3,c4);
b34=conv(a3,b4)+conv(b3,d4);
c34=conv(c3,a4)+conv(d3,c4);
d34=conv(c3,b4)+conv(d3,d4);
dn34=conv(dn3,dn4);
ab=conv(a34,a5)+conv(b34,c5);
bb=conv(a34,b5)+conv(b34,d5);
cb=conv(c34,a5)+conv(d34,c5);
db=conv(c34,b5)+conv(d34,d5);
bdn=conv(dn34,dn5);
bapbb=conv(ba,bdn)+conv(bb,adn);
capcb=conv(ca,bdn)+conv(cb,adn);
aamab=conv(aa,bdn)-conv(ab,adn);
damdb=conv(da,bdn)-conv(db,adn);
babb=conv(ba,bb);
badbdabb=conv(ba,db)+conv(da,bb);
aabbpbaab=conv(aa,bb)+conv(ba,ab);
abdn=conv(adn,bdn);
dn=conv(bapbb,abdn);
c=conv(bapbb,capcb)-conv(aamab,damdb);
a=conv(aabbpbaab,abdn);
b=conv(babb,abdn);
d=conv(badbdabb,abdn);
f=[1:200]/200*40e6;
hsn=20000*dn;
hsd=10000*10000*c+10000*d+10000*a+b;
nnorm=hsn(1);
hsnn=hsn/nnorm;
rtn=roots(hsnn);
dnorm=hsd(1);
hsdn=hsd/dnorm;
rtd=roots(hsdn);
n=0;
for i=1:size(rtn)
for j=1:size(rtd)
if abs(rtn(i)-rtd(j))<1e-6
n=n+1;
compoly(n,:)=[1 -rtn(i)];
end
end
end
for i=1:n
hsnn=deconv(hsnn,compoly(i,:));
hsdn=deconv(hsdn,compoly(i,:));
end
h=freqs(hsn,hsd,2*pi*f);
hsnn=nnorm*hsnn;
hsdn=dnorm*hsdn;
ndnorm=hsnn(length(hsnn));
hsnn=hsnn/ndnorm;
hsdn=hsdn/ndnorm;
h1=freqs(hsnn,hsdn,2*pi*f);
cstkmdl=-26+15*log10(f/1e7);
figure(1)
plot(f,cstkmdl,f,20*log10(abs(h1)))
grid
6.8.9 100BaseT4 PSD Calculation
x=[-2:0.125:2];
pmask=sin(pi*x)./(pi*x).*cos(pi*x)./(1-4*x.^2);
pmask(17)=1;
pmask(13)=(pmask(12)+pmask(14))/2;
pmask(21)=(pmask(20)+pmask(22))/2;
[B,A]=butter(3,0.25);
pmask=filter(B,A,[pmask 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]);
btsq=[3 1 2 2 3 1
2 3 1 3 1 2
3 1 2 3 1 2
1 2 3 3 1 2
1 2 3 2 3 1
2 3 1 1 2 3
3 1 2 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 3 2 2 3 1
2 1 3 3 1 2
1 3 2 3 1 2
3 2 1 3 1 2
3 2 1 2 3 1
2 1 3 1 2 3
1 3 2 1 2 3
3 2 1 1 2 3
3 2 3 1 1 2
3 3 2 1 2 1
3 2 3 1 2 1
2 3 3 1 2 1
2 3 3 1 1 2
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 2 3 2 1 1
2 3 3 2 1 1
2 3 1 2 3 1
2 3 1 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 3 1
2 3 1 2 2 3
2 1 3 2 2 3
2 1 3 3 3 1
2 1 3 2 1 3
2 1 3 2 3 1
2 2 1 3 3 1
1 1 3 2 2 3
3 3 1 2 3 1
3 3 1 2 1 3
2 2 3 2 1 3
2 2 3 2 3 1
2 2 1 2 2 3
1 1 3 3 3 1
1 2 1 3 3 2
1 1 2 3 2 3
1 2 1 3 2 3
2 1 1 3 2 3
2 1 1 3 3 2
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 1 2 3 3
2 1 1 2 3 3
3 1 2 2 1 3
2 3 1 1 3 2
3 1 2 1 3 2
1 2 3 1 3 2
1 2 3 2 1 3
2 3 1 3 2 1
3 1 2 3 2 1
1 2 3 3 2 1
1 3 2 2 1 3
2 1 3 1 3 2
1 3 2 1 3 2
3 2 1 1 3 2
3 2 1 2 1 3
2 1 3 3 2 1
1 3 2 3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 3 2 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 2
3 2 3 2 1 2
2 3 3 2 1 2
2 3 3 2 2 1
3 3 2 1 2 2
3 2 3 1 2 2
2 3 3 1 2 2
2 2 2 3 2 2
2 2 2 1 3 3
2 2 2 3 1 3
2 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2 1 3 2
2 2 2 1 2 3
2 2 2 3 1 2
2 2 2 3 2 1
3 2 3 1 1 3
3 3 2 1 3 1
3 2 3 1 3 1
2 3 3 1 3 1
2 3 3 1 1 3
3 3 2 3 1 1
3 2 3 3 1 1
2 3 3 3 1 1
3 3 3 2 1 1
3 3 3 1 2 1
3 3 3 1 1 2
3 3 2 1 1 2
3 3 2 1 1 3
3 3 2 2 2 1
1 1 3 3 3 2
2 2 1 3 3 2
2 1 2 3 3 2
2 2 1 3 2 3
2 1 2 3 2 3
1 2 2 3 2 3
1 2 2 3 3 2
2 2 1 2 3 3
2 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 2 2 3 3
1 3 1 3 3 2
1 1 3 3 2 3
1 3 1 3 2 3
3 1 1 3 2 3
3 1 1 3 3 2
1 1 3 2 3 3
1 3 1 2 3 3
3 1 1 2 3 3
1 3 3 2 2 2
3 1 3 2 2 2
3 3 1 2 2 2
2 2 3 2 2 2
1 2 3 2 2 2
2 1 3 2 2 2
3 2 1 2 2 2
2 3 1 2 2 2
2 1 1 3 3 3
1 2 1 3 3 3
1 1 2 3 3 3
1 1 2 3 3 2
3 3 1 2 2 1
2 2 3 2 2 1
3 3 1 1 1 3
2 2 3 1 1 3
3 1 3 2 2 1
3 3 1 2 1 2
3 1 3 2 1 2
1 3 3 2 1 2
1 3 3 2 2 1
3 3 1 1 2 2
3 1 3 1 2 2
1 3 3 1 2 2
2 3 2 2 2 1
2 2 3 2 1 2
2 3 2 2 1 2
3 2 2 2 1 2
3 2 2 2 2 1
2 2 3 1 2 2
2 3 2 1 2 2
3 2 2 1 2 2
3 1 3 1 1 3
3 3 1 1 3 1
3 1 3 1 3 1
1 3 3 1 3 1
1 3 3 1 1 3
3 3 1 3 1 1
3 1 3 3 1 1
1 3 3 3 1 1
2 3 2 1 1 3
2 2 3 1 3 1
2 3 2 1 3 1
3 2 2 1 3 1
3 2 2 1 1 3
2 2 3 3 1 1
2 3 2 3 1 1
3 2 2 3 1 1
2 1 2 3 3 1
2 2 1 3 1 3
2 1 2 3 1 3
1 2 2 3 1 3
1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 1 1 3 3
2 1 2 1 3 3
1 2 2 1 3 3
1 3 1 3 3 1
1 1 3 3 1 3
1 3 1 3 1 3
3 1 1 3 1 3
3 1 1 3 3 1
1 1 3 1 3 3
1 3 1 1 3 3
3 1 1 1 3 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
2 2 1 2 3 2
2 1 2 2 3 2
1 2 2 2 3 2
1 2 2 2 2 3
2 2 1 3 2 2
2 1 2 3 2 2
1 2 2 3 2 2
1 3 1 2 2 3
1 1 3 2 3 2
1 3 1 2 3 2
3 1 1 2 3 2
3 1 1 2 2 3
1 1 3 3 2 2
1 3 1 3 2 2
3 1 1 3 2 2
3 1 3 2 3 1
3 3 1 3 1 2
3 1 3 3 1 2
1 3 3 3 1 2
1 3 3 2 3 1
3 3 1 1 2 3
3 1 3 1 2 3
1 3 3 1 2 3
2 3 2 2 3 1
2 2 3 3 1 2
2 3 2 3 1 2
3 2 2 3 1 2
3 2 2 2 3 1
2 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 2 1 2 3
3 2 2 1 2 3
3 1 3 2 1 3
3 3 1 1 3 2
3 1 3 1 3 2
1 3 3 1 3 2
1 3 3 2 1 3
3 3 1 3 2 1
3 1 3 3 2 1
1 3 3 3 2 1
2 3 2 2 1 3
2 2 3 1 3 2
2 3 2 1 3 2
3 2 2 1 3 2
3 2 2 2 1 3
2 2 3 3 2 1
2 3 2 3 2 1
3 2 2 3 2 1
3 1 2 3 3 1
2 3 1 3 1 3
3 1 2 3 1 3
1 2 3 3 1 3
1 2 3 3 3 1
2 3 1 1 3 3
3 1 2 1 3 3
1 2 3 1 3 3
1 3 2 3 3 1
2 1 3 3 1 3
1 3 2 3 1 3
3 2 1 3 1 3
3 2 1 3 3 1
2 1 3 1 3 3
1 3 2 1 3 3
3 2 1 1 3 3
3 1 2 2 2 3
2 3 1 2 3 2
3 1 2 2 3 2
1 2 3 2 3 2
1 2 3 2 2 3
2 3 1 3 2 2
3 1 2 3 2 2
1 2 3 3 2 2
1 3 2 2 2 3
2 1 3 2 3 2
1 3 2 2 3 2
3 2 1 2 3 2
3 2 1 2 2 3
2 1 3 3 2 2
1 3 2 3 2 2
3 2 1 3 2 2];
pspc=zeros(1,1024);
pspc1=zeros(1,1024);
for i=1:256
swave=zeros(1,24);
swave1=zeros(1,84);
for j=1:6
swindx=(j-1)*4+1;
swindx1=(j-1)*8+1;
if btsq(i,j)==1
swave(swindx:swindx+3)=-ones(1,4);
swave1(swindx1:swindx1+39)=swave1(swindx1:swindx1+39)-pmask;
end
if btsq(i,j)==3
swave(swindx:swindx+3)=ones(1,4);
swave1(swindx1:swindx1+39)=swave1(swindx1:swindx1+39)+pmask;
end
end
pspc=pspc+abs(fft(swave,1024));
pspc1=pspc1+abs(fft(swave1,1024));
end
pspc=pspc/256;
pspc=pspc.^2*3.5^2/100/0.001/25e6/24;
pspc1=pspc1/256;
pspc1=pspc1.^2*3.5^2/100/0.001/25e6/48;
px=[1:512]/512*5e7;
px1=[1:256]/256*5e7;
py1=10*log10(abs(pspc(1:512)));
py2=10*log10(abs(pspc1(1:256)));
figure(2)
plot(px,py1,px1,py2)
grid
ylabel('Magnitude (dBm/Hz)')
6.8.10 Channel Capacity Calculation for the 100BaseT4

Environment
schannel2
t4mask
absh=20*log10(abs(h(1:256)));
logpsd=10*log10(pspc1(1:256));
rcv=logpsd+absh;
PCS=21.4-15*log10(f/12.5e6);
crsn=logpsd-PCS;
SNR=absh+PCS;
for i=1:256
if rcv(i)<-140
rcv(i)=-140;
end
end
for i=1:256
if crsn(i)<-140
crsn(i)=-140;
end
end
plot(f,rcv,f,crsn)
capci=sum(log2(1+10.^(SNR/10)))*25e6/256
6.8.11 100BaseTX PSD Calculation
%lowpass filter in s domain

r1=1210;
c1=56e-12;
c2=180e-12;
l1=700e-9;
l2=900e-9;
m1a=1;
m1b=0;
m1c=1/r1;
m1d=1;
m2a=[0 1];
m2b=[0 0];
m2c=[c1 0];
m2d=[0 1];
m3a=[0 1];
m3b=[l1 0];
m3c=[0 0];
m3d=[0 1];
m4a=[0 1];
m4b=[0 0];
m4c=[c2 0];
m4d=[0 1];
m5a=[0 1];
sm5b=[l2 0];
m5c=[0 0];
m5d=[0 1];
m6a=m4a;
m6b=m4b;
m6c=m4c;
m6d=m4d;
m7a=m3a;
m7b=m3b;
m7c=m3c;
m7d=m3d;
m8a=m2a;
m8b=m2b;
m8c=m2c;
m8d=m2d;
m12a=m1a*m2a+m1b*m2c;
m12b=m1a*m2b+m1b*m2d;
m12c=m1c*m2a+m1d*m2c;
m12d=m1c*m2b+m1d*m2d;
m13a=conv(m12a,m3a)+conv(m12b,m3c);
m13b=conv(m12a,m3b)+conv(m12b,m3d);
m13c=conv(m12c,m3a)+conv(m12d,m3c);
m13d=conv(m12c,m3b)+conv(m12d,m3d);
f=[1:1024]/1024*2.5e8;
hsn=200;
hsd=100*100*m18c+100*m18d+100*m18a+m18b;
hf=freqs(hsn,hsd,2*pi*f);
loghf=20*log10(abs(hf));
%calculating PSD
x=ceil(rand(256,256)*2-1);
t4b5b=[1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1];
pspc=zeros(1,2048);
for i=1:256
%4b5b encoding
for j=1:4:256
xin=x(i,j:j+3);
xind=xin(1)*8+xin(2)*4+xin(3)*2+xin(4)+1;
xout=t4b5b(xind,:);
jj=1+(j-1)/4*5;
y(jj:jj+4)=xout;
end
xlin=zeros(1,321);
slv=0;
%MLT3 encoding
for j=1:320
if y(j)==1
if slv==0
xlin(j+1)=xlin(j)+1;
if xlin(j+1)>1
slv=1;
xlin(j+1)=0;
end
else
xlin(j+1)=xlin(j)-1;
if xlin(j+1)<-1
slv=0;
xlin(j+1)=0;
end
end
else
xlin(j+1)=xlin(j);
end
end
%To four times of sampling rate with proper rising time
xlinl=zeros(1,1281);
for j=1:319
xlinl(j*4+1:j*4+5)=xlinl(j*4+1:j*4+5)+xlin(j+1)*[0.5 1 1 1 0
end
pspc=pspc+abs(fft(xlinl,2048));
end
pspc=pspc/256;
pspc=pspc.^2/100/0.001/125e6/4;
figure(1)
logpspc=10*log10(pspc(1:1024));
loghfpspc=loghf+logpspc;
for i=1:1024
if loghfpspc(i)<-100
loghfpspc(i)=-100;
end
end
plot(f(1:511),logpspc(1:511),f(1:511),loghfpspc(1:511))
grid
ylabel('PSD (dBm/Hz)')
6.8.12 Channel Capacity Calculation for the 100BaseTX
Environment
a=7.26e-7;
b=4.56e-12;
f=[1:1024]/1024*2.5e8;
d4=300;
H4=-8.68*d4*(a*sqrt(f)+b*f);
C1=-35+15*log10(f/16e6);
txmask
rcv=loghfpspc+H4;
crsn=loghfpspc+C1;
SNR=H4-C1;
figure(1)
plot(f(1:200),rcv(1:200),f(1:200),crsn(1:200))
grid
figure(2)
plot(f(1:200),SNR(1:200))
grid
ylabel('SNR (dB)')
capci=sum(log2(1+10.^(SNR(1:200)/10)))*5e7/200
6.8.13 100BaseTX Descrambler Synchronization
%generating idle sequence of all 1's

x=ones(2048,1);
%Initialize the scrambling key
s=[1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%generating scrambled idle stream
for i=1:2048
s(2:12)=s(1:11);
s(1)=xor(s(12), s(10));
y(i)=xor(x(i), s(1));
end
%initialize scrambled sequence
c=y(1:11);
i=11;
sync=0;
%reset hypothesis
h=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
while sync==0
i=i+1
%update scrambled sequence
c(2:12)=c(1:11);
c(1)=y(i);
%update hypothesis
h(2:11)=h(1:10);
h(1)=xor(c(1), xor(c(10), c(12)));
%pattern match
if h==[1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1]
d=xor(c(1:11), h)
sync=1;
end
end
%descramble the idle stream
for j=i:2048
d(2:12)=d(1:11);
d(1)=xor(d(12), d(10));
xx(j)=xor(y(j), d(1));
end
6.8.14 100BaseT2 PSD Calculation
%calculating PSD
pspc=zeros(1024,1);
pspcf=zeros(1024,1);
for ii=1:256
x=ceil(rand(256,3)*2-1);
for i=1:256
if x(i,1)==0
xa=-1;
xb=0;
else
xa=1;
xb=-2;
end
if x(i,2)==0
xl(i)=xa;
else
xl(i)=xb;
end
if x(i,3)==1
xl(i)=xl(i)*(-1);
end
end
xl=0.9*xl;
xll=zeros(1024,1);
xll(1:4:1024)=xl;
tfilt=[0.36 0.8 1 0.75 0.26];
xlf=conv(xll,tfilt);
xll(2:4:1024)=xl;
xll(3:4:1024)=xl;
xll(4:4:1024)=xl;
pspc=pspc+abs(fft(xll,1024));
pspcf=pspcf+abs(fft(xlf(3:1026),1024));
end
pspc=pspc/256;
pspc=pspc.^2/100/0.001/5e7/4;
pspcf=pspcf/256;
pspcf=pspcf.^2/100/0.001/5e7/4;
figure(1)
logpspc=10*log10(pspc(1:513));
logpspcf=10*log10(pspcf(1:513));
f=[1:513]/513*5e7;
plot(f,logpspc,f,logpspcf)
grid
6.8.15 100BaseT2 Channel, NEXT, and FEXT Models
a=1.537e-6;
b=4.55e-12;
f=[1:513]/513*100e6;
l=100;
j=sqrt(-1);
H=exp(-((1+j)*a*sqrt(pi.*f)+b*2*pi*f)*l).*10^(-1.2/20);
figure(1)
plot(f(1:128),20*log10(abs(H(1:128))))
H(1024:-1:514)=real(H(2:512))-j*imag(H(2:512));
ht=real(ifft(H));
figure(2)
plot([1:100]/200e6,ht(1:100));
NEXT=19.3-16.6*log10(f/16e6);
FEXT=20.9-20*log10(f/16e6);
figure(3)
plot(f(1:128),-NEXT(1:128),f(1:128),-FEXT(1:128))
grid
ylabel('Crosstalk Losses (dB)')
6.8.16 Channel Capacity Calculation for the 100BaseT2

Environment
t2mask
cat3channel
logh=20*log10(abs(H(1:513)));
SNR=logh+FEXT;
figure(1)
plot(f,SNR)
capci=sum(log2(1+10.^(SNR/10)))*100e6/513
figure(2)
plot(f,logh'+logpspcf,f,logpspcf-FEXT')
6.9 References
1. Mischa Schwartz, Telecommunication Networks, Protocol, Modeling and

Analysis, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987.
2. www.national.com/pf/DP/DP83907.html
3. J. Everitt, J. F. Parker, P. Hurst, D. Nack, and K. R. Konda, "A CMOS

transceiver for 10-Mb/s and 100-Mb/s Ethernet," IEEE Journal of Solid State-
Circuit, vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 21692177, December 1998.
4. K. Mueller and M. Muller, "Timing recovery in digital synchronous data

receivers," IEEE Trans. on Comm., vol. COM-24, no. 5, pp. 516531, May 1976.
5. Y. Sato, "A method of self-recovering equalization for multilevel amplitude-

modulation systems," IEEE Trans. on Comm., no. 6, pp. 679682, June 1975.
Chapter 7. HomePNA
Original Ethernet transceivers, such as those of 10BaseT, were based on simple
line codes without signal processing and coding techniques. Consequently,
dedicated (point-to-point) copper transmission media (twisted pair) needs to
be installed. Using advanced signal-processing and -coding techniques provides
dedicated twisted pair wiring more transmission capability and enables a home
network to be built on a relatively low transmission quality in-house telephone
wiring. The in-house wiring is usually of Category 3 cable quality or worse,
sometimes without much twist. Furthermore, most in-house telephone wiring
has a star daisy-chain topology. With a few wiring branches connected at the
telephone service entrance point, all telephone jacks are interconnected at
different locations of these branches. This star daisy-chain topology produces
many more reflections compared with that of point-to-point topology. Signal-
processing techniques such as channel equalization are very effective at
compensating channel distortions caused by reflections. Much like the original
coaxial cablebased Ethernet, a home network using in-house wiring as its
transmission medium transmits packets on demand. Therefore, the enabling
echo cancellation technique necessary for the full-duplex operation is not
required.
After standards are established for DSL systems, many companies rushed
ahead competing for the most effective realization of practical systems. Some
other companies looked around for alternative markets applying the general
idea and similar technology. Companies such as Tut Systems and Epigram, now
a home network division of Broadcom, found the in-house wiring a very
attractive transmission medium to which to apply advanced transceiver
technologies. After extensive internal development by many companies, an
industrial consortium called HomePNA was formed to promote the in-house
wiring-based transmission technologies. Tut Systems' Pulse Position Modulation
system was selected as the HomePNA 1.0 line code [1]. Although no extensive
signal-processing techniques were used, the PPM line code is relatively
effective at combating impairments such as reflection and noise commonly
found in this particular home environment. Epigram's QAM line code was later
selected as the standard for HomePNA 2.0 [2]. Adaptive equalization and
spectrum reuse through FDQAM (Frequency Diverse QAM) enable HomePNA
2.0 to achieve a transmission throughput of up to 10 Mbps over common in-
house telephone wiring. Through the duplication of the HomePNA 1.0
mechanism, HomePNA 2.0 is also backward-compatible. Home PNA 2.0
transceivers can talk to previously deployed HomePNA 1.0 transceivers.
7.1 HomePNA 1.0
The idea of an existing telephone wiringbased home network system was

originated from Tut System. Matt Taylor, the founder of Tut System, worked
with his engineers to develop a proper signaling method over the home
telephone wiring system. They had constructed a patch panel with telephone
cables of different lengths to emulate some worst-case topologies. They found
that the channel dispersion becomes a major impairment when the pulse-
signaling rate approaches 200 kHz. To carry more information bits per
signaling symbol while avoiding extensive signal processing, the PPM was
used. In a PPM system, the time interval between adjacent pulses is slightly
different depending upon the encoded information. The next pulse's position
starts when the reflection becomes negligible. A number of next pulse
positions are located to represent data bits to be transmitted. Two positions
can be used to carry 1 bit, four positions carry 2 bits, eight positions carry 4
bits, and so on. Furthermore, Tut Systems' HomePNA 1.0 proposal has used
the Run Length Limited (RLL) codes to increase the coding efficiency by about
10%.
7.1.1 Summary of HomePNA 1.0 Specifications
The HomePNA 1.0 signaling method can be analyzed by examining its general
frame structure as shown in Figure 7.1. A HomePNA 1.0 transmitter
encapsulates the binary information of an Ethernet packet by adding a header
to it. The header consists of eight synchronization symbols followed by two
data training symbols and a Proprietary Communication (Reserved), or PCOM,
period. This header replaces the preamble and Start Frame Delimiter of the
Ethernet packet. Symbol 0 is the null synchronization symbol consisting of two
pulses. Symbols 1 through 4 carry transceiver Access ID (AID) information.
With each AID symbol carrying 2 bits, a total of 8 bits are allocated for AID.
This leads to 256 different AID combinations. Symbols 5 and 6 are used for
transmitting remote control management commands across the network.
Symbol 7 is a silence interval. On the other hand, many more data bits are
encoded into an equivalent synchronization symbol interval. Because of the
run length encoding, there is no exact timing boundary for every data-bits-
carrying symbol. The end symbol is a nonvalid data symbol with the pulse
position anywhere beyond those defined for data symbols. Training symbols
and the PCOM period (all zeros by default) are defined by operation
procedures through the management layer.
Figure 7.1. HomePNA 1.0 Frame Structure (From HomePNA
specification 1.0. Copyright © 1998 HomePNA. All rights
reserved.)
This frame structure is established on a timing base called TIC (Time Interval
Clock). A TIC is equal to 7/60 x 106 seconds. Each synchronization symbol
occupies a fixed time period of 129 TICs. Synchronization symbol zero has one
pulse at TIC = 0 and a second pulse at TIC = 126. For AID symbols 1 to 6, two
bits are encoded for each symbol. Pulse positions for AID symbols are defined
20 TICs apart. Pulse position 1 of an AID symbol is at TIC 66 representing the
bit combination of 00, pulse position 2 is at TIC 86 representing 01, pulse
position 3 is at TIC 106 representing 10, and pulse position 4 is at TIC 126
representing 11.
Two transmission throughputs, high rate and low rate, are defined for the
HomePNA 1.0 by different data symbol pulse starting positions. The same
header structure and synchronization symbols are used for both rates. In
contrast, pulse positions for data symbols are defined only one TIC apart.
There are 32 (031) pulse positions defined for the purpose of data symbol
encoding. Pulse position 0 is defined at TIC 28 and TIC 44 for high rate and
low rate, respectively. The next position is one TIC away (i.e., pulse position 1
is at either TIC 29 or TIC 45). The counting of TICs starts from the time of the
previous pulse position. If all 32 pulse positions are used, 5 bits of information
can be carried by each symbol with the conventional PPM encoding method.
However, only pulse positions 0 to 24 are valid for data encoding.
This results in a slightly lower transmission throughput (i.e., 4.64 bits per
symbol). In practice, a procedure similar to that of run length coding for data
storage is used to encode a fractional number of information bits. A Run
Length Code (RLC) is a conceptually simple form of compression. An RLC
consists of the process of searching for repeated runs of a single symbol in an
input stream and replacing them by a single instance of the symbol and a run
count. For the HomePNA 1.0 case, up to three consecutive zeros can be
counted by using three different groups of positions for subsequent bit
encoding. Right after a group of previously coded bits, if the first bit is 1, then
the next three bits are coded using positions 1 through 8. If the first bit is zero
and the second bit is one, then the next three bits (third, fourth, and fifth) are
encoded using positions 9 through 16. If the first and the second bits are zeros
and the third is one, then the subsequent three bits (fourth, fifth, and sixth)
are encoded using positions 17 through 24. If the first three bits are all zeros,
position 0 is used. The pulse position representations of binary bit sequences
are summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. HomePNA 1.0 Encoding
Pulse Position Binary Sequence Pulse Position Binary Sequence
0 000 13 01100
1 1000 14 01101
2 1001 15 01110
3 1010 16 01111
4 1011 17 001000
5 1100 18 001001
6 1101 19 001010
7 1110 20 001011
8 1111 21 001100
9 01000 22 001101
10 01001 23 001110
11 01010 24 001111
12 01011
We can calculate the average number of bits each data symbol carries. For half
of the time, the first bit is 1 and the next three bits are encoded into a symbol
for a total of 4 bits. For a quarter of the time, the first two 01 bits and the next
three bits are encoded for a total of 5 bits. For one eighth of the time, the first
three 001 bits and the next three bits are encoded for a total 6 bits. For the
remaining one eighth of the time, the first three 000 bits themselves are
encoded for a total of 3 bits. Therefore, the average number of data bits a data
symbol can carry is
Equation 7.1
We can also calculate the average length of a data symbol. The average pulse
position for 4 bits encoding (1 followed by 3 bits) is 4.5 TICs away from pulse
position zero. The average pulse position for 5 bits encoding (01 followed by 3
bits), is 12.5 TICs away. The average pulse position for 6 bits encoding (001
followed by 3 bits) is 20.5 TICs away. The average symbol length in number of
TIC is therefore
Equation 7.2
The average symbol duration in time is then
Equation 7.3
The transmission throughput is
Equation 7.4
To carry 4.375 bits using the conventional PPM, 24.375 = 20.75 pulse positions
are required for an average longer symbol length of 28 + 20.75/2 = 38.375
TICs. On the other hand, the average symbol length of 35.9375 TICs can only
carry log2[(35.9375 28) x 2] = 3.989 bits by the conventional PPM code. The
coding efficiency improvement provided by the RLL code over the conventional
PPM code is (4.375 3.989)/3.989 = 0.0967 = 9.67%.
Similarly, for low rates we have the following. The average symbol length in
number of TICs is
Equation 7.5
The average symbol duration is
Equation 7.6
The transmission throughput is
Equation 7.7
Assuming every node on the HomePNA 1.0 network can generally hear each
other, the collision detection is only performed during AID and silent intervals
(AID symbols 0 through 7). During a collision, a transmitter reads back an AID
value that does not match its own and recognizes the event as a collision,
alerting other stations with a JAM signal. A JAM pattern consists of 1 pulse
every 32 TICs and continues until at least the end of the AID intervals. When
a transmitter receives pulses in a position earlier than the position it
transmitted, it recognizes it as a pulse transmitted by another transceiver and
signals a collision. Guaranteed collision detection is possible only as long as
the spacing between successive possible pulse positions in an AID symbol (20
TICs or 2.3 µs) is greater than the round trip delay between the colliding
nodes. At approximately 1.5-ns propagation delay per foot, the maximum
distance between two HomePNA 1.0 transceivers must therefore not be
greater than 500 ft for collision detection purposes.
A HomePNA 1.0 pulse can be generated by passing four cycles of a 7.5-MHz

square wave through a 10th-order Butterworth filter with a passband between
5.5 and 9.5 MHz as shown in Figure 7.2. The peak voltage level is defined as
1.2 and 0.6 V for high and low power versions, respectively, with a tolerance
of about 15%.
Figure 7.2. Symbol Waveform
Figure 7.3 shows the PSD of the HomePNA 1.0 low-power version. The high-
power version's PSD is 6 dB higher between 5.5 and 9.5 MHz as a result of the
doubled voltage level. Figure 7.4 shows a HomePNA 1.0 test wiring
configuration as a typical in-house wiring channel model. Figure 7.5 shows the
frequency response of this channel model over a frequency range of 20 MHz.
At frequencies above 5 MHz, the attenuation is between 20 and 30 dB for a
configuration with total wiring length less than 700 ft. These attenuations are
caused by branching and reflection losses. A deep frequency notch caused by
the coincidence of many reflections has a heavy loss of more than 60 dB at
around 4 MHz for this particular wiring configuration.
Figure 7.3. PSD of HomePNA 1.0
Figure 7.4. A Test Wiring Configuration (From HomePNA

reserved.)
Figure 7.5. Channel Frequency Response

Because only one pair of the in-house wiring is used and one transceiver is
allowed to transmit at one time, no NEXT or FEXT noises are experienced at
the front end of a receiver. The strength of the received signal is relative only
to the background noise with a PSD of 140 dBm/Hz. Matching the telephone
wall jacket, the RJ11 plug is used to connect a HomePNA 1.0 transceiver to the
in-house wiring. Following the telephony convention, the wire pair connected
to the middle two pins (pins 3 and 4) is used for transmission as specified by
the HomePNA 1.0 standards.
7.1.2 Transceiver Structure and Performance Estimation
A HomePNA transceiver consists of a bandpass filter, a transmitter, and a

receiver, as shown in Figure 7.6. Because the transmission is not full duplex,
the same passive bandpass filter is used by both the transmitter and the
receiver. Within the transmitter, there are an encoder function and a preamble
function. Information bits are first transformed into different RLL symbols, and
then a predefined preamble is attached to every sequence of symbols. The
synchronization function of the receiver uses the preamble of a signal
sequence. To make the detection of the preamble and subsequent symbols
reliable, a special detection function is defined in the receiver. The detection
function can identify the average noise level, the peak signal level, and the
proper data detection threshold. The synchronization circuit in the receiver
identifies the exact pulse position of each AID symbol. Once synchronized, the
reference timing is used for subsequent data symbol position identification.
The received sequence of symbols is then decoded.
Figure 7.6. HomePNA 1.0 Transceiver Structure
The purpose of the bandpass filter is to shape the transmit signal according to
the defined PSD, as shown in Figure 7.3. These frequency characteristics of the
bandpass filter will help to minimize band noise in the receive path. The in-
band PSD level is 62 dBm/Hz. This PSD level is designed to achieve satisfying
transmission performance over average condition in-house wiring while
minimizing interference to other transmission systems such as those in the
Amateur Radio band. For in-house wiring with higher attenuation, this PSD
level can be raised to 56 dBm/Hz. Because the symbol is a modulated
passband signal, an envelop detection circuit is used for all threshold
identification and data detection purposes.
The performance of a HomePNA 1.0 transmission system can be analyzed by

examining the Signal-to-Noise ratio at the receiver end. The received signal
level is that of the transmit signal subtracted from the attenuation level of the
channel. The nominal PSD of a HomePNA 1.0 signal is at 62 dBm/Hz. The
noise floor of in-house wiring is assumed to be at around 140 dBm/Hz for an
average home. On the other hand, the duration of the symbol in comparison to
the average symbol rate and the rise time of a symbol in comparison to the
TIC interval could also affect the performance. If the duration of the symbol is
longer than the average symbol interval, the tail of the previous symbol might
touch the beginning of the current symbol, reducing the effective SNR. If the
rise time of the symbol is slower than that of a TIC interval, the beginning of a
symbol might cover multiple symbol timing positions and, therefore, also
reduce the effective SNR.
Figure 7.7 shows the received signal in time domain along with the
transmitted signal scaled down by 10 times in magnitude. In comparison, the
received signal is attenuated by about 20 dB. The pulse duration is about 3 µs
compared with about 2 µs for the transmitted signal. The extra duration is
caused mainly by reflection. To examine the intersymbol interference, we
compare the symbol duration with the average symbol period. The average
symbol period is about 6 µs. The reflection has died out before the next symbol
arrives. To examine the accuracy of symbol position detection, we look at the
pulse rise time in comparison with the TIC interval. The rise time is about 0.6
µs. Because the TICs are 7/60 µs apart, rising peaks are well separated.
Figure 7.7. Received Signal
Since the effect of intersymbol interference is minimal as a result of the long

separation between adjacent symbols and the rise time of each symbol is
shorter than the TIC interval, the transmission performance is very much
decided based on the receiver front-end SNR. For a channel loss of 30 dB, the
receiver front-end SNR is
Equation 7.8
The receiver front-end SNR reduces to 28 dB for a channel loss of 50 dB.
The channel capacity of the in-house wiring environment against the

background noise for the HomePNA 1.0 frequency band of between 5.5 and 9.5
MHz is calculated for an SNR of 48 dB as
Equation 7.9
The channel capacity for a SNR of 28 dB is then
Equation 7.10
For a threshold detectionbased transmission system, a communication error

occurs when the magnitude of the noise exceeds the detection threshold. This
condition can be described by
Equation 7.11
where a is the detection threshold and s 2 is the noise power. A multiplication

factor of 2 is used to account for both positive and negative noise elements. If
we choose a to be the RMS value of the received signal (i.e., a2 to be the
received signal power), then we have
Equation 7.12
By replacing the variable x with x/s in Equation 7.11 we have
Equation 7.13
For SNR = 48 dB, we have SNR 63095, , and the probability of error
is
Equation 7.14
For SNR = 28 dB, we have SNR 631, , and the probability of error
becomes
If for some reason, such as a higher receiver front-end electronic noise level
combined with a higher channel attenuation, the SNR dropps to 15 dB, and we
then have SNR 31.6, , and a probability of error of
This analysis shows that a HomePNA 1.0 transmission system can operate
reliably under a relatively low SNR unless effects of extensive reflections come
into play in forms of intersymbol interference or a retarded rising time. This
analysis is based on background white noise. Impulse noise with a magnitude
close to that of the received signal can also cause transmission errors.
The original in-house wiringbased transmission proposal from Tut Systems for
the HomePNA 1.0 is a baseband system. Each symbol was a continuous pulse
(instead of a sequence of positive and negative pulses with a period of about
0.1333 µs). Figure 7.8 shows the received baseband pulse compared with the
transmitted symbol formed by sending a rectangular pulse through a low-pass
filter. The transmitted and received symbols have the same scale. Over the
same test wiring configuration, the baseband symbol is only slightly
attenuated. The peak attenuation is only about 2 dB compared with the
passband attenuation of about 20 dB. The move of the spectrum to a passband
with a center frequency of 7.5 MHz was necessary for spectrum compatibility
with Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL). Because the attenuation is
much lower, the baseband method should have a better performance in terms
of either a higher transmission throughput or a longer transmission distance.
Figure 7.8. Baseband Received Waveform
7.1.3 HomePNA and MAC Interface
The HomePNA 1.0 allows Ethernet packets to be transported over existing in-
house telephone wiring, with no modifications, using the standard Ethernet
CSMA/CD-based Media Access Control procedures as specified in the IEEE
802.3 standard. A HomePNA 1.0 physical layer to 802.3 MAC interface is
defined as shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9. HomePNA 1.0 and MAC Interface (From HomePNA

reserved.)
Much like the MII, a transmit path and a receive path are defined separately
with transmit clock, TxClk, and receive clock, RxClk, both from the physical
layer. In contrast, only a single bit, instead of 4 bits, is defined for both
transmit and receive data paths and the Receive Data Valid, RX_DV, pin is
omitted. There are also a Carrier Sense pin, CarSns, and a Collision Detection
pin, Coll, defined for the HomePNA 1.0 to MAC interface. There are no
management pins defined over this interface. A HomePNA 1.0 transceiver can
be managed by either remote controlword management commands embedded
in the AID header over the wire network or management messages from
attached host hardware.
7.2 HomePNA 2.0 QAM
The establishment of the HomePNA 1.0 standard was a success story for a
group of industry promoters and supporters. These efforts involved laboratory
testing, field verification, and compromising. Right after the confirmation of
the HomePNA 1.0, the HomePNA consortium started the standardization effort
of HomePNA 2.0 for a higher transmission throughput. It was the goal that the
2.0 version should be backward-compatible with the 1.0 version. Many
participating companies have contributed individually or jointly. The joint
technology proposal from Epigram and Lucent was selected as the base for the
HomePNA 2.0 specifications. Because of its successful proposal, Epigram was
subsequently bought by Broadcom. Very few knew that Epigram partially
bought the idea of a telephone wiringbased home network from Travetim.
Travetim was a start-up founded by Pete Foley with funding from Benchmark
capital. I was involved with the feasibility analysis of a high-throughputCAP
(Carrierless AM/PM)-based transmission system over the existing in-house
wiring for Travetim. My early analysis showed that a telephone wiringbased
home network transmission system had a channel capacity of about 100 Mbps
and that a practical system can be implemented at 30 Mbps with the adaptive
equalization technique.
Adaptive equalization technology is used to combat extensive reflections

caused by many branches of in-house wiring. With the improved channel
condition, HomePNA 2.0 can increase the symbol rate to 2 or 4 Mbaud,
depending on a particular wiring environment within the similar frequency
band of between 4 and 10 MHz. Each HomePNA 2.0 symbol is able to carry 2
to 8 bits with Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), 8-phase Shift Keying
(SK), or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) modulation of 4 Mbaud. A
Frequency Diverse QAM (FDQAM) method, where a zero is inserted between
adjacent symbols, is used for 2 Mbaud. The transmission throughput of this
combined higher symbol rate and higher number of bits per symbol is between
4 and 32 Mbps. A reliable transmission throughput of 10 Mbps has been
observed in field tests most of the time. A HomePNA 2.0 transceiver is
backward-compatible with that of HomePNA 1.0 with its build-in HomePNA 1.0
transceiver. A HomePNA 2.0 device can talk to a HomePNA 1.0 transceiver via
the HomePNA 1.0 packets. HomePNA 2.0 devices can also talk to each other
with a special HomePNA 2.0 packet, starting with HomePNA 1.0
synchronization symbols, such that HomePNA 1.0 transceivers can participate
in the same network.
7.2.1 Summary of HomePNA 2.0 Specifications
The HomePNA 2.0 [3], [4] signaling method can also be analyzed by
examining its frame structure as shown in Figure 7.10. A HomePNA 2.0
transmitter encapsulates the binary information of an Ethernet packet by
adding a starter and a trailer to it. The starter consists of 16 bytes for
Preamble64 and 4 bytes for Frame Control. The starter and the Destination
Address (DA), Source Address (SA), and Type of an Ethernet packet combined
together become the header of a HomePNA 2.0 packet. Header information is
encoded with the 2-Mbaud FDQAM for a better interference tolerance. The
trailer consists of 2 bytes of CRC16, variable bytes of PAD, and 1 byte of EOF
(End of Frame). CRC16 and PAD are encoded with the same constellation as
the preceding Ethernet Data. The EOF is also encoded with the 2-Mbaud
FDQAM.
Figure 7.10. HomePNA 2.0 Frame Structure (From HomePNA

reserved.)
The PREAMBLE64 is defined as a repetition of four 16-symbol sequences. Each

16-symbol sequence is the 2-Mbaud FDQPSK encoding of the hexadecimal
sequence of fc483084 or, equivalently, the binary sequence of 1111 1100
0100 1000 0011 0000 1000 0100. The 4 bytes of frame control are further
divided into six fields. They are FT (Frame Type) for bits 31:24, RSVD
(reserved) for bit 23, PRI (Priority) for bits 22:20, SI (Scrambler Initialization)
for bits 19:16, PE (Payload Encoding) for bits 15:8, and HCS (Head Check
Sequence) for bits 7:0 as shown in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11. Frame Control Sequence
The FT is a mechanism for providing forward compatibility, and is all zero bits
for HomePNA 2.0. RSVD is set to zero by a transmitter and is ignored by a
receiver. The 3-bit PRI refers to the absolute priority that a specific frame will
be given when determining media access. Priority 7 has preferential access
over Priority 0. SI contains the bit pattern for initializing the scrambler. PE
decides the baud rate and the constellation size with 1 through 7 defining a
baud rate of 2 MHz and 9 through 15 defining a baud rate of 4 MHz both with
2 to 8 bits per baud. A smaller PE number indicates a lower transmission
throughput. HCS is computed as a function of the 128-bit sequence in
transmission order starting with the FT bits and ending with the Ethernet SA
bits, with zeros substituted for the uncomputed HCS field. The encoding is
defined by
Equation 7.15
In the trailer, the CRC16 is computed as a function of the contents of the

(unscrambled) Ethernet frame in transmission order, starting with the first bit
of the DA field and ending with the last bit of the FCS field. The encoding is
defined by
Equation 7.16
PAD is only used in conjunction with 4-MBaud modulated Ethernet packets.

There is no PAD For 2-MBaud modulated payloads. The PAD field is also not
present in a Compatibility Mode Frame. The last byte of the PAD specifies the
number of zero PAD bytes preceding it. The length of PAD can be decided
according to max(102 N, 0), where N is the number of bytes from DA to FCS,
inclusive. EOF consists of the hexadecimal sequence of FC or, equivalently, the
binary sequence of 11111100, encoded as 2 bits per Baud at 2 MBaud.
The scrambler generating polynomial has an order of 23 and is shown by
Equation 7.17
In a Maximum Length Shift-register (MLS) implementation, bits 15 through 18

of the shift register are initialized with a 4-bit pseudo-random number. This
value is also placed in the SI field to be used by the receiver's scrambler. The
scrambler is bypassed during the preamble bit field and the first 16 bits of
Frame Control. The EOF sequence is not scrambled.
The incoming bits are grouped into N-bit symbols, where N is the number of
bits per baud specified in the PE field. Constellation sizes range from QPSK, 8-
phase SK, 16 QAM, 32 QAM, 64 QAM, 128 QAM, up to 256 QAM for 2 bits, 3
bits, 4 bits, 5 bits, 6 bits, 7 bits, and 8 bits per symbol, respectively. Symbols
at 4 MBaud are transmitted at 0.707 times the amplitude of symbols at 2
MBaud. The carrier frequency for these constellations is 7 MHz. FDQAM is
promoted in HomePNA 2.0 specifications as a low-complexity modulation
scheme for improving the performance of uncoded QAM by a few decibels
under conditions where a part of the signal spectrum is severely attenuated.
FDQAM is simply QAM in which the baud rate is less than half the spectral
bandwidth of the transmit filter. The 2-Mbaud FDQAM signal is generated by
inserting zeros between every 2-Mbaud symbol while passing the same
transmitter filter with a passband designed for the 4-Mbaud symbols. With a
higher amplitude but only half of the rate, a 2-Mbaud symbol sequence
produces about the same line voltage as a 4-Mbaud symbol sequence does.
A HomePNA compatibility mode is defined to transmit HomePNA 2.0 packets

over an in-house wiring where HomePNA 1.0 devices also exist. Although a
HomePNA 1.0 device is not able to receive HomePNA 2.0 packets in
compatibility mode, it treats them as legal HomePNA 1.0 packets. The
compatibility mode is based on the Compatibility Frame as shown in Figure
7.12 where an interrupted HomePNA 2.0 packet is proceeded by 8 AID
symbols. Gaps are inserted into groups of symbols for the HomePNA 1.0
compatibility mode. The packet is further divided into subframes and is
separated by gaps. Depending on the baud rate, each subframe consists of a
non-information-bearing symbol, a zero symbol, and 1 to 35 data symbols. A
gap lasts either 6 or 15 symbol periods for 2- and 4-MHz baud rates. During
these gaps, there is no signal coming out of the QAM modulator.
Figure 7.12. Compatibility Frame (From HomePNA

reserved.)
In the compatibility mode, 1 non-information-bearing lead symbol is followed

by 1 to 18 data symbols and 6 silent symbols for the 2-Mbaud FDQAM. To a
HomePNA 1.0 receiver, a compatibility mode HomePNA 2.0 packet appears as a
pulse sequence of between 4 and 12.5 µs apart. In comparison, HomePNA 1.0
data symbol pulses are approximately 39 µs apart while pulses of
synchronization symbols are about 15 µs apart. 1 non-information-bearing
lead symbol is followed by 1 to 35 data symbols and 13 silent symbols for the
4-Mbaud QAM. Similar pulse separation can also be observed by a HomePNA
1.0 receiver for the compatibility frame with 4-Mbaud modulated data.
The line voltage of HomePNA 2.0 signal is defined to be less than 15 dBVrms
across a 135-ohm load and to be within 0.58 and +0.58 volt peak to peak.
This line voltage limitation leads to a HomePNA PSD of less than 71.5 dBm/Hz
as shown in Figure 7.13 for the frequency band of between 4 and 10 MHz. A
spectrum notch of equal to or larger than 10 dB is defined between 7 and 7.3
MHz to minimize the interference to Amateur Radios.
Figure 7.13. HomePNA 2.0 PSD Mask (From HomePNA

reserved.)
Ten test loops are defined in the HomePNA 2.0 standards. Configurations for
test loops 6 and 8 are shown in Figure 7.14. Loop 8 consists of all Quad cables.
Corresponding insertion losses are shown in Figure 7.15. Frequency notches as
deep as 45 dB are observed within the spectrum of the HomePNA 2.0 signal of
between 4 and 10 MHz.
Figure 7.14. Test Loops 6 and 8
Figure 7.15. Test Loop Insertion Losses

It is interesting to note that collisions are most likely to happen at the
beginning of the packet, or more accurately during the preamble part of the
packet. A collision occurs because two transceivers a long distance apart
cannot hear each other right away. A time delay of 0.75 µs might be
experienced for two transceivers 500 ft apart. On the other hand, the
preamble of eight synchronization symbols of HomePNA 1.0 lasts about 120.4
µs and the Preamble64 of HomePNA 2.0 lasts 32 µs. The time delay between
the first and second pulses of synchronization symbol 0 is 14.7 µs. A HomePNA
1.0 transceiver can detect a collision of less than 500 ft away, owing to
another transmission, before the second pulse of the synchronization symbol
0. A HomePNA 2.0 transceiver can examine the correctness of its transmitted
Preamble64 through the hybrid to detect a collision.
7.2.2 Transceiver Structure and Performance Estimation
A HomePNA 2.0 transceiver consists of a Digital Signal Processing part, an

Analog Front End (AFE), and a collision detection and Media Access and
Control part as far as general task groups are concerned. A HomePNA 2.0
functional block diagram as defined by the standards is shown in Figure 7.16.
We can also separate a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver into a transmit path, a
receive path, and a collision detection branch.
Figure 7.16. HomePNA 2.0 Functional Blocks (From HomePNA

reserved.)
In the transmit path, groups of binary information bits are first framed,
scrambled, encoded into symbols, and then modulated into passband in the
DSP part of a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver. The gap insertion is required for the
compatibility mode. After scrambling, bits are encoded into symbols.
Depending on the transmission throughputs, between 2 to 8 bits can be
encoded into each symbol. For a baud rate of 2 MHz, this corresponds to
transmission throughputs of between 4 and 16 Mbps. At a 4-MHz baud rate,
the transmission throughput can be as high as 32 Mbps. The hybrid circuit can
provide at least 15 dB of attenuation and is necessary for collision detection.
In the receive path, ADC converted samples are equalized, demodulated into
symbols, decoded into a bit stream, descrambled into the original data bits,
and deframed. A gap removal function is also required for compatibility mode.
The channel equalizer needs to be trained to identify proper filter coefficients

for each packet because packets might come from different transceivers and,
therefore, require different sets of coefficients. As is evident from the frame
structure, there is no dedicated training sequence defined in the HomePNA 2.0
standards. The header, including 64 known symbols of Preamble64, 16 symbols
of Frame Control, and 56 symbols of Ethernet Address/Type, can be used for
equalizer training for its robust 2-Mbaud QPSK modulation. The initial 64
symbols of training on known Preamble64 symbols should provide some good
initial equalizer coefficients for subsequent decision-based training of 72
additional header symbols. Once trained, different sets of equalizer coefficients
can be saved for corresponding source addresses to speed up the initialization
process.
Because HomePNA 2.0 is a half-duplex packet-based transmission system, the

DSP process can be carried out offline in a fashion similar to that of packet
data processing. Digital samples of the whole packet can be received/stored
first, DSP processed, and then data processed. The four 2-Mbaud modulated
symbols of EOF make it relatively easy to identify the end of a packet without
equalization. For example, the digital samples corresponding to the header can
be used first for equalizer training. Destination and source addresses can then
be identified. All digital samples can be discarded unless the destination
address is relevant. Alternatively, previously stored equalizer coefficients can
be restored if packets from the same source have been received. If the packet
is relevant, timing and carrier information can be accurately recovered from
equalized digital samples. With correct timing and carrier information, the
Ethernet packet in the rest of the digital samples can be recovered.
To have a reliable transmission without using error correction coding, the

required Signal-to-Noise Ratio at the equalizer output for an even number of
bits per symbol can be analyzed as follows. Assuming each signal constellation
point is separated from its neighbors by a value of 2, a 4 QAM has its
constellation points at (+1, +1), (1, +1), (1, 1), and (+1, 1). The average
signal power is proportional to
Equation 7.18
For 16 QAM, additional constellation points are at (+3, +1), (+3, +3), (+1,
+3), (1, +3), (3, +3), (3, +1), (3, 1), (3, 3), (1, 3), (+1, 3), (+3, 3), and (+3,
1). The average signal power is proportional to
Equation 7.19
In general, the average power of a square constellation can be expressed by
Equation 7.20
where n is the number of bits the constellation can carry. n = 2 for 4 QAM, n =
4 for 16 QAM, n = 6 for 64 QAM, and n = 8 for 256 QAM. On the other hand,
an error occurs when the addition of noise causes the result signal (signal plus
noise) to fall into the region of the adjacent constellation point. This means
the magnitude of noise exceeds 1 in either the x or y direction. Therefore, the
probability of error can be expressed by
Equation 7.21
where s is the noise power and is the noise power in each of x and y
directions. By replacing variable x with , Equation 7.21 can also be
expressed as
Equation 7.22
We notice that for the 4 QAM constellation. The ratio of SNRs of a

general square constellation to the 4 QAM is (2n 1)/3. Therefore, the
probability of error can be related to the SNR of a particular constellation by
Equation 7.23
where n is the number of bits each symbol can carry. This expression in
general also applies to constellations encoded with an odd number of bits. The
required SNR for a 4 QAM constellation at an error rate of 1 x 10-7 is about
14.6 dB. Using the scaling factor of 3/(2n 1), we can infer that the required
SNR is about 33.9 dB for a 256 QAM constellation also at an error rate of 1 x
10-7. Table 7.2 shows scaling factors, in terms of dB, relating the 4 QAM to
other constellation sizes. Table 7.3 shows typical desired probabilities of errors
for the 4 QAM constellation and corresponding SNR. With these two tables, the
required SNR at a particular error rate can be estimated for the majority of
popular constellation sizes.
Table 7.2. Constellation Scaling
QAM Size Bits/Symbol Adjustment (dB)
4 2 0
8 3 3.68
16 4 6.99
32 5 10.14
64 6 13.22
128 7 16.27
256 8 19.29
Table 7.3. Pe and SNR for 4 QAM
Pe SNR (dB) Pe SNR (dB)
1x101 4.35 1x106 13.80
1x102 8.23 1x107 14.53
1x103 10.34 1x108 15.17
1x104 11.82 1x109 15.73

1x105 12.91 1x1010 16.22
Each constellation point can be described by a complex number or a pair of

numbers for scales on the x and y axes. The scale on the x axis is the real part
of the complex number and the scale on the y axis is the imaginary part. A
symbol is modulated into passband through the multiplication of this pair of
numbers with cosine and sine functions of the carrier frequency. Before
multiplying, each component of the symbol is usually sent through a shaping
filter separately to control the shape of the PSD. The modulation signal flow
can be represented by Figure 7.17.
Figure 7.17. Modulation Process (From HomePNA

reserved.)
The shaping, upsampling low-pass filter converts the baud rate to the sampling
rate and is usually designed according to the square-root Nyquist function.
Coefficient values of a square-root Nyquist shaping filter can be described by
Equation 7.24
where a controls the excessive bandwidth (i.e., the slope of the band edge)
and n is the upsampling rate. For a symbol rate of 2 MHz and a shaping filter
sampling rate of 24 MHz, the upsampling rate is n = 12. There is one
discontinuity at k = 0. The value at k = 0 is calculated using
Equation 7.25
Values at other possible discontinuities can be interpreted, for example, as the

average of adjacent points. Figure 7.18 shows filter coefficients of an example
squared-root Nyquist filter with an up sampling rate of 10. Figure 7.19 shows
corresponding frequency response assuming a baud rate of 4 MHz.
Figure 7.18. Coefficients of a Shaping Filter

Figure 7.19. Frequency Response of the Shaping Filter
Spectrum-shaping filters consist of a notch filter for reducing the PSD within
the 7- to 7.3-MHz Amateur Radio band and an analog aliasing suppression
bandpass filter for meeting the out-of-band PSD mask of the 140-dBm/Hz
requirement.
The theoretical performance of a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver under these test

loop conditions as defined by the standards can be analyzed by comparing the
received signal PSD against a background noise of 140 dBm/Hz. Figure 7.20
shows receiver front-end SNRs for test loops 6 and 8 based on a transmit PSD
of 72 dBm/Hz.
Figure 7.20. Receiver Front-End SNRs

Based on these receiver front-end SNRs, the channel capacities for the
HomePNA 2.0 transmission environment are found to be between 87.8 and
98.3 Mbps based on test loops #8 and #6, respectively, using
Equation 7.26
At about 90 Mbps, the channel capacity is about nine times the nominal 10
Mbps throughput of HomePNA 2.0.
A MATLAB file for the implementation of HomePNA 2.0 transceiver is attached

at the end of this chapter.
7.2.3 HomePNA 2.0 Priority and MII
Under the compatibility mode, all HomePNA 2.0 transceivers can send packets
conforming to the compatibility frame to each other and exchange HomePNA
1.0 packets with HomePNA 1.0 transceivers based on the basic 802.3 MAC
protocol recommended by the HomePNA 1.0 specifications. On the other hand,
there are eight priority levels defined for a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver only
environment. Different priority levels are distinguished by the number of time
slots a transceiver has to wait before attempting transmission after sensing a
quiet medium. There are eight time slots, which are defined as shown in
Figure 7.21. The highest priority level is priority 7, and the lowest is priority 0.
A transceiver with priority 7 can attempt to transmit right after the IFG
(InterFrame Gap), while the one with the lowest priority must wait for an
additional seven time slots, each of which lasts 21 µs. High priority levels can
be assigned to timing-sensitive packets, such as those of video or audio, such
that random data packets with lower priorities would not interrupt timing-
critical applications.
Figure 7.21. Time Slots for Priorities (From HomePNA

reserved.)
With the help of a good hybrid circuit, a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver is expected
to detect a collision of its own packet with another one of up to 36 dB lower
signal level from a distant transceiver. After a collision is detected, the
transceiver terminates the packet with an EOF right after the Ethertype field.
Thus a collided packet lasts about 70 µs while a valid packet lasts at least 92.5
µs. For a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver without the priority capability, the waiting
time after sensing a quiet medium is set to the equivalent of priority 2. The
basic 802.3 MAC protocol requires a counter for the collision resolution
procedure to decide when to resend the same packet. Eight collision resolution
counters are required for the HomePNA 2.0 priority protocol. The priority level
of a collision can be inferred from the priority slot where the collision occurs.
The corresponding counter can then be used properly.
The physical layer and the MAC layer of a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver can be
implemented separately. In fact, the Ethernet MII can be utilized to separate
the HomePNA 2.0 physical layer from the MAC layer. A 802.3 MAC chip with an
MII can be used in conjunction with a HomePNA 2.0 physical layer chip to build
a HomePNA 2.0 transceiver. Because only two fixed clock rates are specified
for 10- and 100-Mbps versions of Ethernet and the transfer rate of HomePNA
2.0 can be higher than 10 Mbps while lower than 100 Mbps, an innovative way
of using the CRS is necessary to utilize the 25-MHz clock. When transmitting,
the HomePNA 2.0 physical layer asserts CRS some time after TX_EN comes
true but drops CRS after TX_EN becomes false and when the physical layer is
ready to receive another packet from the MAC. Only after CRS falls will the
MAC assert TX_EN after a time out of 0.96 µs if there is another packet to
send. The MAC can thus be held back to match the physical layer's
transmission speed. On the other hand, the COL (collision detection) signal is
not used by a HomePNA 2.0 physical layer. In other words, the collision
resolution procedure can be implemented in the HomePNA 2.0 physical layer
chip.
Just like the HomePNA 1.0, no management interface is required for a

HomePNA 2.0 physical layer with an MII.
7.3 MATLAB Files
7.3.1 Probability of Error Calculation
x=[0:0.01:100];
for i=100:1000
Pe(i)=0.01*sqrt(2/pi)*sum(exp(-0.5*x(i:10000).^2));
end
7.3.2 Squared Root Nyquist Filter
x=[-35:35]/7;
alp=0.5;
gx=(sin(pi*(1-alp)*x)+4*alp.*x.*cos(pi*(1+alp).*x))./(pi*x.*(1-(4*al
gx(36)=(1-alp)+4*alp/pi;
figure(1)
plot(gx)
xlabel('Filter Coefficients')
[gf,w]=freqz(gx,1,100);
figure(2)
plot([1:100]/100*20e6, 20*log10(abs(gf)))
grid
7.3.3 Channel Capacity Calculation
logh1=20*log10(abs(H1(1:1025)));
logh2=20*log10(abs(H2(1:1025)));
SNR1=logh1+140-72;
SNR2=logh2+140-72;
figure(4)
plot(f,SNR1,f,SNR2)
grid
ylabel('SNR (dB)')
gtext('Loop #6')
gtext('Loop #8')
capci1=sum(log2(1+10.^(SNR1(204:512)/10)))*20e6/1025
capci2=sum(log2(1+10.^(SNR2(204:512)/10)))*20e6/1025
7.3.4 HCS
%Variable initialization
gx=[1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1];
hx=[1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1];
FT=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
RSVD=[0];
PRI=[0 1 0];
SI=[0 1 0 0];
PE=[0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0];
HCS=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
FC=[FT RSVD PRI SI PE HCS];
DA=ceil(rand(1,48)*2-1);
SA=ceil(rand(1,48)*2-1);
FC2SA=[FC DA SA];
%Mathematically, the CRC value corresponding to a given frame
%is defined by the following procedure.
% The first 8 bits of the input bit sequence are complemented.
FC2SA(1:8)=bitcmp(FC2SA(1:8),1);
% The 128 bits of the sequence is multiplied by x^8 and
% divided
% by G(x), producing a remainder R(x) of degree <= 7.
FC2SA=[FC2SA zeros(1,8)];
rx=FC2SA(1:8);
for i=1:128
nm=[rx FC2SA(i+8)];
if nm(1)==1
rx=xor(nm(2:9),gx(2:9));
else
rx=nm(2:9);
end
end
% R(x) is multiplied by H(x) to produce N(x)
nx(1:8)=rx;
for i=1:7
if hx(i+1)==1
nx(i+1:i+7)=xor(rx(1:7),nx(i+1:i+7));
nx(i+8)=rx(8);
else
nx(i+8)=0;
end
end
% N(x) is divided by G(x), producing a remainder R'(x) of
% degree <= 7.
rrx=nx(1:8);
for i=1:7
nm=[rrx nx(i+8)];
if nm(1)==1
rrx=xor(nm(2:9),gx(2:9));
else
rrx=nm(2:9);
end
end
% The bit sequence is complemented and the result is the CRC'.
rrx=bitcmp(rrx,1);
%The 8 bits of the CRC' are placed in the HCS field so that x^7
%is the least-significant bit of the octet and x^0 term is the
%most-significant bit of the octet. The bits of the CRC' are
%thus transmitted in the order x^7, x^6, .. x^1, x^0.
7.3.5 CRC16
%Variable initialization
gx=[1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1];
x=ceil(rand(1,1000)*2-1);
x=[x zeros(1,16)];
%Mathematically, the CRC value corresponding to a given frame
%is defined by the following procedure.
% The first 16 bits of the input bit sequence are
% complemented.
rx=bitcmp(x(1:16),1);
% The bit sequence is divided by G(x), producing a remainder
% R(x) of degree <= 15.
for i=1:1000
nm=[rx x(i+16)];
if nm(1)==1
rx=xor(nm(2:17),gx(2:17));
else
rx=nm(2:17);
end
end
rx=bitcmp(rx,1);
7.3.6 HomePNA 2.0 Transceiver
%SYMBOL ENCODING
SEQ16=[1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
PREA64=[SEQ16 SEQ16 SEQ16 SEQ16];
% Call for hcs.m routine
hcs
FC=[FT RSVD PRI SI PE rrx];
ET=ceil(rand(1,16)*2-1);
EOF=[1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0];
PKT=[PREA64 FC DA SA ET EOF];
%2 Mbaud with zero insertion
x=zeros(1,280);
x(1:2:280)=PKT(2:2:280)*2-1;
ak=x;
y=zeros(1,280);
y(1:2:280)=PKT(1:2:280)*2-1;
bk=y;
%MODULATION
%7 times up sampling
xup7=zeros(1,1960);
xup7(1:7:1960)=x;
yup7=zeros(1,1960);
yup7(1:7:1960)=y;
% Call for filter gx routine
sqnqf7
xfilt=conv(xup7,gx);
yfilt=conv(yup7,gx);
t=[0:2128]/28e6;
cos2pift=cos(2*pi*7e6*t);
sin2pift=sin(2*pi*7e6*t);
xcos=xfilt.*cos2pift(1:2030);
ysin=yfilt.*sin2pift(1:2030);
ft=xcos+ysin;
%PASSING CHANNEL
% Get channel impulse response
load loop8
%loop8=zeros(100,1);
%loop8(13:15)=[0.5 1 0.5];
ftlp=conv(loop8,ft);
%DEMODULATION
xlp=ftlp.*cos2pift;
ylp=ftlp.*sin2pift;
xlpf=2*conv(xlp,gx);
ylpf=2*conv(ylp,gx);
xlpfd=xlpf(70:7:2199);
ylpfd=ylpf(70:7:2199);
%EQUALIZER INITILIZATION
rxx=zeros(20,20);
ryy=zeros(20,20);
rxy=zeros(20,20);
ryx=zeros(20,20);
rax=zeros(20,1);
ray=zeros(20,1);
rbx=zeros(20,1);
rby=zeros(20,1);
xk=zeros(20,1);
yk=zeros(20,1);
for i=1:128
xk(:,1)=xlpfd(i:i+19)';
yk(:,1)=ylpfd(i:i+19)';
rxx=rxx+xk*xk'/128;
ryy=ryy+yk*yk'/128;
rxy=rxy+xk*yk'/128;
ryx=ryx+yk*xk'/128;
rax=rax+ak(i)*xk/128;
ray=ray+ak(i)*yk/128;
rbx=rbx+bk(i)*xk/128;
rby=rby+bk(i)*yk/128;
end
eq=inv([rxx rxy; ryx ryy])*[rax' ray']';
eq1=inv([ryy ryx; rxy rxx])*[rby' rbx']';
eqi=eq(1:20)/2+eq1(1:20)/2;
eqx=eq(21:40)/2-eq1(21:40)/2;
%ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION
for i=1:280
xf=xlpfd(i:i+19);
yf=ylpfd(i:i+19);
xout(i)=xf*eqi+yf*eqx;
yout(i)=yf*eqi-xf*eqx;
e1=ak(i)-xout(i);
e2=bk(i)-yout(i);
eqi=eqi+0.001*xf'*e1;
eqx=eqx+0.001*yf'*e1;
eqi=eqi+0.001*yf'*e2;
eqx=eqx+0.001*xf'*e2;
end
figure(1)
plot([1:280],xout)
xlabel('Real Data')
figure(2)
plot([1:280],yout)
xlabel('Imaginary Data')
figure(3)
plot([1:20],eqi,[1:20],eqx)
xlabel('Equalizer Coefficients')
%DATA RECOVERY
for i=1:280
if xout(i)>0
xr(i)=1;
else
xr(i)=0;
end
if yout(i)>0
yr(i)=1;
else
yr(i)=0;
end
end
PKTR=zeros(1,280);
PKTR(2:2:280)=xr(1:2:280);
PKTR(1:2:280)=yr(1:2:280);
7.4 References
1. HomePNA, "Home phoneline networking alliance 1M8 PHY specification,

version 1.1," June 2, 1999.
2. HomePNA, "Interface specification for HomePNA 2.06 10M8 technology,"

March 20, 2000.
3. International Telecommunication Union, ITU-T, G.989.1, "Phone line

networking transceiversfoundation," February 2001.
4. International Telecommunication Union, ITU-T, G.989.2, "Phone line

networking transceiverspayload format and line link layer requirements,"
November 2001.
Chapter 8. FireWire
The FireWire name was originally coined by Apple Computer, Inc., for a high-
throughput serial multimedia link to interconnect computer and consumer
electronic devices. It was designed to handle both Asynchronous (such as data)
and Isochronous (such as video) packet transmissions. That transmission
technology was later standardized as the IEEE 1394 serial bus. Many
standardization efforts were coordinated at the 1394 Trade Association (1394
TA), a nonprofit trade organization formed in 1994 with earlier strong support
from major corporations such as Hewlett-Packard, IBM (through its former
printer division now known as Lexmark), Microsoft, SONY, and Texas
Instruments, as well as Apple. The first FireWire standards were released
during 1995 and were known as IEEE 1394-1995. This first version of 1394
technology is capable of delivering transmission throughputs of 100, 200, and
400 Mbps over a special shielded twisted pair cable of 4.5 meters. These
throughputs can also be carried over a backplane internal to an electronic
device such as a computer. The 1394 TA membership has grown to more than
100 companies. FireWire plugs, sometimes also known as iLink, can be found
on many computer and digital video devices. The new 1394b standards,
released during 2001, have made the FireWire technology run faster and go
further based on a new media arbitration technique. Via 6B10B encoding and
full-duplex transmission, 1394b signals can be carried over a Category 5
unshielded twisted pair cable of up to 100 m, a plastic optical fiber of up to 50
m, a hard polymer clad or glass optical fiber of up to 100 m, and a short
shielded twisted pair cable of 4.5 m. Transmission throughputs of up to 1600
Mbps have been defined on glass optical fiber and shielded twisted pair cable.
The new FireWire technology holds great potential for Home Network
applications for its high throughput and long reach to carry multimedia signals
linking computer peripheral and electronics device clusters.
In this chapter, we will examine the traditional as well as the enhanced

FireWire technologies by studying their media access protocol and associated
signaling techniques. Similar to Ethernet protocol, the 1394 media access
arbitration is a distributed process. However, the packet collision is avoided by
filtering transmit requests through intermediate nodes and issuing a single
transmit permission from a final decision node, the root or the BOSS,
depending on whether the enhanced arbitration technique is used. Different
time gaps exist between isochronous and asynchronous packets for the
traditional 1394 arbitration process [1]. Wider gaps are allocated between
asynchronous packets to allow isochronous packets to have a higher priority to
access the transmission media. Transmission efficiencies depend on ratios of
these gaps to packets lengths. These transmission gaps are eliminated in the
new 1394b arbitration procedure to maintain a very high efficiency over
longer connecting distances at higher transmission throughputs. Short
symbols, instead of signal-level transitions, are used by the 1394b for
transmission requests, and they can be delivered while the current packet is
still being transmitted. This is made possible by implementing a full-duplex
transmission scheme over two pairs, where one pair is always used for
transmitting and the other for receiving without echo cancellation. The 8B10B
encoding is used to aid signal reception where clock information has to be
recovered from the data pair alone instead of being delivered from the
STROBE pair as in a traditional 1394 transceiver. These new 1394b
transmission techniques can be easily applied on different transmission media
by using a different signal driver, either electrical or optical, and a
corresponding signal detection device. We limit our discussion only to electrical
cable transmission media in this chapter. We first look at bus topology, the
arbitration process, the packet format, and the line signal as defined by the
IEEE 1394-1995 standards [1]. We then highlight these new 1394b [2]
techniques including control and request symbol encoding, full duplex
arbitration, and packet encoding and delivery as well as copper transmission
media specifications.
8.1 Arbitration Protocol
The structure of a 1394 serial bus is unique in that the transmission media,
consisting of many point-to-point connections between pairs of individual
ports, are shared through the repetition of packets received on one port to
other active ports by each node. The topology of a 1394 serial bus resembles a
tree with many intermediate nodes located at branching joints and a single
node at the root. All requests for transmission are either filtered out by
intermediate nodes or propagated to the root node for an arbitration decision.
A permission to transmit is granted by the root node and delivered through
intermediate nodes. The configuration of the tree structure and the election of
a root node are automatically carried out during the initialization process and
after each bus reset whenever a new port joins the 1394 serial bus. An
isochronous packet transmission interval is allocated ahead of the
asynchronous interval during each cycle, and these transmission cycles are
repeated under the guidance of the cycle master who periodically sends cycle
start packets.
8.1.1 Topology
The FireWire transmission system is also called Serial Bus in the IEEE 1394-
1995 standards document. A serial bus is different than a serial connection
such as RS232, which makes point-to-point connections only. A serial bus is
not a conventional bus where multiple devices share a common transmission
medium directly. A serial bus connects devices over multiple sections of serial
links organized by a communications protocol. The USB (Universal Serial Bus)
is another instance of a serial bus. The FireWire serial bus technology
addresses both backplane (interior to a computer or communication device)
and cable-based transmission physical layers. We only discuss the cable-based
physical layer in this chapter. A communication or computing device can have
more than one FireWire port. A tree and branch topology is formed when these
FireWire ports are interconnected among multiple devices as shown in Figure
8.1. A device can talk to another via these connections. Once permission is
granted, a device transmits a packet to its direct neighbors, and they repeat
the transmission to their neighbors located further away. Such a device can
reach another over multiple devices and links in between.
Figure 8.1. Configuration Topology (From IEEE Std. 1394-

1995. Copyright © 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
A conventional FireWire cable consists of two shielded twisted pairs, capable of
transmitting and receiving in either direction, and one pair of power wires. A
conventional FireWire cable is about 4.5 m long. Twisted signal pairs have 28
AWG stranded copper wires inside, and stranded copper power wires are 22
AWG. Each stranded wire consists of seven conductors; 36 AWG for twisted
signal pairs and 30 AWG for power wires. There is another shield covering all
twisted pairs and power wires as shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2. FireWire Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (From IEEE

Std. 1394-1995. Copyright © 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Because of this unique random tree and branch topology, a connection might
need to pass through multiple ports of a device. These power wires are
necessary to keep those ports active even when the associated communication
or computing device is not powered on. A FireWire cable with power wires is
terminated by a unique six-pin plug at each end as shown on the left side of
Figure 8.3. Shields of twisted pairs are connected to the power ground while
the external shield is linked to metal parts of plugs at both ends. Another type
of four-pin plug for terminating FireWire cables without power wires is shown
on the right side of Figure 8.3
Figure 8.3. FireWire Cable Plugs
A device with FireWire ports can be considered as a node in the tree branch
configuration. A node with only one connection is called a leaf, and a node with
more than one connection is called a branch. A node can have a parent port
and a number of child ports. A leaf has only one active parent port. A branch
has one active parent port and a number of active child ports. The root of the
tree has only active child ports. The role of each node, be it a leaf, a branch, or
a root, is identified during the serial bus initialization process when multiple
devices are interconnected and powered on. After each node is identified, the
request for packet transmission over this serial bus is passed up to the root,
and the decision for which device to transmit is initiated at the root.
8.1.2 Initialization Process
The serial bus initialization process is carried out in three phases: bus
initialization, tree identification, and self-identification. The initialization
process starts when two nodes are initially connected and repeats whenever a
new node joins in. During the bus initialization phase, a bus reset signal forces
all nodes into a special state that clears all topology information and thereafter
identifies only if each node is a branch, a leaf, or not connected, as indicated
by Figure 8.4. In this example, three nodes with only one active port each are
identified as leaves, and two nodes with more than one active port are
identified as branches.
Figure 8.4. A Serial Bus After Bus Initialization (From IEEE

A node is elected as the root during the tree identification phase, and all active
ports of other nodes are identified as either a parent or a child port depending
on whether their connected port is closer to the root as shown in Figure 8.5,
where "p" and "ch" stand for parent and child ports, respectively. To elect a
root, all leaf nodes send parent notifications to their connected ports first.
Branch nodes that received parent notifications from leaf nodes send child
notifications as confirmations. Meanwhile, branch nodes send parent
notifications through remaining ports. A branch node that received a parent
notification before sending out its own parent notification over the same port
confirms the child-parent relationship by acknowledging with a child
notification. A root contention process starts when two branch nodes
exchanged their parent notifications. Each branch node waits a random time
before sending out another parent notification during the root contention
process. The node that received a parent notification first becomes the parent
of the pair in the contention.
Figure 8.5. A Serial Bus After Tree Identification (From IEEE

During the self-identification phase, each node selects a unique ID number and
sends one to four short self-identification packets over the serial bus to any
management entity. These short packets might include timing, power, and
transmit throughput information of the sending node. The root starts the self-
identification process by asking its first child to do so, and the first child of the
root in turn asks its children to do so. The root passes the task of self-
identification to its next child after the previous child and all its children have
finished and repeats until all its children have finished. The root identifies
itself last. The unique ID number of a particular node is the number of times it
has noticed that another node has finished its self-identification process. As
shown in Figure 8.6, the first child of the root was asked to do self-
identification first and has an ID number of 0. Two other leaves obtained ID
numbers of 2 and 3 in accordance with the order of doing their self-
identification. The root has the highest ID number because it finished the self-
identification task last.
Figure 8.6. A Serial Bus After Self-identification (From IEEE

8.1.3 Media Access via Arbitration
In the 1394 standards document, the delivery of a packet is called a subaction.

1394 is designed for both asynchronous and isochronous packet delivery.
Asynchronous packets carry traditional data information while the delivery of
isochronous packets provides channels for digital sound, instrumentation, or
other time-sensitive communications. The access to and, thereafter, the
delivery of a packet over the transmission media is resolved through an
arbitration process among all connected devices. Each FireWire transceiver has
two signal pairs, both of which are capable of either transmitting or receiving.
During normal signaling, one pair carries a binary data sequence and the other
carries a strobe sequence. The clock associated with the data sequence can be
recovered by exclusive OR of data and strobe sequences. During arbitration,
on the other hand, a node having a pending packet pulls the data pair with its
parent to a zero level while examining the signal level on the strobe pair. A
parent either grants its children permission to send a packet by pulling its data
pair (strobe pair of its child) to a zero level or denies the permission by pulling
it to a one level. A parent only relays a request to transmit from its children to
its parent and a permission to transmit from its parent to its children. Only
one request, the first request in time among all children, is recognized by a
parent. The root decides which of its children is granted a permission to
transmit. The permission is granted to the child who made the first request in
time.
Figure 8.7 shows timing relationships of delivering isochronous packets. The

transmission of an isochronous packet starts with the arbitration process,
which includes the originating node sending a zero level all the way to the root
and the root responding with a zero level all the way back. After the
permission is granted, the originating node switches to the data prefix signal
with a one level on the data pair and a zero level on the strobe pair before
signaling of the pending packet. The transmission of an isochronous packet
ends by a data end signal with a zero level on the data pair and a one level on
the strobe pair. Denied by their parents, all other nodes withdraw their
transmission requests and wait for the signal from their parents to disappear.
After a silence interval of isochronous gap, those nodes that still have pending
packets can send requests to transmit a signal to their parents again. This
arbitration process is repeated until all pending isochronous packets are
transmitted.
Figure 8.7. Delivery of Isochronous Packets (From IEEE Std.

1394-1995. Copyright © 1995 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Figure 8.8 shows timing relationships of delivering asynchronous packets. A

node with a pending asynchronous packet needs to wait for a subaction gap
before sending a request to transmit to its parents. Since the subaction gap is
bigger, taking a longer time, than the isochronous gap, pending asynchronous
packets have to wait until all isochronous packets have been delivered. After
they have been delivered, the reception of each asynchronous packet is
acknowledged by a short packet within an acknowledge gap. An acknowledge
gap is the time required for a receiving transceiver to detect the end of the
received packet and to switch to the transmit mode of operation. Isochronous
and acknowledge gaps last between 40 to 50 ns while the subaction gap takes
about 10 µs. At a velocity of about 5 ns/m, the transmission delay over a 4.5-
m FireWire cable is about 22.5 ns. The arbitration time lasts about 2.6 µs
because it involves voltage-level relaying over multiple nodes and cables. The
data prefix time lasts between 40 and 160 ns and the data end time lasts from
240 to 260 ns. At a transmission throughput of 100 Mbps, a packet of 2000
bytes, or 16,000 bits, lasts about 160 µs.
Figure 8.8. Delivery of Asynchronous Packets (From IEEE Std.

Because of their time-sensitive nature, isochronous packets are delivered
periodically following a special cycle start packet delivered by the cycle master,
which maintains a common clock. The nominal cycle period is 125 µs, at an
equivalent cycle frequency of 8 kHz, as shown in Figure 8.9. The cycle start
packet also contains information on delays, from the scheduled delivery time,
caused by extended uses of the media by asynchronous packets. We have
isochronous gaps between isochronous packets, acknowledge gaps between
asynchronous packets and corresponding acknowledge packets, and subaction
gaps between acknowledge packets and next asynchronous packets.
Figure 8.9. Cycle Period Structure (From IEEE Std. 1394-1995.

Let us go through a detailed arbitration examination of two leaves sending to

their parents requests to transmit, based on the configuration shown in Figure
8.10. As parents, root and node 3 deny permission of their other children by
sending them data_prefix signals while node 3 also relays its children's request
to its parent as shown in Figure 8.11. The root then grants the children that
sent the first request-to-transmit a permission-to-transmit while node 3 relays
the denial from its parent to its child as shown in Figure 8.12. Node 0 starts
transmission after the reception of the permission by sending data_prefix as
shown in Figure 8.13. The root withdraws the grant signal, and node 0 is ready
to send the packet via data and strobe signaling as shown in Figure 8.14.
Figure 8.10. Two Leaves Competing for Transmission (From

IEEE Std. 1394-1995. Copyright © 1995 IEEE. All rights
reserved.)
Figure 8.11. Parents' Responses (From IEEE Std. 1394-1995.
Figure 8.12. Root Grants a Permission (From IEEE Std. 1394-

Figure 8.13. Start Transmission (From IEEE Std. 1394-1995.
Figure 8.14. Root Withdraws the Grant (From IEEE Std. 1394-
Because there is no collision, for at least one request is granted immediately
among multiple devices having pending packets, and no random backoff
procedure is involved, the efficiency of the FireWire multiple access process
can be calculated based on arbitration duration a, gap time g, and packet
length p. We have
Equation 8.1
For, a = 2.6, ms, g = 10 ms, and a long packet of p = 160 ms, the efficiency is
about
Equation 8.2
The efficiency decreases when the packet becomes shorter as a result of fewer
bits or higher transmission throughput. For example, for p = 40 ms,
representing a transmission throughput of 400 Mbps, we have
Equation 8.3
8.2 1394-1995 Cable Physical Layer Attributes
The 1394 shielded twisted pair cable-based physical layer can be characterized
by its packet format, transceiver circuit, DATA/STROBE line code, and PSDs.
8.2.1 Packet Formats
There are three types of packets exchanged between FireWire transceivers.

There are physical layer packets used during initialization and link
management, primary packets for carrying asynchronous and isochronous
data, and an acknowledge packet for reception of asynchronous packet
acknowledgment. The general format of the physical layer packet is shown in
Figure 8.15. The first 4 bytes of a physical layer packet consists of a packet
type of 2 bits, a physical_ID of 6 bits, and a body of 3 bytes. The last 4 bytes
of a physical layer packet are the logic inverse of the first 4 bytes for error
detection parity checking. A physical layer packet is ignored if the logic inverse
of the last 4 bytes does not match the bit pattern of the first 4 bytes.
Figure 8.15. Physical Layer Short Packets
There are three subtypes of physical layer packets: self-ID (xx = 10), link-ON
(xx = 01), and PHY configuration (xx = 00). The body of the first self-ID
packet contains information on link active indication, gap_cnt, transmission
throughput capabilities, a delay parameter, link management capability, power
supply capabilities, and port status. Gap_cnt is a value used for calculating
subaction and reset gap timing. Up to three additional self-ID packets can be
delivered if a node has more than 3 ports to reveal the status of up to 27
ports. The body of a link-ON packet consists of 3 zero-bytes. The body of a PHY
management packet has 1 byte consisting of an R bit, T bit, and 6-bit gap_cnt
followed by 2 zero-bytes. The R bit is used to set up a root, and the T bit is
used to set up the gap_cnt.
A primary packet can be either an asynchronous or isochronous packet. An

asynchronous packet consists of a header of 12 or 16 bytes followed by a 4-
byte header CRC and a data field of a multiple of 4 bytes in length followed by
a 4-byte data CRC as shown in Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.16. Asynchronous Packet
The header of an asynchronous packet consists of a 2-byte destination_ID, a

6-bit transaction label, a 2-bit retry code, a 4-bit transaction code, a 4-bit
priority code, a 2-byte source_ID, and 6 or 10 bytes of packet-type-specific
information as shown in Figure 8.17. There are 10 subtypes of asynchronous
packets for read and write requests and responses with or without the data
field as well as for cycle start. An acknowledge packet has only 1 byte
including 4 code bits and 4 parity bits, which are the logical inverse of the
preceding code bits as shown in Figure 8.18.
Figure 8.17. Header of an Asynchronous Packet
Figure 8.18. Acknowledge Packet
An isochronous packet consists of a 4-byte header followed by a 4-byte header

CRC and a data field of a multiple of 4 bytes in length followed by a 4-byte
data CRC as shown in Figure 8.19. The header of an isochronous packet
consists of a 2-byte data length, a 2-bit data format tag, a 6-bit channel
number, a 4-bit transaction code, and a 4-bit synchronization code as shown in
Figure 8.20.
Figure 8.19. Isochronous Packet

Figure 8.20. Header of an Isochronous Packet
CRC for header and data of both asynchronous and isochronous packets is
implemented using the same generator polynomial as that used by the
Ethernet:
Equation 8.4
The same CRC generation and checking procedures are also adapted. The CRC
values are generated with the following procedures.
1. The first 32 bits of the header or data field are complemented to

avoid initial zeros normally found in the destination ID.
The n bits of the field are considered to be the coefficients of a polynomial

of degree n 1.
The degree of the field polynomial is raised to n + 31 by multiplying the

original by x32.
The field polynomial is then divided by G(x) to produce a remainder of

degree < 32.
The remainder sequence of 32 bits is complemented to become CRC.
8.2.2 Transceiver Circuits
Figure 8.21 shows typical implementations of a FireWire transceiver. For each

twisted pair, a differential driver and a differential receiver are used for strobe
and data signaling and reception. In addition, threshold detectors with positive
and negative bias are used specifically to recognize arbitration level pullings. A
speed indication common mode bias is also applied to twisted pair B via high-
impedance current sources. That common mode bias is feedback to a circuit
also attached to twisted pair B for Port_Status monitoring. That same common
mode bias is detected by a transceiver at the other end of the twisted pair
(twisted pair A) to decide which transmission throughput should be agreed
upon.
Figure 8.21. FireWire Transceiver Circuits (From IEEE Std.

There are three recognizable twisted pair arbitration statuses: 0, 1, and Z

corresponding to the activation of the negatively biased threshold detector, to
the activation of the positively biased detector, and to no activation of both
detectors. Examining both twisted pairs for three possible statuses results in
nine different arbitration signals that can be detected. They can be derived by
combining six different signals originated from both ends of two twisted pairs.
For example, Z and Z represent idle, 1 and 1 represent bus reset, Z on twisted
pair A and 0 on twisted pair B represent a request to transmit from a child to a
parent and a grant to transmit from a parent to a child, a 0 on twisted pair A
and a 1 on twisted B represent a data prefix, etc. The arbitration status of 1 is
declared when the differential voltage is larger than 168 mV, 0 is declared
when the voltage is less than 168 mV, and Z is declared when the voltage is
between 89 and 89 mV.
The data sequence is transmitted using binary nonreturn to zero (NRZ) pulses.
Instead of using the conventional data and clock signaling, the data sequence
is sent via twisted pair B and a strobe sequence is sent via twisted pair A. The
strobe sequence changes from 0 to 1 and vice versa whenever two consecutive
data bits are the same as shown in Figure 8.22. This encoding mechanism
ensures that transitions occur every bit interval among both pairs. At the
receiver side, the clock can be recovered by the exclusive OR operation of data
and strobe sequences. The amplitude of data and strobe signaling voltage is in
the range of 172 to 265 mV for 1 and 172 to 265 mV for 0.
Figure 8.22. Data-Strobe Encoding (From IEEE Std. 1394-

Transmission throughputs of 98.304, 196.608, and 393.216 Mbps are defined

by the 1394-1995 standards document as S100, S200, and S400 data rates.
They are indicated by common mode bias voltage of 1.665, 1.438, and 1.03 V,
respectively.
Power spectrum densities for FireWire of different throughputs can be

calculated according to
Equation 8.5
where T is the period of a bit. PSDs for S100, S200, and S400 are shown in
Figure 8.23 with u = 0.2 V and R = 110 ohms.
Figure 8.23. FireWire Power Spectrum Densities
8.3 Highlights of 1394b
1394b [2] is capable of higher throughputs over longer connection lengths.

They are made possible by using a new overlapped and pipelined arbitration
mechanism. This mechanism is built up on a two-pair full-duplex transmission
method with coded control and request symbols as well as 8B10B encoded
packets. It enables the easy adaptation of different transmission media by the
same transceiver architecture.
8.3.1 Summary of New Capabilities
New specifications of 1394b make FireWire connections run faster and go

further. Higher throughputs of 800 Mbps (S800) and 1600 Mbps (S1600) have
been defined. Longer reaches of 50 and 100 m have been made possible on
Category 5 unshielded twisted pair and plastic/glass optical fiber. Thicker
shielded twisted pair cables of 2 and 4.5 m have been introduced to
accommodate these higher throughputs along with some new plugs. Category
5 unshielded twisted pair (UTP5) can carry a throughput of 100 Mbps over a
distance of 100 m based on the 100BaseTX PHY technology defined by the
ANSI X3.263-1995 standards [3]; plastic optical fiber (POF) can provide a
throughput of 200 Mbps at a distance of 50 m; hard polymer clad fiber (HPCF)
is able to reach 100 m at 200 Mbps; and glass multimode fiber (MMF) will run
up to 1600 Mbps at 100 m as summarized in Table 8.1. The vertical cavity
surface emitting laser, VCSEL, is used in conjunction with MMF.
Table 8.1. Summary of 1394b Capabilities
Media Reach S100 S200 S400 S800 S1600
UTP5 100 m x
POF 50 m x x
HPCF 100 m x x
MMF 100 m x x x
STP 4.5 m x x x
As indicated earlier, the FireWire protocol is efficient when these subaction

gaps are relatively short compared with the packet length. On the other hand,
the gap should be long enough to cover the round trip transmission delay of
the longest connection. Therefore, the goal of longer reach and higher
throughput demands a new arbitration mechanism to realize the benefit of
faster physical layers. In 1394b, requests to transmit are delivered through
short symbols while the current transmission is still in progress by taking
advantage of full-duplex communication links. The permission to transmit is
granted also through a short symbol by the BOSS (Bus
Owner/Supervisor/Selector) node that just finished transmission. The
subaction gap is therefore totally avoided between subsequent packets. To
achieve reliable transmission on a single pair for the full-duplex transmission
with no STROBE signal, scrambling and 8B10B encoding techniques are
applied to data packets and control symbols. These scrambling and encoding
techniques are commonly defined for all media. Detailed procedures are also
defined to make 1394b transceivers backward-compatible with these original
1394 nodes.
8.3.2 1394b Arbitration
When transmission rates extend into the gigabit per second range and
interconnect distances approach 100 m, the bus efficiency attainable with the
subaction gapbased arbitration mechanism becomes unacceptably low. The
new specification improves the bus efficiency by taking advantage of the full-
duplex nature of Beta mode signaling to implement a new BOSS arbitration
method. In BOSS operation, arbitration request signaling is overlapped with
data transmission on the full-duplex bus, and both isochronous and
asynchronous requests may be pipelined for servicing in the succeeding
isochronous or asynchronous intervals, respectively. Figure 8.24 illustrates the
general concept of BOSS operation and shows how arbitration signaling is
overlapped with data transmission on the full-duplex bus.
Figure 8.24. BOSS Arbitration (From IEEE Std. 1394B-2002.

The FireWire node that is the last to transmit packet data in a subaction
becomes the BOSS and is responsible for making the next arbitration decision.
During packet transmission, the originator is the only one in the bus that can
receive arbitration requests on every active port and is, therefore, in the best
position to observe arbitration requests and to decide which port gets the bus
next.
In the BOSS arbitration mode, the start of the isochronous interval is marked
by a CYCLE_START_EVEN/CYCLE_START_ODD control symbol transmitted by
the cycle master and the gap between isochronous and asynchronous intervals
is replaced by an ASYNC_EVEN/ASYNC_ODD control symbol sent by the BOSS
that finished the last isochronous packet transmission. The purpose of
alternating CYCLE_START_EVEN and CYCLE_START_ODD or ASYNC_EVEN and
ASYNC_ODD symbols is to distinguish the current transmission interval from
the next one. For example, a request for transmission of an asynchronous
packet during the next transmission interval can be made by using the
NEXT_ODD request symbol during an even interval. A control symbol consists
of 4 bits. Bit combinations are 0001, 0010, 1101, and 1110 for
CYCLE_START_EVEN, CYCLE_START_ODD, ASYNC_EVEN, and ASYNC_ODD,
respectively. We also have bit combinations of 1000, 1011, 1010 (or 1001),
and 0101 for GRANT, GRANT_ISOCH, DATA_PREFIX, and DATA_END as control
symbols, respectively. The choice of 1010 or 1001 for DATA_PREFIX depends
on whether the running bias is larger or smaller than 0. A request-to-transmit
symbol consists of an isochronous request part of 3 bits and an asynchronous
request part of 3 bits. Bit combinations are 001, 010, 100, 101, and 110 for
CURRENT, NEXT_EVEN, NONE_ODD, NEXT_ODD, and NONE_EVEN
asynchronous requests, respectively. Bit combinations are 00xx1, 01xx0,
10xx0, and 11xx0 for ISOCH_CURRENT, ISOCH_NONE, ISOCH_EVEN, and
ISOCH_ODD isochronous requests, respectively. A request symbol of 8 bits is
formed by concatenating an asynchronous request, as first 3 bits, and an
isochronous request, as next 5 bits.
Control and request symbols are scrambled before being transmitted over the
media. A common scrambler with the following generator polynomial is used
for control/request symbols as well as for data packets:
Equation 8.6
These 4 bits of a control symbol are exclusive ORed with those 4 even bits of a
group of 8 bits from the scrambler. A 4-bit scrambled control symbol is then
encoded into a 10-bit character, named Cx for x = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 15, according
to Table 8.2 for transmission over the media. Sometimes, the transmission of a
control symbol is repeated to ensure proper propagation over connections with
low transmission rates.
Table 8.2. Control Symbol Encoding
Name Input Output Name Input Output
C0 0000 0000011111 C8 1000 0000101111
C1 0001 0111110000 C9 1001 1011110000
C2 0010 0010001111 C10 1010 1100000111
C3 0011 1110110000 C11 1011 1111000001
C4 0100 0000111110 C12 1100 0001001111
C5 0101 0011111000 C13 1101 1101110000
C6 0110 0100001111 C14 1110 1000001111
C7 0111 1111010000 C15 1111 1111100000
On the other hand, these 8 bits of a request symbol are exclusive ORed with a
group of 8 bits from the scrambler. In addition, sixth and seventh bits of a
scrambled request symbol are set to zeros. An 8-bit scrambled request symbol
is encoded into a 10-bit character, named Dx.y for x = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 31, and y
= 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7, according to these 8B10B rules, to be discussed shortly, for
transmission over the media.
Request symbols by themselves have no sender identifications. The BOSS node

can receive only as many requests as the number of ports directly attached to
it. The arbitration decision is therefore a distributed process involving
intermediate nodes that pass the request with the highest priority among
others in the direction toward the BOSS node. Priorities of isochronous and
asynchronous requests are evaluated in their own respective phases and in
consecutive cycles. EVEN and ODD phases are designed to allow a node to
have a higher priority to transmit during the next cycle, while permitting
others to have a chance to finish their transmission during the current cycle.
Priorities for isochronous requests are 5, 4, 2, and 1 for ISOCH_CURRENT,
ISOCH_ODD, ISOCH_EVEN, and ISOCH_NONE, respectively, in an ODD
isochronous phase, and priorities of ISOCH_ODD and ISOCH_EVEN are
reversed in an EVEN isochronous phase. In other words, a node sends an
ISOCH_CURRENT request to transmit in the current cycle, an ISOCH_ODD or
ISOCH_EVEN request (depending on if the current phase is EVEN or ODD) to
transmit in the next cycle, and an ISOCH_NONE otherwise. Priorities for
asynchronous requests are 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 for NEXT_ODD, CURRENT,
NONE_EVEN, NEXT_EVEN, and NONE_ODD, respectively, in an ASYNC_ODD
phase, and priorities of NEXT_ODD and NEXT_EVEN and of NONE_ODD and
NONE_EVEN are reversed in an ASYNC_EVEN phase. In other words, a node is
sent a CURRENT request to transmit in the current cycle, a NEXT_ODD or
NEXT_EVEN request (depending on if the current phase is ASYNC_EVEN or
ASYNC_ODD) to transmit in the next cycle, and a NONE_EVEN or NONE_ODD
otherwise. Requests from every node are presented to the current BOSS
during every cycle. Priorities of requests from all nodes are evaluated before a
particular request is relayed toward the BOSS.
8.3.3 1394b Initialization Process
A 1394b port sends a tone with a frequency of between 48 and 61 MHz, an

active duration of 666.67 µs, and a repetition period of 42.67 ms to detect if
there is a 1394b port at the other side of a connection. If another 1394b port
is detected by receiving a periodic tone of the specified active duration, a
speed negotiation process between two 1394b ports with a sequence of tones
during a period of 21.33 ms is then carried out as shown in Figure 8.25. The
speed negotiation process is completed when the ack tone is received by both
ports. Speed negotiations between pairs of ports are completed before the bus
initialization of a 1394b network.
Figure 8.25. BOSS Speed Signaling (From IEEE Std. 1394B-
The 1394b bus initialization process is also carried out in bus initialization,
tree identification, and self-identification phases. During the 1394b bus
initialization phase, those nodes with only one active port are identified as
leaves, and those nodes with more than one active port are identified as
branches. Similarly, a node is elected as the root during the 1394b tree
identification phase, and all active ports of other nodes are identified as either
a parent or a child port depending on if their connected port is closer to the
root. The election of a root begins by all leaf nodes sending a PARENT_NOTIFY
request, 11000xx0, to their connected ports. Branch nodes that received
PARENT_NOTIFY requests from leaf nodes send CHILD_NOTIFY requests,
01000xx0, as confirmations. Meanwhile, branch nodes send PARENT_NOTIFY
requests through remaining ports. If a branch node receives a PARENT_NOTIFY
request before sending out its own over the same port it confirms the child-
parent relationship by acknowledging with a CHILD_NOTIFY request. The root
contention process is used to resolve the situation when two branch nodes
exchange their PARENT_NOTIFY requests. During the 1394b self-identification
phase, each node selects a unique ID number and sends one to three short
self-identification packets over the serial bus to any management entity.
8.3.4 1394b Packet Transmissions
Packets are transmitted over 1394b connections with additions of a packet

prefix and a packet end at the beginning and end of a packet, respectively, as
shown in Figure 8.26.
Figure 8.26. 1394b Packet Transmission

The packet prefix consists of a speed code portion and a DATA_PREFIX symbol.
The speed code portion can have more than one speed control symbol of
SPEEDa (0100), SPEEDb (0111), or SPEEDc (1100). The packet itself is first
scrambled using a sequence generated according to the generator polynomial
of G(x) = x11 + x9 + 1 and then encoded according to these rules of 8B10B
encoding. The 8B10B encoding is implemented by combining results of a 5B6B
encoding, as shown in Table 8.3, and a 3B4B encoding, as shown in Table 8.4.
"rd" is the running bias of the encoder. Either P7 or A7 is used depending on
certain conditions. In other words, the first 5 bits of every byte of a packet are
coded into 6 bits, and the next 3 bits are coded into 4 bits. These 6- and 4-bit
outputs are combined to obtain the 10-bit 8B10B encoding result. Some
padding of SPEEDc symbols might be necessary if a connection speed is faster
than that of the original packet. The packet end consists of a stream of packet
end symbols including DATA_END, DATA_PREFIX, GRANT, or GRANT_ISOCH.
Inputs Outputs rd1 Inputs Outputs rd1
Symbol Bits rd>0 rd<0 Symbol Bits rd>0 rd<0
D0 00000 011000 100111 -rd D16 00001 100100 011011 -rd
D1 10000 100010 011101 D17 10001 100011 rd
D2 01000 010010 101101 D18 01001 010011
D3 11000 110001 rd D19 11001 110010
D4 00100 001010 110101 -rd D20 00101 001011
D5 10100 101001 rd D21 10101 101010
D6 01100 011001 D22 01101 011010
D7 11100 000111 111000 rd D23 11101 000101 111010 -rd
D8 00010 000110 111001 -rd D24 00011 001100 110011
D9 10010 100101 rd D25 10011 100110 rd
D10 01010 010101 D26 01011 010110

D11 11010 110100 D27 11011 001001 110110 -rd
D12 00110 001101 D28 00111 001110 rd
D13 10110 101100 D29 10111 010001 101110 -rd
D14 01110 011100 D30 01111 100001 011110
D15 11110 101000 010111 -rd D31 11111 010100 101011
Inputs Outputs rd1
Symbol Bits rd>0 rd<0
Dx.0 000 0100 1011 -rd
Dx.1 100 1001 rd
Dx.2 010 0101
Dx.3 110 0011 1100 rd
Dx.4 001 0010 1101 -rd
Dx.5 101 1010 rd
Dx.6 011 0110
Dx.P7 111 0001 1110 -rd
Dx.A7 111 1000 0111

8.4 1394b Twisted Cable Physical Layer Attributes
8.4.1 Shielded Twisted Cable
To distinguish 1394b ports from those of traditional FireWire, a new connector

with reversed contact orientations as shown in Figure 8.27 has been defined.
The plug, as shown on the left side of the figure, has contacts on top and
beneath bottom sides of an almost rectangular post in contrast with those
inside a cavity. Correspondingly, contacts are inside the cavity of the new
1394b socket as indicated on the right side of the figure. Nine contacts are
defined with two additional pins, 5 and 9, for connecting shields of these two
twisted pairs and one additional pin, pin 7, which has been reserved for future
use. Pins 6 and 8 are used for power supply, pins 1 and 2 belong to one
shielded twisted pair, and pins 3 and 4 belong to the other pair. Some FireWire
ports can operate in either traditional or 1394b modes. A cable with a
traditional plug at one end and a new plug at the other end can be used to
connect a traditional FireWire port and a bilingual port. A key, as shown at the
bottom side of the plug and the socket, is designed to separate a 1394b-only
port from a bilingual port. The key on a bilingual port, both plug and socket, is
a little narrower than that of a 1394b-only port. Therefore, a 1394b-only plug
can be inserted in both 1394b-only and bilingual ports while a bilingual plug
will not fit a 1394b-only socket.
Figure 8.27. Beta and Bilingual Connectors (From IEEE Std.

1394B-2002. Copyright © 2001 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
To accommodate higher rates, two new 1394b short cables have been defined
along with these new connectors. These two new 1394b cables still consist of
two shielded twisted signal pairs and one pair of power wires. The stranded
copper wire of twisted signal pairs for the 4.5-m version of new cable is 25
AWG and associated power stranded copper wire is 22 AWG. Each stranded
copper wire still consists of seven conductors. These conductors are 33 AWG
for twisted pairs and 30 AWG for power wires, respectively. The stranded
copper wire of these twisted pairs for the 2-m version of new cable is 30 AWG
and the associated power stranded copper wire is 26 AWG. Each stranded
copper wire also consists of seven conductors. These conductors are 38 AWG
for twisted signal pairs and 34 AWG for power wires.
Figure 8.28 shows some physical layer functional blocks of a 1394b

transceiver. An arbitration function, external to these blocks, is necessary to
make this transceiver participate in a 1394b serial bus. Depending on whether
the input to the transmitter block is a control symbol, a request, or a packet,
the corresponding encoding function is applied, and the prefix/end might be
attached before the scrambled bits can reach the line driver. After the signal is
amplified, the clock is recovered from the received signal to drive the bit
pattern recovery block. Output from the recovery block is directed to the
proper decoding function with prefix/end removed, if it is a packet, before it
can reach the descrambler.
Figure 8.28. 1394b Short Cable Transceiver Block Diagram
The maximum voltage level delivered by a line driver over a 1394b shielded
twisted pair is 800 mV for baud rates of about 491, 983, and 1966 MHz
corresponding to data rates of S400b, S800b, and S1600b* respectively, where
b denotes the Beta mode. The 20% overhead for these higher baud rates is
due to the 8B10B encoding. Power spectrum densities for 1394b at these baud
rates can be calculated according to
Equation 8.7
where T is the period of baud rate. PSDs for S400b, S800b, and S1600b are
shown in Figure 8.29 with u = 0.8 V and R = 110 ohms.
Figure 8.29. 1394b Power Spectrum Densities
8.4.2 CAT 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
Replacing the line driver and the receiver amplifier of those used for 1394b
shielded twisted pair with a combination of a MLT-3 encoder, a transmit filter,
and a line driver for unshielded twisted pair and another combination of a
corresponding receiver amplifier, an adaptive channel equalizer, a timing
recovery circuit, and a 3-level decoder, the 1394b signal can be carried over
Category 5 twisted pair cable at a maximum distance of 100 m as shown in
Figure 8.30. Detailed requirements of MLT-3 transmission and reception can be
found in ANSI X3.263-1995 standards document. Implementation and
transmission performance of this MLT-3 line codebased transceiver are similar
to those of 100BaseTX. These new 1394b 8B10B encoding and arbitration
techniques have made the choice of the transmission media relatively
independent to the rest of transceiver design.
Figure 8.30. 1394b CAT5 Transceiver Block Diagram
The same RJ45 connector is also used for the Category 5 twisted pair
cablebased 1394b transmission system. However, twisted pairs connected to
pins 1/2 and to pins 7/8 are used to distinguish 1394b signals from those of
100BaseTX. The line voltage level of ±1 V and rising/falling time of 4 ns as
defined for 100BaseTX are also adapted. Consequently, the corresponding PSD
should be the same as that of 100BaseTX. This is also based on assumptions
that the use of 8B10B instead of 4B5B encoding and the order of scrambling
and encoding do not affect PSD.
8.5 MATLAB Files
8.5.1 1394-1995 PSD
f=[0:1000]/1000*4e8;
k=0.2^2/110/0.001;
T1=1/98.304e6;
T2=T1/2;
T3=T2/2;
PSDs1=10*log10(k/T1*((sin(pi*f*T1)).^2./(pi*f).^2));
for i=1:1000
if PSDs1(i)<-140
PSDs1(i)=-140;
end
if PSDs2(i)<-140
PSDs2(i)=-140;
end
if PSDs3(i)<-140
PSDs3(i)=-140;
end
end
plot(f,PSDs1,f,PSDs2,f,PSDs3);
grid
gtext('S100')
gtext('S200')
gtext('S400')
8.6 References
1. IEEE Std 1394-1995, Standard for a High Performance Serial Bus.
2. P1394b, IEEE Draft Standard for a High Performance Serial Bus (High Speed
Supplement).
3. ANSI X3.263-1995, Fibre Distributed Data InterfaceToken Ring Twisted Pair

Physical Layer Medium Dependent (TP-PMD).
Chapter 9. X-10, CEBus, HomePlug
Power lines and wall plugs can be found in every room of a residence. Building
construction codes mandate that a power plug be accessible from anywhere in
a room within the distance of the power cord of an electrical device. There are
usually many more power line wall plugs than telephone wall jacks at most
indoor places. Establishing communication links over an indoor power line is
almost equivalent to wireless because every stationary communication device
is usually connected to the power plug for powering. On the other hand, trying
to establish communication links over a power line is not that easy. The power
line provides a very hostile communication environment with noises generated
by local electrical appliances and collected over the radio wave. The signal
attenuation over a power line connection can be severe as a result of random
branches of electrical cables and low impedances of connected appliances.
These impedances can also be time-variable if appliances are turned on and off
manually and if embedded control electronics such as dimmers are used for
consumption regulation. Wall plugs in most residences are also randomly wired
with two different phases causing additional attenuation for communication
devices operating at relatively low frequency bands.
Among many indoor power linebased communication systems, X-10 has found
applications mainly for home automation, where lights and other appliances
can be turned on and off via short command packets transmitted over the
power line. CEBus is an industry standard intended for the same home
automation and entertainment information distribution applications. CEBus
standards define multiple transmission systems over existing home wiring
(including telephone wiring, coaxial cable, and power line), radio frequency,
and infrared as well as a control application language called CAL. The power
linebased CEBus physical layer has found good applications in commercial
buildings as well as over the wiring of commercial trucks for relaying
information from different parts of a vehicle. Most recently, many attempts
have been made to carry broadband data traffic, equivalent to that of
Ethernet, over the indoor power line. After numerous field tests and trials, a
HomePlug specification has been established for a power linebased
transmission system capable of a throughput of more than 10 Mbps.
9.1 X-10
The X-10 technology was invented about 25 years ago by engineers with a
Scotland company. Pico Electronics Ltd. of Glenrothes, Scot-land, was founded
in the early 1970s for the growing electronic calculator market. Every time
Pico began a new project, it was given an experiment number. Experiments 1
through 8 were increasingly more complex calculator Integrated Circuits (ICs).
Experiment 9 was a project for a programmable record changer. This work was
done for BSR (British Sound Reproduction). Experiment 10, therefore the
name of X-10, was also requested by BSR to provide a wireless method of
remote control for its equipment. It was determined that wireless over existing
electrical wiring was better than other alternatives such as RF or Infrared. X
10 devices were first introduced to the U.S. market in early 1979 by a New
York mail order electronics company. X-10 devices were also later available
from Radio Shack (as Plug 'n' Power) and Sears. Today, many companies make
X-10-based home automation devices, such as switch and lamp modules,
available over Web sites and in electronics stores.
An X-10 switch module sends signals over existing electrical wiring to a lamp
module. X-10 modules can be either adapters that plug into wall outlets or
units that replace conventional manual devices. X-10 power line technology
transmits binary data in 1-ms bursts of 120 kHz during these zero-voltage
crossing points of the 60 Hz AC sine wave between positive or negative
transitions. The zero-crossing point was considered as having the least noise
and interference from other devices on the power line. For robustness, X-10
requires two zero crossings to transmit either a zero or one bit. Every bit
requires a full 60-Hz cycle; therefore, the X-10 transmission rate is limited to
only 60 bps. A complete X-10 command consists of two packets with a three-
cycle gap between each packet. Each packet contains two identical messages of
11 bits (or 11 cycles) each. Therefore, a complete X-10 command consumes 47
cycles, which yields a transmission time of about 0.7833 seconds. Because
signal bursts are operating in a relatively low frequency of 120 kHz, a
capacitive coupling bridge between different phases of an in-house electrical
wiring system might be necessary to minimize attenuations.
9.1.1 Operation Principles of X-10
During a particular transmission, an X-10 transmitter normally sends an

address packet followed by a command packet. An X-10 address packet
consists of a start code, a house code, a number code, the repeat of the same
start code, house code, and number code sequence. An X-10 command packet
has a similar structure except that the number code is replaced by a command
code as shown in Figure 9.1. The number of 60-Hz sine-wave cycles is also
indicated in Figure 9.1 above each corresponding code field on the left and a
half of the packet on the right.
Figure 9.1. X-10 Packet Formats
A house code consists of 4 bits representing letters from A to P. A number code

consists of 4 bits representing 1 through 16 followed by a 0 bit. An intended
receiver is identified by the combination of the house code and the number
code. For 16 house codes and 16 numbers, 256 receivers can be distinguished.
A command code also consists of 4 bits, but it is followed by a 1 bit. A
command includes the house code and a command code. The encoding of these
different codes is summarized in Table 9.1.
The Hail Req is transmitted to see if there are other X-10 systems within
listening range. This allows an installer to assign a different Housecode if a
Hail Ack is received. Ext Code 1 is for data and control. The Ext Code 1 is
followed by bytes that can represent analog data (after A to D conversion).
There should be no gaps between the Ext Code 1 and the following data bytes,
as well as no gaps between data bytes. The format and meaning of these data
bytes can be defined based on particular applications. Ext Code 2 is for meter
read and DSM. Ext Code 2 is also followed by data bytes with no gaps and is
variable in length. Ext Code 3 has been assigned for security message, but its
format has not yet been defined.
For all these house, number, and command codes, the 1 bit is a burst of 120
kHz on the first zero crossing followed by a silent zero crossing and the 0 bit is
a silent zero crossing followed by a burst on the next zero crossing as shown in
Figure 9.2. In particular, the 120-kHz burst lasts about 1 ms with a starting
tolerance of 0.2 ms while a receiver opens its detection window for about 0.6
ms.
Figure 9.2. One and Zero Waveforms
Table 9.1. X-10 Code Table
House Code Number Code Command Code
0110 A 01100 1 All Off 00001
1110 B 11100 2 All Lts On 00011
0010 C 00100 3 On 00101
1010 D 10100 4 Off 00111
0001 E 00010 5 Dim 01001
1001 F 10010 6 Bright 01011
0101 G 01010 7 All Lts Off 01101
1101 H 11010 8 Ext Code 1 01111
0111 I 01110 9 Hail Req 10001
1111 J 11110 10 Hail Ack 10011
0011 K 00110 11 Ext Code 3 10101
1011 L 10110 12 Unused 10111
0000 M 00000 13 Ext Code 2 11001
1000 N 10000 14 Status On 11011

0100 O 01000 15 Status Off 11101
1100 P 11000 16 Status Req 11111
The start code is defined a little differently and cannot be represented by

either the 0 or 1 bit directly. It consists of bursts of 120 kHz on three adjacent
zero crossings and followed by a silent zero crossing as shown in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3. The Start Code Wave Form
There should be at least three silent cycles, or 6 zero-crossing points,

preceding a packet or in between any packets. Figure 9.4 shows an example of
an address packet followed by a command packet with three cycles of
separation. There are altogether 47 cycles of the 60-Hz sine wave starting
from the start code of the address packet and ending with the command code
of the command packet. These 47 cycles last about 0.7833 second. Some
broadcasting commands, such as all lights off and all lights on, do not need a
leading address packet and, consequently, require only 22 cycles to complete.
These 22 cycles last about 0.3667 second.
Figure 9.4. An Example Packet Sequence
9.1.2 Implementations of X-10 Devices

To send packets, an X-10 transmitter needs to have zero crossing detection,
packet formation, and bursts signal generation capabilities as well as user
input and power supply functionalities as shown in Figure 9.5. Also shown in
Figure 9.5, An X-10 receiver needs to have complementary zero crossing,
bursts signal, and packet detection capabilities. An X-10 receiver also needs
device address assignment, power supply, and external control functionalities.
These external control functions can act as a simple or a variable output switch
for a range of different electrical appliances.
Figure 9.5. X-10 Transceiver Architecture
An X-10 device can be implemented with a microcontroller, for these signal

generation and detection capabilities, as well as a few discrete components, for
power supply and external control functionalities. Figure 9.6 shows a
schematic for a possible implementation of an X-10 lamp switch module. The
power supply, V, is provided by the diode 1N4004, the Zener diode, and the
220-microfarad (µF) capacitor on the left side of the transformer. Bursts
signals, after being amplitude limited by two 1N4148 diodes, are collected at
the other side of the transformer by the microcontroller. Zero crossings can
also be detected by the microcontroller through a connection to the power line
via a limiting and rectifying network that consists of three 1N4148 diodes and
two resistors at the lower-right corner of Figure 9.6. House and device codes
are input to the microcontroller directly. The microcontroller sends a signal via
pin 6 to the triac (BTA10) for the external lamp-switching function. Feedback
about the status of the lamp switch is also provided to the microcontroller via
pin 8. Some X-10 device manufacturers have used PIC16C5X microcontroller
to provide cost-effective solutions.
Figure 9.6. An X-10 Switch Module Implementation Example

Transformers are used in X-10 transmitters and receivers to isolate the bursts
signal from the regular power line voltage. On the other hand,
microcontrollers operate on a regulated power supply of between 3 and 5 V.
Therefore, bursts signal level from a microcontroller should be within a few
volts. The bursts signal level on the in-house wiring can be a few times higher
or lower depending on the transformer ratio.
9.2 CEBus
The effort for a Consumer Electronics Bus standard was initiated during a
Washington, DC, hotel room meeting, sponsored by Electronics Industries
Alliance and attended by 12 members representing 12 different companies in
April of 1984. Similar to that of X-10, the original goal of CEBus was to
develop an infrared remote control standard. Not surprisingly, some parts of
the CEBus standards are used for residential and industrial control
applications. During 1986, GE's Homenet was selected as the foundation of
CEBus protocol. During 1988, an early version of the CEBus Power Line
physical layer was proposed using the 1-Kbps Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
technique. Some techniques for transmission over other media, such as
Twisted Pair (TP) and Coaxial Cable (CX), were also proposed thereafter. The
current version of the CEBus PL physical layer is based on Intellon's spread
spectrum technique proposed during 1991. A control application language was
adapted during 1998. CEBus standards were developed to interconnect
consumer electronic devices within a home and to link these devices to
services provided by external resources at a very economical cost. Details of
CEBus standards are described in EIA-600 documents [13].
Two components of these CEBus standards have achieved some limited success
in real-world applications. The first is the CEBus PL physical layer and the
second is the CAL. The CEBus PL physical layer can transmit data packets at
about 10 Kbps using a special type of spread spectrum technique. Each CEBus
PL packet contains sender and receiver addresses. The CEBus protocol uses a
peer-to-peer communications model so that any node on the network has
access to the media at any time. To avoid data collisions, it uses a Carrier
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection and Resolution (CSMA/CDCR)
protocol. CAL allows devices to communicate commands and status requests
between each other using a common command syntax and vocabulary. CAL
defines various electronic device functional subunits as contexts. For example,
the audio control of a TV, a stereo, a CD player, or a VCR is a CAL context.
Each context is further broken down into objects, which represent various
control functions of the context (e.g., volume, bass, treble, or mute functions).
Finally, objects are defined by a set of instance variables that specify the
operation of the function of the object, such as the default or current setting of
the volume object.
9.2.1 Highlights of CEBus Standards

CEBus physical layers are developed for the common in-house transmission
infrastructure. There are usually electrical and telephone wiring, and coaxial
cable in a typical home environment. These infrastructure wirings usually
connect to corresponding external networks over a few nearby entrance
points. In addition, Radio Frequency and Infrared wireless means are also
considered for exchanging control or multimedia content information. Figure
9.7 shows the CEBus reference architecture based these five different
transmission media.
Figure 9.7. CEBus Reference Architecture
A Node 0 near these network entrance points is defined to house external

network service distribution devices and routers and/or data bridges to
interconnect electronic devices with their CEBus communication means
attached to different transmission media. According to the definition of CEBus,
a Router in Node 0 is used to relay control information between two wired
media. A Data Bridge is used to transfer data or multimedia contents between
two wired media and a Brouter is used to interconnect between a wired and a
wireless media.
A common CEBus packet format, as shown in Figure 9.8, is defined for use on
all different physical layers. A CEBus packet always starts with a preamble for
synchronization purposes. The preamble is followed by the DLPDU (Data Link
Protocol Data Unit) header, which consists of a control field, a to-address, and
a from-address. The 1-byte control field can be used to request one of several
acknowledgments. The DLPDU header is followed by the NPDU (Network
Protocol Data Unit) header. The NPDU header can be 1 to 8 bytes and is used
to send segmentation or routing information. The NPDU header is followed by
the APDU (Application Protocol Data Unit) header. The APDU can be either 1
byte for nonsecure service requests or multiple bytes for security
authentication services. The APDU header is followed by a CAL message of
variable length. The CEBus packet ends with an FCS (Frame Check Sequence)
of 8 bits. This packet format reflects CEBus's protocol of five layers: CAL,
application, network, data link, and physical. The preamble field is terminated
with a PEOF (Preamble End Of Field) symbol. All other fields are separated by
an EOF (End Of Field) symbol and a CEBus packet is terminated by an EOP
(End Of Packet) symbol.
Figure 9.8. CEBus Packet Format
One and zero as well as some symbols with special meanings are all coded by
their durations of signaling as shown in Table 9.2. A CEBus UST (Unit Symbol
Time) is defined as 100 µs. A 1 bit consumes 1 UST and a 0 bit consumes 2
UST. Adjacent symbols and their durations are distinguished by alternating
Superio and Inferio states of signaling. Depending on a particular physical
medium, Superio and Inferio states can be represented with quite different
methods. For the CEBus PL physical layer, the Superio state is represented by
the normal phase of a spread spectrum burst, and the Inferio state is
represented by the opposite phase of the spread spectrum burst except for the
preamble period. For the CEBus CX physical layer, the Superio state is
represented by the presence of a 5.5-MHz carrier, for control information, and
the Inferio state is represented by the absence of the carrier.
Table 9.2. CEBus Symbol Format
Symbol Duration (µs) Length (UST)
One 100 1
Zero 200 2
EOF 300 3
PEOF 800 8
EOP 400 4
9.2.2 CEBus PL Physical Layer
A chirp is a CEBus PL physical layer base signaling unit. The spread spectrum
characteristics of the CEBus PL physical layer is the result of the special
waveform of its chirp as shown in Figure 9.9. To achieve the maximum
autocorrelation gain in a CEBus receiver, the chirp waveform should be
constructed exactly 360 digitized points according to the CEBus standards [2].
A chirp waveform starts at 200 kHz and sweeps to 400 kHz, jumps to 100 kHz,
and then sweeps to 200 kHz. The complete waveform takes 25 cycles in 100
µs. The chirp waveform is limited to a peak-to-peak voltage of 7 V while the
out-of-band voltage should be less than 5 mV at below 100 kHz and below 1
mV above 400 kHz. This can be achieved with the help of additional bandpass
filters. With a load impedance of 10 ohms, the in-band PSD level of the CEBus
PL physical layer signal is about 27 dBm/Hz as shown in Figure 9.10.
Figure 9.9. CEBus PL Spread Spectrum Chirp

Figure 9.10. PSD of CEBus PL Signal
The basic chirp waveform defined in the CEBus standards is used as the
Superio state. The Inferio state is represented by the absence of the waveform
during preamble only and by the phase inverse of the waveform in the rest of
the packet. In other words, a 0 bit is represented by the absence of the chirp
waveform for 200 µs during the preamble and by two inverted chirp
waveforms in the following fields. EOF and EOP can take either Superio or
Inferio waveforms depending on if the preceding last bit is 0 or 1, respectively.
Similar to that of X-10, a complete CEBus PL transceiver implementation

requires signal and packet generation and reception parts. Because of its
higher transmission throughputs and signal level, a CEBus PL transceiver is
normally implemented with an Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
chip set such as these P300 and P111 chips from Intellon and the CEWay PL-
One from Domosys. Figure 9.11 shows the application of Intellon chips for a
CEBus transceiver.
Figure 9.11. A CEBus PL Implementation Example

A typical CEBus transceiver can be constructed with a transceiver chip and a
power amplifier in conjunction with a host device microprocessor as well as
some other discrete components. The transceiver chip is responsible for
resource-intensive data link functions and physical layer services of the
protocol. Specific DLL services include transmission and reception of packets,
byte-to-symbol conversion for transmitted packets, symbol-to-byte conversion
for received packets, transmit channel access (based on EIA-600 access rules),
and CRC generation and checking. The power amplifier and associated discrete
components amplify the transmitted signal to drive the low impedance of the
medium, couple the spread spectrum signal onto the medium, and filter the
incoming signal. The host communicates with the SSC P300 by issuing
commands. These commands provide for the initialization and verification of
the node's operating mode and addresses, for the transmission and reception
of packets, and for the return of status information.
9.2.3 CEBus CX Physical Layer
The use of residential dual coaxial cable for exchanging control and data
information is also defined by the CEBus standards [3], but they are not
broadly recognized. The structure of Node 0 for the CEBus CX physical layer is
worth a close examination because any other residential coaxial cablebased
transmission system will face the same signal redistribution problem at a cable
TV entrance point. Figure 9.12 shows the coaxial cable portion of the Node 0
structure defined by the CEBus.
Figure 9.12. Central Connection Diagram

The dark external coaxial cable is connected to the external cable or off-the-air
TV signal over a splitter. Parallel with the external cable, an internal coaxial
cable, in gray, is connected to another nearby splitter. About 40 dB of signal
loss occurs between different output ports of a splitter. To distribute the control
or data information from a particular coaxial cable outlet to the other devices
connected through the splitter, a feedback mechanism is used at the input port
of the same splitter. As recommended by the CEBus standards, the feedback
mechanism consists of a two-port splitter, a bandpass filter, and a block
converter. Control or data information from a particular transmitter is collected
by the bandpass filter, converted to another frequency band, and sent to the
rest of the receivers through the same splitter. Because transmit and received
signals operate in different frequency bands, some signal amplification can also
be introduced in the block converter to compensate attenuations caused by
cable and splitters.
Because of the use of a block converter, the CEBus CX control signal can be
transmitted with a carrier frequency of 5.5 MHz and received at 4.5 MHz as
shown in Figure 9.13. Similarly, data information can be transmitted in the
frequency band of 54 to 150 MHz on the internal coaxial cable and received in
the 324- to 420-MHz band on the same coaxial cable. At a carrier frequency of
4.5/5.5 MHz, the Superio state is represented by the presence of the carrier,
and the Inferio state, by the absence.
Figure 9.13. An Example Frequency Allocation on Internal

Coaxial Cable
The same redistribution problem can also be addressed with a simpler solution
as shown in Figure 9.14. We can leave the input port of a splitter open to let
the redistribution be taken care of by the natural reflection of the open port.
Because of the strong reflection, the external cable or off-the-air TV signal can
be connected to another output port of the splitter for distribution at its
original frequency.
Figure 9.14. Redistribution on a Single Coaxial Cable

9.3 HomePlug
High-throughput home networking is partially driven by the arrival of DSL

lines and cable modems to homes with multiple PCs. HomePlug is the result of
a common industry desire to have a single transmission protocol for
interconnecting PCs as well as entertainment electronics "wirelessly" over the
in-home power lines. The formation of thirteen companies for the HomePlug
Powerline Alliance was announced on April 10, 2000. Alphabetically, these
founding companies were 3COM, AMD, CISCO, Compaq, Enikia, Intel, Intellon,
Motorola, Panasonic, S3 (Diamond Multimedia), Tandy/RadioShack, and TI. The
HomePlug group followed a development process for the proposal, the field
test, and the selection of a transmission technology similar to the one that has
been successfully practiced at HomePNA. Under the sponsorship of RadioShack
and Compaq, five residences of different sizes in the Dallas, Texas, area were
chosen to field test prototypes of different power linebased transmission
systems from Adaptive Network, Cogency, Enikia, Intellon, and Itran. Based on
field-test performances of these prototypes, the system from Intellon was
chosen as the basis for the HomePlug technology, and the decision was
finalized on June 5, 2000. Intellon also immediately made the first draft of the
HomePlug specification available to member companies. Technical working
groups were formed to address issues such as field validation tests, radio
emission limits, and coexistence with other power linebased systems.
Extensive field tests of prototypes conforming to the draft specification were
conducted at more than 500 homes during the first quarter of 2001 by many
participating member companies. Version 1.0 of the HomePlug specification
was subsequently released on June 26, 2001.
The HomePlug uses burst mode orthogonal frequency division multiplexing as

its basic transmission technique. OFDM is also called Discrete MultiTone (DMT)
for the modulation method used by ADSL. OFDM waveforms are generated by
the inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) converting data bits allocated in
many frequency subcarriers to time domain. Each complete cycle of IFFT
produces one OFDM symbol. In time domain, each HomePlug OFDM symbol
lasts 420 sampling points. With a sampling frequency of 50 MHz, HomePlug's
symbol rate is about 119 kHz. HomePlug has an IFFT size of 256 real time
points or 128 complex subcarriers in frequency domain. Adjacent subcarriers
are therefore 50,000,000/256 = 195312.5 Hz apart. Extended OFDM symbols
of 428 points are created by concatenating the last 172 time points in front of
the original 256 IFFT time points. Extended symbols are sent over the power
line with eight overlapping points between adjacent ones.
Among these subcarriers, only 84 subcarriers are utilized creating a signal

spectrum of from 4.4 to 20.8 MHz. Eight subcarriers are further turned off to
create spectrum notches for avoiding interference to amateur radio bands. The
transmission throughput is about 18 Mbps for 76 usable subcarriers each
carrying a maximum of 2 bits at a symbol rate of 119 kHz. The net
transmission throughput is reduced to about 12.7 Mbps for a Reed-Solomon
coding efficiency of 238/254 and a convolution coding efficiency of 3/4. At the
robust (ROBO) mode, where transmission conditions are most unfavorable,
coding efficiencies become 43/51 and 1/2 while each coded bit occupies four
subcarriers resulting in a transmission throughput of about 950 kbps.
The HomePlug MAC is a variant of the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance protocol. The MAC uses a Virtual Carrier Sense (VCS)
mechanism to minimize the number of collisions. Upon receipt of a preamble in
the head, the receiver attempts to determine the duration of the packet and
wait accordingly. The destination receiver responds with a short
acknowledgment packet. If the source fails to receive the acknowledgment, it
assumes that a collision has occurred. When packets collide, the HomePlug
MAC uses a random back-off algorithm to resolve for the next transmitter. To
interconnect entertainment electronics, four different priority levels are
included in the HomePlug MAC. Higher priority levels can be assigned to
timing-sensitive packets, such as those of music, as compared to PC-oriented
data packets.
9.3.1 Highlights of HomePlug Technologies
The transmission technology can be explained by following the signal flow of a

HomePlug transceiver [4]. Figure 9.15 shows a functional block diagram of a
HomePlug transmitter. Data information bits pass through a scrambler, a Reed-
Solomon encoder, a convolution encoder, a bit or ROBO interleaver to reach
the bit mapper. The convolution encoding might also involve a puncturing
process, as explained later, to produce a 3/4 convolution code instead of the 1/2
code. Data information bits can be mapped at either 1 or 2 bits per subcarrier
using Differential BPSK (DBPSK) or Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(DQPSK) modulation methods, respectively. After IFFT, cyclic prefixes are
created for each extended symbol, and a preamble is inserted in the front of
the packet. A shaping filter is also used to minimize out-of-band signal energy.
Figure 9.15. Transmitter Block Diagram

For scrambling, data information bits are exclusive ORed with a pseudo-
random sequence whose generator polynomial is described by
Equation 9.1
This sequence generator is initialized with all ones. The scrambled data bits
are then passed through a Reed-Solomon (255, 239, 8) or (255, 247, 4)
encoder, where the first number represents the code word size, the second
number the message size, and the third the number of correctable errors all in
bytes. The generator polynomial is g(x) = (x + a)(x + a2)...(x + a16) for
regular transmission modes and g(x) = (x + a)(x + a2)...(x + a8) for the
ROBO mode.
The convolution encoder thus has an efficiency of 1/2. A puncturing procedure

is used to produce the 3/4 convolution encoding. Starting with the first pair of
encoded bits, the puncturing procedure takes away an x output bit from the
second pair and a y output bit from the third pair and repeats this process for
every group of three pairs. To combat the effect of impulse noise, the bit
interleaver redistributes data bits among 20 or 40 symbols. The ROBO
interleaver introduces a redundancy of 4 in addition to the redistribution
function. Data bits are modulated using either DBPSK or DQPSK. For DBPSK, a
0 bit is represented by the same phase as the previous symbol of the same
subcarrier, and a 1 bit is represented by a 180° phase reversal of the previous
symbol of the same subcarrier. 00, 01, 10, and 11 bit combinations are
represented by 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° phase shifts from the previous symbol
of the same subcarrier respectively for DQPSK.
Figure 9.16 shows a functional block diagram of a HomePlug receiver. The

received signal from the power line is first normalized and digitized by the
analog front end (AFE). Timing information is extracted from the preamble and
used to drive the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and other receiver functions.
Complex numbers from FFT are converted to magnitude and phase values for
every subcarrier. Channel conditions can be estimated based on the magnitude
information during preamble. Under certain bad transmission conditions, some
nonusable subcarriers can be identified using corresponding pairs of HomePlug
transceivers. Data bits are derived through deinterleaving, depuncturing,
Viterbi decoding, Reed-Solomon decoding, and descrambling.
Figure 9.16. Receiver Block Diagram
For rate 3/4 convolution-encoded data bits, a zero is inserted after the first pair
of xy bits and another is inserted after the second pair of yx bits in the
depuncturing process. Bits from a HomePlug convolution encoder depend on
their input bit as well as the current state, which is a collection of six previous
input bits. Instead of taking bits from each subcarrier as received data bits
directly, the Viterbi decoding algorithm exclusive ORs these bits with ideal bit
patterns from the current state to all possible next states. These results are
accumulated and kept for a few potential paths of different passing states until
a path with a significantly low sum of exclusive OR results can be identified.
After a correct path is identified, the bit sequence along that path is released
as correct received data bits.
The Reed-Solomon decoding is carried out in several steps. Error syndromes

are first calculated, an error locator polynomial is then formulated, roots of the
error-located polynomial are searched, another z polynomial is formed based
on error syndromes and coefficients of the error locator polynomial, and error
values are calculated using the z polynomial and roots of the error locator
polynomial. Errors can then be corrected based on error locations and
corresponding error values. Descrambling of Reed-Solomon decoded bits is
carried out by exclusive OR of these bits with a pseudo-random sequence
whose generator polynomial is the same as that in the transmitter.
9.3.2 CSMA/CA and MII

The CSMA/CA MAC protocol of HomePlug is similar to that of conventional
Ethernet CSMA/CD except for the difference of collision avoidance and collision
detection. Because power line attenuation can be severe from time to time,
the detection of collisions is not guaranteed. Therefore, the correct reception
of each packet needs to be confirmed via a short acknowledgment packet from
the destination transceiver. A normal HomePlug packet consists of a delimiter,
a frame header, a frame body, and an FCS. Depending on the transmission
mode (ROBO or normal), modulation method (DBPSK or DQPSK), coding
efficiency (1/2 or 3/4), and the number of available subcarriers, the total
number of data bytes within a packet of maximum size varies.
When the size of an original data packet exceeds that available within a
HomePlug packet, a segmentation process is carried out in the source
transceiver to use multiple HomePlug packets to carry the data packet and a
reassembly process is carried out in the destination transceiver to put the data
packet together based on multiple received HomePlug packets. All
segmentation information such as segment length, segment count, and last
segment flag are contained in the segment control field of frame header. With
the segmentation information, a destination transceiver can reassemble the
data packet. Each correct reception of a normal packet is acknowledged by the
destination transceiver responding with a short packet.
HomePlug transceivers at different neighboring houses can still receive

unintended packets if these houses share the same transformer and,
therefore, their power lines are physically connected. HomePlug MAC can
provide logic separations between different home networks through encryption
using 56-bit DES (Data Encryption Standard). Details of this encryption
algorithm are defined by the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS)
Publication 46-3, "Data Encryption Standard," using Cipher Block Chaining
(CBC) mode. To participate in a logical home network defined by encryption, a
transceiver needs to have a particular network encryption key for that
network. A transceiver can obtain a network encryption key by either
password or network entry. In other words, a network encryption key can be
obtained from a user who knows the local password or by receiving a message
encrypted using a previously known key from another transceiver.
The use of the standard Ethernet MII is recommended by the HomePlug

standards. Transmit Clock (TXCLK) and Receive Clock (RXCLK) rate of 2.5 MHz
is recommended in conjunction with the 10-Mbps operation mode. The MII is
used as a data channel that transfers data back and forth in units of packets
with flow controlled by the carrier sense (CRS) signal. Ethernet-mandated
management data registers and extended registers for HomePlug power line
transceivers are all accessible via the MDIO/MDCLK. Initially, packets are
exchanged between two transceivers using the default ROBO mode. Channel
estimation, tone masking, FEC coding rate, and modulation methods are then
negotiated between MAC management entities of these two transceivers by
setting up right values of proper registers. A specific EtherType has been
reserved that allows MAC entities on HomePlug network to exchange this
information. MAC management also supports the encryption procedure for
establishing a logic home network.
9.3.3 Components of a Simulation Model
Assuming that correct timing information can be recovered from the preamble,
the construction of a HomePlug simulation model for performance studies
mainly involves putting together functional blocks of Reed-Solomon as well as
convolution coding/decoding and FFT/IFFT. These functions, at a command or
block level (such as RSENCODE, RSDECODE, CONVENC, VITDEC, FFT, IFFT)
can all be found in Communications and Signal Processing tool boxes of
MATLAB and Simulink, respectively. To understand them for the purpose of
implementation, detailed realization procedures and steps of these functions
with HomePlug parameters are discussed in this section. Related MATLAB files
are also included at the end of this chapter.
Reed-Solomon code is based on nonbinary, 2m, (m = 2, 3, ...) representation

of symbols and associated finite field arithmetic operations. For the Reed-
Solomon code used in HomePlug, m = 8 and 2m = 256. That means each data
symbol is represented by 8 bits and can have digital equivalent values of from
0 to 255. The encoding of Reed-Solomon code is carried out by Galois field
multiplication and addition of data symbols and coefficients of the generator
polynomial. The multiplication is performed by adding power indexes of two
numbers in their power representations, while the addition is executed by bit-
wise exclusive OR operation of two numbers in their binary representations.
Assuming that the least significant bit is at the rightmost position 1 and the
most significant bit is at the most leftmost position 8, power representations
with indices of 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and 0 have only one 1-bit at positions 8
through 1, respectively. For example, a7 and 10000000 are power and binary
representations of 128 in a 28 Galois field (GF).
The power representation with the highest index in the 28 Galois field is a254.
The finite field nature brings a255 back to a0 = 1 (i.e., a255 = a0 = 1). Because
each bit in the binary representation of the 28 Galois field carries a weight of
ai for i less than 8, the binary presentation can also be expressed in the
polynomial format. For example, the binary representation of a8 is 00011101
and the corresponding polynomial format is a4 + a3 + a2 + 1. The binary and
polynomial equivalents of any power representations in the 28 Galois field with
an index larger than 7 can be found using its primitive polynomial and the fact
that the polynomial becomes zero when the variable x is substituted by a.
The primitive polynomial for the 28 Galois field is
Equation 9.2
Primitive polynomials of other 2m Galois fields can be found in coding

reference books [5] and by the MATLAB function GFPRIMFD.
Since p(a) = a8 + a4 + a3 + a2 + 1 = 0, we find a8 = a8 + a8 + a4 + a3 + a2

+ 1 = a4 + a3 + a2 + 1. Using an = an-1 · a, we can find polynomials for a9
through a11 as a9 = a8 · a = a5 + a4 + a3 + a, a10 = a9 · a = a6 + a5 + a4 +
a2, and a11 = a10 · a = a7 + a6 + a5 + a3. For a12 and a13, we again use the
primitive polynomial to obtain a12 = a11 · a = a8 + a7 + a6 + a4 = a4 + a3 +
a2 + 1 + a7 + a6 + a4 = a7 + a6 + a3 + a2 + 1, and a13 = a12 · a = a8 + a7 +
a4 + a3 + a = a4 + a3 + a2 + 1 + a7 + a4 + a3 + a = a7 + a2 + a + 1.
A lookup table can thus be established to relate the power index to binary and
polynomial representations as partially demonstrated in Table 9.3. Analogous
to the conventional log function, this can also be called the inverse log table of
the 28 Galois field since it takes the power index as inputs and produces binary
as outputs. A log table of the 28 Galois field can also be configured by taking
binary as inputs and producing power index as outputs. These tables are
necessary for Reed-Solomon encoding and decoding because conversions
between different representations happen frequently during alternating
multiplication and addition operations. The MATLAB program to generate these
tables appears at the end of this chapter. The MATLAB function GFTPLE can
also be used to generate these tables.
The GF (28) Reed-Solomon code used in HomePlug has a block or code word
size of 28 1 = 255 symbols or bytes, or equivalently, 255 x 8 = 2040 bits. For
regular operation, a code word consists of 239 message bytes and 16 parity
bytes, and the number of correctable error bytes is 8. Parity bytes, c(x), are
the remainder of the message polynomial divided by the generator polynomial:
Equation 9.3
Table 9.3. Power Presentation for the Elements of GF (28)
Power Polynomial Binary Decimal
0 0 00000000 0
1 1 00000001 1
a a 00000010 2
a2 a2 00000100 4
a3 a3 00001000 8
a4 a4 00010000 16
a5 a5 00100000 32
a6 a6 01000000 64
a7 a7 10000000 128
a8 a 4+a 3+a 2+1 00011101 29
a9 a 5+a 4+a 3+a 00111010 58
a 10 a 6+a 5+a 4+a 2 01110100 116
a 11 a 7+a 6+a 5+a 3 11101000 232
a 12 a 7+a 6+a 3+a 2+1 11001101 205
a 13 a 7+a 2+a+1 10000111 135
...
a 251 a 7+a 6+a 4+a 3+1 11011000 216

a 252 a 7+a 5+a 3+a 2+1 10101101 173
a 253 a 6+a 2+a+1 01000111 71
a 254 a 7+a 3+a 2+a 10001110 142
These 239 coefficients of the message polynomial carry data information at 8

bits each:
Equation 9.4
Equation 9.5
The generator polynomial of the Reed-Solomon (255, 239, 8) code has the
following product format:
Equation 9.6
The generator polynomial can also be represented in the conventional

polynomial format as
Equation 9.7
This conventional format can be obtained using the MATLAB function RSPOLY.
The remainder is obtained by dividing the message polynomial by the

generator polynomial. To cancel the first term, m1x254, of the time-shifted
message polynomial, we multiply the generator polynomial g(x) with the first
message m1 and perform bit-wise exclusive OR operation against the first 17
terms of the message polynomial. Next, we multiply the g(x) by m2 + m1 x g1
to cancel the second term, m2x253, after the first exclusive OR operation. The
multiplication and addition process is repeated until the last term, m239x16, is
canceled and the remainder is obtained. This repetitive operation can be
carried out using the shift register structure as shown in Figure 9.17 where
multiplications are carried out by additions of power indices and additions are
executed by exclusive OR operations of binary representations of 8 bits.
Figure 9.17. A Reed-Solomon Encoder Implementation
Code words are formed by combining message bytes with parity bytes.
Equation 9.8
The MATLAB program of this Reed-Solomon encoding process is listed at the

end of this chapter [6]. The encoding process can also be accomplished using
MATLAB function RSENCODE. The differences are that the RSENCODE
command takes in the last element of the input polynomial message vector as
the first input and subsequently combines these parity bytes at the beginning
of the codeword vector.
The Reed-Solomon decoding is carried out in the following steps. Error

syndromes are first calculated, an error locator polynomial is then formulated,
roots of the error-located polynomial are searched, another z polynomial is
formed based on error syndromes and coefficients of the error locator
polynomial, and error values are calculated using the z polynomial and roots of
the error locator polynomial. Error can then be corrected based on error
locations and corresponding error values. Denoting the received message of
255 bytes as r(x) = r1x254 + r2x253 + ... + r254x+ r255, error syndromes are
calculated by substituting x with a, a2, ... a16 in the received polynomial to
obtain S1 = r(a), S2 = r(a2), ..., S16 = r(a16), respectively. Error syndromes
can be represented in either power index or 8-bit binary format. The error
locator polynomial, L(x) = 1 + s 1 x + ... + s vxv, can then be formed using
Berlekamp's iterative algorithm as described in the following eight steps,
where
and 2t = 16 for this application.
1. Initialize the algorithm variables: k = 0, L (0)(x), = 1, L = 0, and T

(x) = x.
Set k = k + 1. Compute the discrepancy L(k) as follows:
Equation 9.9
If D(k) = 0, then go to Step 7.
Modify the connection polynomial: L(k)(x) = L(k-1) (x) - D(k) T(x).
If 2L k, then go to Step 7.
Set L = k L and T(x) = L(k-1) / D(k).
Set T(x) = xT(x).
If k < 2t, then go to Step 2.
These v roots of the error locator polynomial can be found using Chien's
search algorithm by substituting x with a, a2, ..., into L(x) to find L(bi) =
0 for i = 1, …, v. The z(x) polynomial is then formed using error syndromes
and coefficients of the error locator polynomial as
Equation 9.10
These v error values can be found by replacing x in the z(x) polynomial with
roots of the error locator polynomial as
Equation 9.11
Errors are then corrected based on error locations and corresponding error
values. The MATLAB program of this Reed-Solomon decoding process is listed
at the end of this chapter [7]. The decoding process can also be accomplished
using MATLAB function RSDECODE.
Generating x and y bits using the convolution encoder can be based on the
current and previous 6 input data bits. These previous 6 input bits also
determine the current state and, similarly, the next state is determined by the
current and previous 5 input bits. Relationships between input bit, output bits,
current state, and the next state are summarized in Table 9.4. This lookup
table can be used for encoding to produce x and y outputs based on current
state and input bits, but it is more useful for Viterbi decoding [8].
Table 9.4. Status Transition Table
xy Next State xy Next State xy Next State xy Next State

Current State Current State
(0 input) (1 input) (0 input) (1 input)
000000 00 000000 11 100000 100000 00 010000 01 110000
000001 11 000000 00 100000 100001 01 010000 10 110000
000010 01 000001 10 100001 100010 11 010001 00 110001
000011 10 000001 01 100001 100011 00 010001 11 110001
000100 00 000010 11 100010 100100 10 010010 01 110010
000101 11 000010 00 100010 100101 01 010010 10 110010
000110 01 000011 10 100011 100110 11 010011 00 110011
000111 10 000011 01 100011 100111 00 010011 11 110011
001000 11 000100 00 100100 101000 01 010100 10 110100
001001 00 000100 11 100100 101001 10 010100 01 110100
001010 10 000101 01 100101 101010 00 010101 11 110101
001011 01 000101 10 100101 101011 11 010101 00 110101
001100 11 000110 00 100110 101100 01 010110 10 110110
001101 00 000110 11 100110 101101 10 010110 01 110110
001110 10 000111 01 100111 101110 00 010111 11 110111
001111 01 000111 10 100111 101111 11 010111 00 110111
010000 11 001000 00 101000 110000 01 011000 10 111000
010001 00 001000 11 101000 110001 10 011000 01 11 1000
010010 10 001001 01 101001 110010 00 011001 11 111001

010011 01 001001 10 101001 110011 11 011001 00 111001
010100 11 001010 00 101010 110100 01 011010 10 111010
010101 00 001010 11 101010 110101 10 011010 01 111010
010110 10 001011 01 101011 110110 00 011011 11 111011
010111 01 001011 10 101011 110111 11 011011 00 111011
011000 00 001100 11 101100 111000 10 011100 01 111100
011001 11 001100 00 101100 111001 01 011100 10 111100
011010 01 001101 10 101101 111010 11 011101 00 111101
011011 10 001101 01 101101 111011 00 011101 11 111101
011100 00 001110 11 101110 111100 10 011110 01 111110
011101 11 001110 00 101110 111101 01 011110 10 111110
011110 01 001111 10 101111 111110 11 011111 00 111111
011111 10 001111 01 101111 111111 00 011111 11 111111
Starting from a known state, either at the beginning of a packet or after a

successful determination of a correct path, the Viterbi decoder calculates the
total number of different bits compared between the received bits and those
leading to next possible states. For HomePlug, the number of received bits as
well as those leading to the next states is 2 and the number of next states is
also 2 from a current state. After the first comparison, the number of possible
current states becomes 2 and each additional comparison of received bits can
double the number of possible states. To avoid unnecessary calculations, it is
sufficient to maintain only four possible states of lowest accumulated bit
difference numbers after multiple comparisons for a HomePlug Viterbi decoder.
After a sufficient number of comparisons, the Viterbi decoder selects the state
with a significantly lower number of accumulated bit differences as the correct
one and releases the bits associated with the path connecting the previous
known state to the correct state as the received bit stream. The Viterbi
decoding procedure can be described in following steps:
1. For every pair of received bits, the number of bit differences from
each surviving state to the next two possible states are calculated
using exclusive OR and SUM operations.
The accumulated number of bit differences are updated for each next
possible state.
Select four possible states with lowest accumulated number of bit

differences for the next iteration. Keep tracking paths, state-to-next-state
transitions and associated x and y bits, leading to these four surviving states.
If a state with a significantly lower accumulated number of bit differences
cannot be identified, go back to Step 1.
Select the state with a significantly lower accumulated number of bit

differences as the current known state and release bits associated with the
path connecting the previously known state to the currently known state as
the received bit stream. If the EOP has not been reached, go back to Step 1.
MATLAB programs for HomePlug convolution encoding and Viterbi decoding are
listed at the end of this chapter. They are equivalent to MATLAB functions of
CONVENC and VITDEC in the Communication toolbox.
FFT and IFFT are usually carried out with either a decimation-in-time or
decimation-in-frequency algorithm [9]. The decimation-in-time algorithm
starts with two-point operations and finishes with an operation of the full FFT
size. The decimation-in-frequency algorithm starts with an operation of the full
IFFT size and finishes with two-point operations. Either algorithm can be used
for FFT or IFFT with the proper definition of the base complex exponent,
Each algorithm takes about log2 N stages of operations. To take advantage of

zero subcarriers, the decimation-in-time algorithm can be used for IFFT, and
the decimation-in-frequency algorithm can be used for FFT for HomePlug.
Using the decimation-in-time algorithm, these eight stages of 256-point
operations for IFFT can be simplified to four stages of six 32-point operations
plus four stages of 256-point operations. Similarly, these eight stages of 256-
point operations for FFT can be simplified to four stages of 256-point
operations plus four stages of six 32-point operations using the decimation-in-
frequency algorithm.
9.4 MATLAB Files
9.4.1 CEBus PL Chirp
f=[0:359]/359*1.75e5+0.75e5;
%f=4e5;
t=[0:359]/359*1e-4;
chirp1=sin(2*pi*f.*t);
chirp=3.5*[chirp1(131:360) chirp1(1:130)];
figure(1)
plot(t,chirp)
xlabel('Time (Sec.)')
ylabel('Magnitude')
F=fft(chirp);
figure(2)
py=10*log10((abs(F(1:100))).^2/360/10/0.001/3.6e6*2);
plot([1:100]/360*3.6e6, py)
grid
9.4.2 GF Representation Calculation
%Primitive Polynomial
%pp=[1 0 1 1];
%pp=[1 0 0 1 1];
%pp=[1 0 0 1 0 1];
%pp=[1 0 0 0 0 1 1];
%pp=[1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1];
pp=[1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1];
m=length(pp)-1;
bpr=zeros(2^m,m+1);
%Binary presentation
%Up to mth power
for i=2:m+1
bpr(i,m+3-i)=1;
end
%Larger than mth power
for i=m+2:2^m
for j=1:m
bpr(i,j)=bpr(i-1,j+1);
end
bpr(i,m+1)=0;
if bpr(i,1)==1
bpr(i,:)=xor(bpr(i,:),pp);
end
end
%Binary to decimal
b2d=zeros(2^m,1);
for i=1:2^m
for j=1:m
b2d(i)=b2d(i)+bpr(i,j+1)*2^(m-j);
end
end
%Log table
[xx,ppr]=sort(b2d(2:2^m));
ppr=ppr-1;
%Inverse log table
dpr=b2d(3:2^m);
9.4.3 RS Generator Polynomial Calculation
%Generator Polynomial
%Initialize ppr and dpr tables
rsprp
%GF size
n=8;
%Polynomial order
m=16;
%Initialization
gp=-1*ones(1,m+1);
%Set up for m=1
gp(1)=0;
gp(2)=1;
%Multiplication loop
for i=2:m
gpp=gp;
for j=1:i
co1=p2bin(gpp(j+1),n,bpr);
co2=p2bin(gpp(j)+i,n,bpr);
gp(j+1)=b2pw(xor(co1,co2),n,ppr);
end
end
function b=p2bin(p,n,bpr);
if p>-1;
p=mod(p,2^n-1);
end
b=bpr(p+2,:);
function p=b2pw(b,n,ppr);
d=0;
for i=2:n+1
d=d+b(i)*2^(n-i+1)
end
if d==0;
p=-1
else
p=ppr(d)
end
9.4.4 RS Encoder
%GF size
n=8;
%Random bits
mx=ceil(rand(8,239)-0.5);
%Initialize code words
cw=zeros(8,16);
%Get generator polynomial
gpoly
%Encoding
for i=1:239
%Calculate register feedback value
rf=xor(cw(:,1),mx(:,i));
if sum(rf)>0
%Power representation
prf=b2pw8(rf,n,ppr);
for j=1:15
cw(:,j)=xor(p2bin8(gp(j+1)+prf,n,bpr),cw(:,j+1));
end
cw(:,16)=p2bin8(gp(17)+prf,n,bpr);
else
for j=1:15
cw(:,j)=cw(:,j+1);
end
cw(:,16)=zeros(8,1);
end
end
%Find the power form
for i=1:239
mxp(i)=b2pw8(mx(:,i),8,ppr);
end
for i=1:16
cwp(i)=b2pw8(cw(:,i),8,ppr);
end
function p=b2pw8(b,n,ppr);
b=[0 b']';
p=b2pw(b,n,ppr);
function b=p2bin8(p,n,bpr);
b=p2bin(p,n,bpr);
b=b(2:9)';
9.4.5 RS Decoder
%Received word
rc=[mx cw];
%Calculate Syndrom
synd=zeros(8,16);
for i=1:16
for j=1:255
if sum(rc(:,j))~=0
pp=b2pw8(rc(:,j),8,ppr)+i*(255-j);
bpp=p2bin8(pp,8,bpr);
synd(:,i)=xor(synd(:,i),bpp);
end
end
end
clear rts
clear txp
%Check if there is error to run the rest of the decoding algorithm
if sum(sum(synd))~=0
%Find the error locator polynomial
tx=zeros(8,2);
tx(8,2)=1;
L=0;
cnp=zeros(8,1);
cnp(8,1)=1;
delt=synd(:,1);
if sum(delt)~=0
cnp=[[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1]' delt];
L=1;
tx=p2bin8(255-b2pw8(delt,8,ppr),8,bpr);
end
tx=[zeros(8,1) tx];
for i=2:m
delt=synd(:,i);
for j=1:L
cnpp=b2pw8(cnp(:,j+1),8,ppr);
syndp=b2pw8(synd(:,i-j),8,ppr);
cnpsynd=p2bin8(cnpp+syndp,8,bpr);
delt=xor(delt,cnpsynd);
end
if sum(delt)~=0
deltp=b2pw8(delt,8,ppr);
[txa,txb]=size(tx);
deltmtx=zeros(txa,txb);
for k=1:txb
txp(k)=b2pw8(tx(:,k),8,ppr);
if txp(k)~=-1
deltmtx(:,k)=p2bin8(deltp+txp(k),8,bpr);
end
end
cnppr=cnp;
[cnpa,cnpb]=size(cnp);
if cnpb<txb
cnpe=[cnp zeros(8,txb-cnpb)];
else
cnpe=cnp;
end
cnp=xor(cnpe,deltmtx);
if 2*L<i
L=i-L;
clear tx
for k=1:cnpb
cnpprp=b2pw8(cnppr(:,k),8,ppr);
cnpddelt=cnpprp-deltp;
if cnpddelt<0
cnpddelt=cnpddelt+255;
end
tx(:,k)=p2bin8(cnpddelt,8,bpr);
end
end
end
tx=[zeros(8,1) tx];
end
%Find roots and error locators
[cnpa,cnpb]=size(cnp);
for i=1:cnpb
cnpw(i)=b2pw8(cnp(:,i),8,ppr);
end
rtcnt=0;
for i=0:254
cns=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1]';
for j=2:cnpb
cns=xor(cns,p2bin8(cnpw(j)+i*(j-1),8,bpr));
end
if sum(cns)==0
rtcnt=rtcnt+1;
rts(rtcnt)=i;
end
end
%Form the z(x) polynomial
zx=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1]';
for i=1:length(rts)
zcoe=xor(synd(:,i),cnp(:,i+1));
for j=2:i
pcnsy=b2pw8(synd(:,j-1),8,ppr)+b2pw8(cnp(:,i-j+2),8,ppr);
zcoe=xor(zcoe,p2bin8(pcnsy,8,bpr));
end
zx=[zx zcoe];
end
clear zxp
[zxa,zxb]=size(zx);
for i=1:zxb
zxp(i)=b2pw8(zx(:,i),8,ppr);
end
%Find Error values
clear er
for i=1:length(rts)
zxb=[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1]';
for j=1:length(zxp)-1
zxc=zxp(j+1)+rts(i)*j;
zxcb=p2bin8(zxc,8,bpr);
zxb=xor(zxb,zxcb);
end
zxbp=b2pw8(zxb,8,ppr);
pbb=0;
for j=1:length(rts)
if j~=i
rtsrtsm=rts(i)-rts(j);
if rtsrtsm<0
rtsrtsm=rtsrtsm+255;
end
blr=xor([0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1]',p2bin8(rtsrtsm,8,bpr));
pbb=pbb+b2pw8(blr,8,ppr);
end
end
er(i)=zxbp-pbb;
for j=1:3
if er(i)<0
er(i)=er(i)+255;
end
end
end
rts
er
end
9.4.6 Convolution Encoder

%Random bits
mx=ceil(rand(1,500)-0.5);
%Initialize delay line
dline=zeros(1,7);
for i=1:500
dline(2:7)=dline(1:6);
dline(1)=mx(i);
xy((i-1)*2+1)=xor(xor(xor(dline(1),dline(2)),xor(dline(3),dline(
xy(i*2)=xor(xor(xor(dline(1),dline(3)),xor(dline(4),dline(6))),dline
end
%Punctuation
for i=1:166
xyp((i-1)*4+1)=xy((i-1)*6+1);
xyp((i-1)*4+2)=xy((i-1)*6+2);
xyp((i-1)*4+3)=xy((i-1)*6+4);
xyp(i*4)=xy((i-1)*6+5);
end
9.4.7 Viterbi Decoder
%Generating a lookup table

for i=1:64
bn=dec2bin(i-1,6);
zb(2:6)=bn(1:5);
zb(1)='0';
ob(2:6)=bn(1:5);
ob(1)='1';
for j=1:6
bnd(j)=bin2dec(bn(j));
end
obd=1;
zb1=xor(xor(bnd(1),xor(bnd(2),bnd(3))),bnd(6));
zb2=xor(xor(bnd(2),xor(bnd(3),bnd(5))),bnd(6));
tbl(1,i)=zb1*2+zb2;
tbl(2,i)=bin2dec(zb);
ob1=xor(xor(xor(obd,bnd(1)),xor(bnd(2),bnd(3))),bnd(6));
ob2=xor(xor(xor(obd,bnd(2)),xor(bnd(3),bnd(5))),bnd(6));
tbl(3,i)=ob1*2+ob2;
tbl(4,i)=bin2dec(ob);
end
%Decoding
psta=zeros(1,4);
psum=zeros(1,4);
blenth=2;
%Start with zero state to form 4 paths
%First stage
in1=xy(1);
in2=xy(2);
zout=tbl(1,1);
znxtst=tbl(2,1);
oout=tbl(3,1);
onxtst=tbl(4,1);
zoutb=dec2bin(zout,2);
zout1=bin2dec(zoutb(1));
ooutb=dec2bin(oout,2);
oout1=bin2dec(ooutb(1));
weiz=xor(zout1,in1)+xor(zout2,in2);
weio=xor(oout1,in1)+xor(oout2,in2);
psta(1)=znxtst;
psta(2)=znxtst;
psta(3)=onxtst;
psta(4)=onxtst;
psum(1)=weiz;
psum(2)=weiz;
psum(3)=weio;
psum(4)=weio;
pbits(1,1)=0;
pbits(1,2)=0;
pbits(1,3)=1;
pbits(1,4)=1;
%Second stage
in1=xy(3);
in2=xy(4);
zout=tbl(1,psta(1)+1);
znxtst=tbl(2,psta(1)+1);
oout=tbl(3,psta(1)+1);
onxtst=tbl(4,psta(1)+1);
psta(1)=znxtst;
psta(2)=onxtst;
psum(1)=psum(1)+weiz;
psum(2)=psum(2)+weio;
pbits(2,1)=0;
pbits(2,2)=1;
zout=tbl(1,psta(3)+1);
znxtst=tbl(2,psta(3)+1);
oout=tbl(3,psta(3)+1);
onxtst=tbl(4,psta(3)+1);
psta(3)=znxtst;
psta(4)=onxtst;
psum(3)=psum(3)+weiz;
psum(4)=psum(4)+weio;
pbits(2,3)=0;
pbits(2,4)=1;
%Rest stages
for i=3:500
in1=xy((i-1)*2+1);
in2=xy(i*2);
for j=1:4
zout=tbl(1,psta(j)+1);
znxtst(j)=tbl(2,psta(j)+1);
oout=tbl(3,psta(j)+1);
onxtst(j)=tbl(4,psta(j)+1);
psumz(j)=psum(j)+weiz;
psumo(j)=psum(j)+weio;
end
[ssum,indx]=sort([psumz psumo]);
for j=1:4
if indx(j)<5
psum(j)=psumz(indx(j));
tbits(1:blenth,j)=pbits(:,indx(j));
tbits(blenth+1,j)=0;
psta(j)=znxtst(indx(j));
else
psum(j)=psumo(indx(j)-4);
tbits(1:blenth,j)=pbits(:,indx(j)-4);
tbits(blenth+1,j)=1;
psta(j)=onxtst(indx(j)-4);
end
end
blenth=blenth+1;
pbits=tbits;
end
9.5 References
1. G Evans, CEBus DemystifiedThe ANSI/EIA 600 User's Guide, McGraw-Hill,

New York, 2001.
2. EIA-600.31 PL Physical Layer.
3. EIA-600.33 Coaxial Cable Physical Layer.
4. HomePlug Medium Interface Specification V0.3, HomePlug PowerLine

Alliance, October 2000.
5. S. Lin and D. J. Costello, Jr., Error Control Coding: Fundamentals and

Applications, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1983.
6. drake.ee.washington.edu/~adina/rsc/slide/slide.html. A. Matache,
Encoding/Decoding Reed Solomon Codes, 1996.
7. www.csl.sony.co.jp/person/morelos/ecc/rs.c. Simon Rockliff, University of

Adelaide, August 21, 1989, C version of RS code implementation.
8. home.netcom.com/~chip.f/viterbi/examples.html. Chip Fleming, Convolution

Encoding with Viterbi Decoding.
9. A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Digital Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall,

Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1975.
Chapter 10. Wireless Ethernet
IEEE 802.11 Standards, also known as wireless Ethernet, have been developed
mainly for enterprise LAN applications. However, the convenience of wireless
connections and the affordability of transceiver technologies make it an
attractive option for home networking. A wireless Ethernet can be initiated by
installing an 802.11 hub, which is linked to a backbone wired network such as
a conventional Ethernet, an ADSL, or a cable modembased broadband access
network, in an office or a home environment. Wireless Ethernet NICs also
need to be installed inside other computing or communication devices to share
these wireless connections. A laptop PC equipped with a wireless Ethernet NIC
can enjoy wireless connectivities at home, office, or even some public area
such as an airport or a hotel with 802.11 hubs.
Initial versions of RF wireless Ethernet are based on spread spectrum

technologies. Spread spectrum technology was originally developed during
World War II for secret RF communication applications. A spread spectrum
communication system can be implemented using either frequency hopping or
direct sequence technologies. For the Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS) technology, the carrier hops on a set of frequencies in a particular
sequence. For the Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) technology, the
energy of a signal is spread to a broader bandwidth by a particular higher rate
time domain sequence. These frequency hopping or time domain sequences
are known only by the intended partners to maintain communications secrecy.
On the other hand, the use of spread spectrum technology can also provide a
Signal-to-Noise Ratio enhancement in a nonregulated RF environment. For
SNR enhancement, both FHSS and DSSS technologies have been attempted
for wireless LAN applications before the finalization of the IEEE 802.11
standards.
The original IEEE 802.11 wireless Ethernet standards released during June
1997 included three versions of physical layers: one for Infrared and the other
two for Radio Frequency in the ISM band of 2.4 GHz. Only RF versions of
wireless Ethernet are discussed in this book. The FHSS version of wireless
Ethernet defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards have two transmission
throughputs of 1 and 2 Mbps using Gaussian frequency keying modulation. At
a minimum of 2.5 hops per second and at least 6 MHz per hop, up to 78
different frequencies can be used depending on system parameters initialized
and maintained by a wireless Ethernet access point. The DSSS version of
wireless Ethernet defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards also has transmission
throughputs of 1 and 2 Mbps. The bandwidth of every bit or every pair of bits
is expanded to 11 MHz by a spreading process based on an 11-chip Barker
code running at a chip rate of 11 MHz. There are also 11 carriers, with 5-MHz
separation between adjacent carriers, allocated for use by DSSS wireless
Ethernet. Two DSSS wireless Ethernets can be established in the same location
without much interference.
A common MAC protocol is defined for all wireless Ethernet physical layers.
Modulation methoddependent packet formats are used by different physical
layers to carry MAC frames. Because of the dynamic nature of received
signals, the collision detection in the RF environment is sometimes not
guaranteed. The wireless Ethernet uses CSMA/CA, where every reception of a
long packet is acknowledged, instead of CSMA/CD as defined for conventional
Ethernet. In addition, a Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption procedure
is defined for protection against eavesdropping over the open air. The IEEE
802.11b standard for a high-throughput extension to the DSSS wireless
Ethernet was later released during 1999. The High Rate Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (HRDSSS) wireless Ethernet uses a Complementary Code
Keying modulation method to carry 4 or 8 data bits on each signaling symbol
consisting of 8 chips. The chip rate of HRDSSS is also 11 MHz. HRDSSS can
have transmission throughputs of 5.5 and 11 Mbps. An IEEE 802.11a standard
for an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) wireless Ethernet was
also released during 1999. OFDM wireless Ethernet operates in 5-GHz ISM
bands and provides transmission throughputs of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and
54 Mbps.
The implementation of a wireless Ethernet transceiver involves some RF

circuits and some digital circuits. Early realizations usually require a few RF
semiconductor components including a transmit Power Amplifier (PA), a
receive Low Noise Amplifier (LNA), a Radio Frequency and Intermediate
Frequency (RF/IF) convertor, an IF demodulator, and a few digital chips such as
a baseband processor and a MAC processor including the host interface
function. In most recent implementations, these functions have been
integrated into a single RF chip and a single digital chip for minimal power
consumption enabling the wireless Ethernet adoption into some portable
electronic devices such as a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). Functions of RF
circuits are different, but similar, for different wireless Ethernet physical
layers. Not much digital processing is required for FHSS wireless Ethernet
other than shifting the carrier frequency to encode data bits and detecting
frequency shifts to recover them. Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and
Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) are required in a DSSS transceiver for
signal shaping and detection as well as automatic gain control. The received
signal, after digitalization by ADCs, also needs to be correlated to the Barker
code for data symbol identification. Digital matched filters, fast Walsh
transform operation, and decision feedback channel equalization techniques
are necessary inside a HRDSSS transceiver to achieve the required
transmission performance. An OFDM wireless Ethernet transceiver uses
IFFT/FFT, cyclic prefix, convolution encoding, interleaving, and Viterbi decoding
digital processing techniques instead to maintain its high-transmission
performance.
We start this chapter with frame structure and MAC protocol which are
common features for all versions of wireless Ethernet. We then look into each
RF wireless Ethernet version individually in the sequence of FHSS, DSSS,
HRDSSS, and OFDM. For each version, we highlight features of the standards,
examine its typical transceiver structure, and study corresponding
transmission performance.
10.1 Media Access Control Protocol
The wireless Ethernet MAC defined in the 802.11 standards is common for all
different implementations of RF transmission methods including FHSS, DSS,
HRDSS, and OFDM, as well as for the infrared implementation. The main
CDMA/CA protocol is defined as a distributed coordination function (DCF) and
also sometimes called the frame exchange protocol. This protocol defines
different MAC frames and procedures for exchanging frames. These MAC
frames are to be encapsulated with different preambles and packet headers in
accordance with particular transmission methods. A polling system using a
point coordinator is also defined as the point coordination function (PCF) for
timing-sensitive applications. PCF is built upon DCF, and they can
simultaneously share the same transmission medium. To fight against the
possibility of eavesdropping, a WEP is also defined using encryption with
shared keys distributed through secure channels other than over the air.
10.1.1 Frame Format
Figure 10.1 shows the general format of a wireless Ethernet MAC frame as
defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards. A particular version of wireless
Ethernet packet is formed by encapsulating the MAC frame with a physical
layerdependent preamble and header. Therefore, no preamble is defined for
the wireless Ethernet frame.
Figure 10.1. 802.11 MAC Frame Format

The Frame Control field consists of the following subfields: Protocol Version,
Type, Subtype, To DS (Distribution System), From DS, More Fragments, Retry,
Power Management, More Data, WEP, and Order. A DS is used to interconnect a
set of basic service sets (BSSs) and LANs to create an extended service set
(ESS). The Protocol Version field has 2 zero bits for this standard. The Type
field also has 2 bits, and the Subtype field has 4 bits. The Type and Subtype
fields together identify the function of the frame. The To DS field has only 1 bit
and is set to 1 in data type frames destined for the DS. The From DS field has
1 bit and is set to 1 in data-type frames exiting the DS. The More Fragments
field has 1 bit and is set to 1 in all frames that have another fragment to
follow. The Retry field has 1 bit and is set to 1 in any frame that is a
retransmission of an earlier frame. The Power Management field has 1 bit and
is used to indicate the power management mode of a transceiver. A value of 1
indicates that the transceiver will be in power-save mode. The More Data field
has 1 bit and is used to indicate to a transceiver in power-save mode that
more frames are buffered at the access point. A value of 1 indicates that at
least one additional buffered frame is present for the same transceiver. The
WEP field has 1 bit. It is set to 1 if the Frame Body field contains information
that has been processed by the WEP algorithm. The Order field has 1 bit and is
set to 1 in a data-type frame.
The Duration/ID field has 16 bits, which identify the transceiver for the power
save poll subtype of the control type frame or the duration value for other
types of frames. Four address fields follow the duration field in the MAC frame.
These fields are used to indicate the basic service set identifier (BSSID),
source address (SA), destination address (DA), transmitting transceiver
address (TA), and receiving transceiver address (RA). The location of a
particular type of address among these address fields depends on the specific
frame type. The Sequence Control field has 16 bits and consists of two
subfields, the Sequence Number and the Fragment Number. The Sequence
Number field is a 12-bit field indicating the sequence number of a MAC frame.
The Fragment Number field is a 4-bit field indicating the number of each
fragment of MAC frame. The fragment number is set to zero in the first or only
fragment and is incremented by one for each successive fragment. The Frame
Body can have 0 to 2312 bytes.
The FCS field contains a 32-bit CRC. The FCS is calculated over all the fields of
the MAC header and the Frame Body field using the same generator
polynomial of degree 32 as that of Ethernet defined by the 802.3 standards:
Equation 10.1
The wireless Ethernet FCS is the 1's complement of the exclusive OR of the
remainder of xk(x31 + x30 + x29 + … + x2 + x + 1) divided by G(x) and the
remainder of the message polynomial multiplied by x32 and then divided by
G(x), where k is the number of message bits. As a typical implementation, at
the transmitter, the initial remainder of the division is preset to all 1's and is
then modified by division of the message polynomial by the generator
polynomial G(x). The 1's complement of this remainder is transmitted, with
the highest-order bit first, as the FCS field. At the receiver, the initial
remainder is preset to all 1's and the serial incoming bits of the message and
FCS, when divided by G(x), results in a unique nonzero polynomial of
Equation 10.2
in the absence of any transmission error.
There are three frame typescontrol, data, and managementand six control
frame subtypesRequest To Send (RTS), Clear To Send (CTS), Acknowledgment
(ACK), Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll), contention-free-end (CF-End), and
contention-free-end acknowledge (CF-End+CF-ACK). The RTS frame format is
as defined in Figure 10.2. The duration value is the time (in microseconds)
required to transmit the pending packet. The RA is the intended receiving
transceiver address. The TA is the transmitting transceiver address.
Figure 10.2. RTS Frame Format
The CTS frame format is as defined in Figure 10.3. The duration value is the
value obtained from the Duration field of the immediately previous RTS frame
minus the time required to transmit the CTS frame. The RA is copied from the
TA field of the immediately previous RTS frame.
Figure 10.3. CTS and ACK Frame Format
The ACK frame format is as that of CTS. If the More Fragment bit is set to 0 in
the Frame Control field of the immediately previous directed frame, the
duration value is set to 0. If the More Fragment bit is set to 1, the duration
value is the value obtained from the Duration field of the immediately previous
frame, minus the time required to transmit the ACK frame.The RA of the ACK
frame is copied from the Address 2 field of the immediately previous directed
frame.
The PS-Poll frame is as defined in Figure 10.4. The AID is the value assigned
to the transmitting transceiver by the access point. The BSSID is the address
of the access point transceiver. The TA is the address of the transmitting
transceiver.
Figure 10.4. PS-Poll Frame Format
The CF-End frame format is as defined in Figure 10.5. The Duration field is set
to 0. The RA is the broadcast group address. The BSSID is the address of the
access point transceiver.
Figure 10.5. CF-End Frame Format
The CF-End+CF-ACK frame format is the same as that of CF-End. The Duration
field is set to 0. The RA is the broadcast group address. The BSSID is the
address of access point transceiver.
The data frame has the general MAC frame format as defined in Figure 10.1.
The content of the address fields in the data frame is dependent upon the
values of the To DS and From DS bits as shown in Table 10.1. Where the
content of a field is shown as not applicable (N/A), the field is omitted.
The frame format for a Management frame is as defined in Figure 10.6. Eleven
management frame subtypes share the same frame format but have different
sizes of frame bodies: Beacon, IBSS Announcement Traffic Indication Message
(ATIM), Disassociation, Association Request, Association Response,
Reassociation Request, Reassociation Response, Probe Request, Probe
Response, Authentication, and Deauthentication.
Figure 10.6. Management Frame Format

Table 10.1. Address Field Contents
To DS From DS Address 1 Address 2 Address 3 Address 4
0 0 DA SA BSSID N/A
0 1 DA BSSID SA N/A
1 0 BSSID SA DA N/A
1 1 RA TA DA SA
10.1.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance
The CSMA/CA MAC protocol is similar to that of CSMA/CD in that both use the
basic carrier sensing mechanism to share a transmission medium among many
transceivers. Some additional procedures are adopted by the CSMA/CA
protocol owing to the fact that the detection of a collision is not guaranteed for
the RF transmission medium. This can happen when two transmitters that are
far apart compete for the attention of a receiver in the middle. Under the
CSMA/CA protocol, a short acknowledgment packet is expected from the
intended receiver back to the transmitter after every reception of an original
long packet after the correct FCS is checked. To guarantee the reception of the
short packet, an acknowledgment transceiver can respond immediately under
the definition of the short interframe space (SIFS), while other transceivers
must wait through a priority interframe space (PIFS) or a distributed
interframe space (DIFS) time window. To avoid potential collision of long
packets, which is sometimes called the hidden node problem, an RTS short
packet is sent first and the intended receiver responds with a CTS short packet
within the SIFS prior to the target long packet transmission. The CTS short
packet enables transceivers that do not receive the RTS directly also to be
aware of pending transmission. Because of this unique RF transmission
environment, the virtual carrier sensing is also implemented via the detection
of pending transmission duration from the CTS packet by other transceivers
for CSMA/CA. Transceivers that detect pending transmissions set their Network
Allocation Vectors (NAV) accordingly, and no transmissions are attempted until
the NAV duration has expired.
The 802.11 implementation of CSMA/CA MAC protocol is called the distributed

coordinate function in the standards and is also known as the frame exchange
protocol. Figure 10.7 shows the timing relationship between different
interframe spaces.
Figure 10.7. Interframe Spaces
The SIFS is used for an ACK frame, a CTS frame, and the second or
subsequent packets of a fragment burst. The SIFS timing consists of
transmission, receiver detection, MAC decision, and turn-around time delays.
The PIFS is used only by transceivers operating under the point coordinated
function (PCF), which will be discussed in the next section, for timing-sensitive
applications to gain priority access to the medium at the start of the CFP. The
duration of a PIFS is the duration of SIFS plus one slot time of 50 µs.
Transceivers use the DIFS operating under the DCF to transmit data frames
and management frames. The duration of a DIFS is the duration of PIFS plus
one slot time of 50 µs. The DCF uses the EIFS whenever the transceiver has
indicated to the MAC that a frame transmission was begun and did not result
in the correct reception of a complete MAC frame with a correct FCS value.
The duration of an EIFS is the duration of a DIFS plus another slot time of 50
µs.
10.1.3 Contention-free Frame Transfer

The PCF provides contention-free transmission periods for timing-sensitive
applications within the otherwise contention-oriented CSMA/CA protocol. The
PCF is a polling system controlled by a point coordinator (PC). The PC is
usually implemented in an access point. The capability for an access point to
become a PC is optional. Transceivers, willing to be a part of a contention-free
transmission mechanism, send association request packets indicating their
pollable capabilities to a PC. The PC keeps a polling list and polls transceivers
according to their AIDs in an ascending order as soon as a contention-free
period (CFP) is established. A PC establishes an initial CFP by sending a beacon
packet right after the PIFS period from the previous contention-oriented
packet. Subsequent CFPs are enabled by periodic beacon packets from the PC.
Each CFP is maintained by the NAV in the beacon packet and by SIFS periods
between packets traveling back and forth among the PC and associated
transceivers. A CFP is terminated by a CF-End packet from the PC. Competing
contention-oriented transceivers reset their NAVs after the CF-End packet is
detected. The operation of a CFP is illustrated in Figure 10.8.
Figure 10.8. PCF Frame Transfer
A contention period must be long enough to contain at least one maximum

length frame and its acknowledgment follows each periodic CFP. Because the
PC might compete for the medium, the beginning of the CFP may be delayed
from its ideal start time. The traffic in the CFP consists of packets sent from
the PC to transceivers, followed by the acknowledgment from them. The PC
sends a CF-Poll packet to those transceivers on the polling list. If the
transceiver polled has traffic to send, it may transmit one packet for each CF-
Poll received. If the transceiver does not have traffic to send, it does not
respond to the poll. To make the use of the medium more efficient during the
CFP, it is possible to piggyback both the acknowledgment and the CF-Poll onto
data packets. During the CFP, the PC ensures that the interval between
packets on the medium is no longer than PIFS. The PC sends a packet to a
transceiver and expects the responding packet, either an acknowledgment or a
data packet, in response to a CF-Poll within an SIFS interval. If the response is
not received before that SIFS interval expires, the PC transmits its next packet
before a PIFS interval expires after the previous transmission. This will
continue until the CFP is concluded.
10.1.4 Authentication and Encryption
The 802.11 wireless Ethernet protocol allows either open system or shared key
authentication. Under the open system authentication, a transceiver sends a
management packet requesting open system authentication to another
transceiver that returns a management packet to acknowledge the completion
of mutual authentication. The initiation of a shared key authentication
procedure can be completed by exchanging four management packets between
a pair of transceivers. As soon as the shared key authentication is confirmed,
transceivers encrypt the frame body part of each packet using the WEP
mechanism. Because WEP relies on the knowledge of a secret key that is
distributed by means other than over the open air, it should provide privacy for
the wireless LAN that is equivalent to that provided by a wired LAN. The
encryption structure for the shared key authentication is illustrated in Figure
10.9.
Figure 10.9. WEP Encryption Structure
This WEP structure consists mainly of the RC4 encryption and CRC-32
algorithms, the exclusive OR operation between the pseudo-random sequence
generated from the encryption process and the data and frame check
combined sequence. This RC4 algorithm starts with a 64-bit key consisting of a
24-bit initialization vector (IV) and a 40-bit secret key. A 128-bit secret key
has also been used recently for better protection. IV is attached at the
beginning of every encrypted frame body as indicated by the use of the S1
switch and can be different from packet to packet. The frame check sequence,
after being exclusive ORed with the pseudo-random sequence, is called the
integrity check vector (ICV) and is attached at the end of each encrypted
frame body as indicated by the use of the S2 switch. This WEP encryption
structure produces a frame body in a format as shown in Figure 10.10. The 2-
bit ID can be used to identify one of four agreed-upon secret keys.
Figure 10.10. WEP Frame Body Format
The decryption involves similar operations in a slightly different structure as

illustrated in Figure 10.11. The 24-bit IV is first taken from the received frame
body as indicated by the use of the S1 switch. The RC4 algorithm uses the IV
combined with the agreed-upon key to reproduce the same pseudo-random
sequence. The data sequence is recovered after the exclusive OR operation.
The correctness of the frame check sequence is verified at the end of each
packet as indicated by the use of the S2 switch.
Figure 10.11. WEP Decryption Structure
The RC4 encryption algorithm was developed by Ron Rivest of RSA Data
Security, Inc. (RSADSI), now a part of Network Associates Inc., during 1987.
RC4 is a symmetric stream cipher, which uses the same key and algorithm for
both encryption and decryption and supports a variable length key of up to
256 bytes. RC4 used to be a trade secret of RSADSI, but some anonymous
person distributed a version of the source code, which can produce compatible
encrypted messages, on the Internet during September 1994. The name RC4
might still be a trademark and some other versions of compatible codes use
different names, such as ARC4. The pseudo-random sequence of RC4 is based
on an array of size 256 filled with numbers from 0 to 255 in an order
determined according to the key [1]. Specifically, the array is created
according to following steps, which are illustrated with MATLAB commands.
1. Create an array, S, of size 256 filled with numbers from 0 to 255.
For i=1:256
S(i)=i-1;
end
Create another array, K, of size 256 filled with the key, MyKey, and its
repetitions. MyKey is an array of bytes for the secret key.
For i=0:255
K(i+1)=MyKey(mod(i,length(MyKey))+1);
end
Initialize the order of S according to the secret key.
j=0;
for i=0:255
j=mod(j+S(i+1)+K(i+1),256);
temp=S(i+1);
S(i+1)=S(j+1);
S(j+1)=temp;
end
The pseudo sequence, PS, is generated one byte at a time. i and j are
initialized to 0 to start.
i=mod(i+1, 256);
j=mod(j+S(i+1), 256);
temp=S(i+1);
S(i+1)=S(j+1);
S(j+1)=temp;
t=mod(S(i+1)+S(j+1),256);
PS=S(t+1);
The MATLAB implementation of WEP encryption with a 64-bit key that
correlates to this procedure is included at the end of this chapter.
10.2 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
In this section, features of the FHSS wireless Ethernet are highlighted by

examining the packet structure, the Gaussian frequency shift keying
modulation process, and basics of the frequency-hopping mechanism.
10.2.1 Summary of FHSS Standards
The packet format for the FHSS implementation of wireless Ethernet is shown
in Figure 10.12. An FHSS packet consists of a preamble, a header, and a
whitened MAC frame. The FHSS preamble has a Sync field of 80 bits and a
Start Frame Delimiter of 16 bits. The FHSS header has a PSDU length word
(PLW) of 12 bits, a Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) signaling field
(PSF) of 4 bits, and a header error check (HEC) field of 16 bits, where PLCP
stands for physical layer convergence protocol and PSDU stands for PLCP SDU
(Service Data Unit). PLCP is a physical layer-dependent function connecting
the MAC to a particular transmission mechanism.
Figure 10.12. FHSS Packet Format
The preamble Sync field contains an alternating zero-one pattern, starting

with zero and ending with one, to be used by the receiver to detect a signal
and to achieve frequency and timing synchronization with the rest of the
received packet. The SFD consists of the binary pattern of 0000 1100 1011
1101 used for start of frame indication. The PLW specifies the number of bytes
contained in the PSDU and is used by the receiver to determine the last bit in
the packet. The PSF is used to indicate the transmission throughput. These
values are 0000 and 0010 for 1 and 2 Mbps, respectively. The HEC uses the
CCITT CRC-16 generator polynomial G(x) = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1. The HEC is the
one's complement of the exclusive OR of the remainder of x31 + x30+ … + x17
+ x16 divided by G(x) and the remainder of the PSF and PLW fields multiplied
by x16 and divided also by G(x).
As a typical implementation, at the transmitter, the initial remainder of the

division is preset to all ones and is then modified by division of the PSF and
PLW fields by the generator polynomial, G(x). The one's complement of this
remainder is inserted in the HEC field with the most significant bit transmitted
first. At the receiver, the initial remainder of the division is again preset to all
ones. The division of the received PSF, PLW, and HEC fields by the generator
polynomial, G(x), results, in the absence of transmission errors, in a unique
nonzero value, representable by the polynomial R(x) = x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 +
x3 + x2 + x + 1. The MAC frame is whitened, or scrambled, using a pseudo-
random sequence of length 127. This pseudo-random sequence is created
based on the generator polynomial S(x)=x7 + x4 + 1. The original MAC frame
is exclusive ORed with the repetition of this pseudo-random sequence to form
the whitened MAC frame. In addition, a synchronization symbol is inserted
after the header and after every 32 of whitened MAC frame symbols.
The synchronization symbol is initialized to 0 for 1 Mbps and to 00 for 2 Mbps.

Meanwhile, an accumulation of bias is established by summarizing weights of
each symbol starting with these header bits. For 1-Mbps two-level Gaussian
frequency shift keying (2GFSK) modulation, a 1 has a weight of 2 and a 0 has
a weight of 2. For 2-Mbps four-level Gaussian frequency shift keying (4GFSK)
modulation, weights are 3, 1, 1, and 3 for 10, 11, 01, and 00 bit combinations,
respectively. Whenever the bias accumulation of a 32-symbol block is different
than the previous total bias accumulation, the leading synchronization symbol
and following 32 symbols of the block are all negated for subsequent
transmission and inclusion to the total bias accumulation. The negation of 2-
Mbps symbols is equivalent to reversing the most significant bit of these bit
combinations. These negated symbols can be recovered at the receiver by
recognizing a 1-bit or a 10-bit combination as the leading synchronization
symbol.
For 1-Mbps 2GFSK modulation, a symbol for a 1 bit is represented by a

positive frequency shift of 160 kHz from the carrier frequency, and a symbol
for a 0 bit is represented by a negative frequency shift of 160 kHz from the
same carrier frequency. For 2-Mbps 4GFSK modulation, there are four possible
frequency shifts of ±72 kHz and ±216 kHz. Bit combinations of 10, 11, 01,
and 00 are represented by frequency shifts of 216, 72, 72, 216 kHz,
respectively. There are 79 carrier frequencies defined for FHSS in North
America and most of Europe, with applications starting at 2.402 GHz and
ending at 2.48 GHz. Adjacent carrier frequencies are 1 MHz apart. The GFSK is
realized by sending a voltage proportional to the desired frequency shift
through a Gaussian filter to a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator. A Gaussian filter is
unique in that its frequency and time domain impulse responses have the
same Gaussian distribution shape.
The normalized Gaussian filter frequency response can be described by
Equation 10.3
The 3 dB bandwidth of this Gaussian filter can be derived by letting
and solving for . The corresponding time domain impulse

response can be obtained by using a Fourier transform of the frequency
response represented by
Equation 10.4
FHSS standards recommend the use of a f3dBT = 0.5 Gaussian modulation. For
a symbol rate of 1 MHz, T = 1 x 106, f3dB = 0.5 x 106 Hz, and a = 1.1774 x
106. We have , , and
The time impulse response disappears quickly beyond the baud interval. An
FHSS transceiver needs to generate RF signals that are at least 10 dBm but
not to exceed 20 dBm. Averaged over a bandwidth of 1.32 MHz for 1 Mbps or
1.432 MHz for 2 Mbps, the maximum PSD levels are 41.2 and 41.6 dBm/Hz,
respectively.
Within the 2.4-GHz ISM band, 79 frequency channels that are 1 MHz apart are
located for FHSS transceivers starting with channel 0 at 2.402 GHz and ending
with channel 79 at 2.48 GHz. Among these channels, 78 of them are used for
three hopping frequency sets. They are set 1 with channels of 0, 3, 6, 9, 12,
15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39,42, 45, 48, 51, 54, 57, 60, 63, 66, 69, 72,
and 75; set 2 with channels of 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37,
40, 43, 46, 49, 52, 55, 58, 61, 64, 67, 70, 73, and 76; and set 3 with
channels of 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32, 35, 38, 41, 44, 47, 50, 53,
56, 59, 62, 65, 68, 72, 74, and 77. Within each set, channel frequencies are 3
MHz apart. Using different hopping frequency sets, up to three different FHSS
wireless networks can be created within the same area.
A hopping sequence can be established for a particular FHSS wireless network

by defining a random sequence of channel numbers using all available
channels or selected channels from a specific set. The minimum frequency hop
is 6 MHz. This random channel hopping sequence is repeated over and over
again for continuous operations. Multiple communication links can also be
established simultaneously by choosing a different starting channel. They do
not interfere with each other as long as they are hopping at the same rate.
The minimum hopping rate is 2.5 hops per second. A specific hopping sequence
and hopping rate can be defined at the initiation of an FHSS wireless network
at the access point. This information can be made available through beacon or
probe frames when other transceivers join the same wireless network. A
reference hopping sequence using all available channels is listed in the
standards. The carrier frequency switch needs to be completed in a time frame
of 224 µs. In comparison, the longest FHSS packet could last about 19 ms, and
the longest hopping duration could be 400 ms. A hopping rate of 50 hops per
second can accommodate at least one packet per hop.
10.2.2 Transceiver Architecture and Performance

Estimation
Figure 10.13 shows a functional block diagram of a typical FHSS wireless

Ethernet transceiver. In the transmit path, a phase locked loop is used to
generate stable hopping carriers at half of these channel frequencies. The half
frequency is chosen to avoid injection locking where the strong output from
the power amplifier might interfere with the operation of the VCO. The PLL
frequency is specified digitally via a register connected to the system
microcontroller. The PLL is used only at the beginning of a transmit operation.
After it is set to the correct hop frequency, the PLL is open and the VCO is
controlled by the data sequence during the transmission of a packet. The
voltage obtained by PLL for the hop frequency is increased or decreased
slightly via a Gaussian filter to produce desired frequency shifts.
Figure 10.13. FHSS Transceiver Structure

A power amplifier is used to boost the doubled frequency carrier to the proper
power level. The antenna is switched either to the power amplifier for
transmission or to the RF amplifier for reception. Because of this half-duplex
operation, the same carrier is also used to convert the RF signal to an IF signal
for further amplification in the receiving path. The amplified IF signal is
amplitude-limited for FSK demodulation and data sequence recovery. Filters
are used between different functional stages to eliminate out-of-band noises.
After the PLL is attached to a wireless network coordinated by beacons from an

access point, it regularly changes VCO's frequency to be in synchronization
with the hop sequence and its timing. To transmit a packet, a clear channel is
determined first by examining if the output level of the received signal
strength indication (RSSI) functional block is below a certain threshold. During
the normal receiving mode, the arrival of a packet is indicated when the
output of RSSI exceeds another threshold. The threshold for packet detection
can be higher than that of clear channel assessment to guarantee a successful
packet recovery. The destination address of the arrived packet is usually
checked first to determine if the rest of the packet needs to be recovered.
Figure 10.14 shows an example of an FHSS radio transceiver chip, LMX3162,

from National Semiconductor. The LMX3162 contains PLL, transmit, and
receive functions. The 1.3-GHz PLL is shared by transmit and receive sections.
The transmitter includes a frequency doubler and a high-frequency buffer. The
receiver consists of a 2.5-GHz low-noise mixer, an IF amplifier, a high-gain
limiting amplifier, a frequency discriminator, an RSSI, and an analog DC
compensation loop. The PLL, doubler, and buffers can be used to implement
open-loop modulation along with an external VCO and loop filter. The circuit
features on-chip voltage regulation to allow supply voltages ranging from 3.0
to 5.5 V. Two additional voltage regulators provide a stable supply source to
external discrete stages in the Tx and Rx chains. The IF amplifier, high-gain
limiting amplifier, and discriminator are optimized for 110-MHz operation, with
a total IF gain of 85 dB. The RSSI output may be used for channel quality
monitoring.
Figure 10.14. A Radio Transceiver Realization Example
Figure 10.15 shows the application of this radio transceiver chip for a complete
FHSS transceiver. Additional components include a receive LNA, a power
amplifier, an RF bandpass filter connected to the antenna, an RF bandpass
filter after the LNA, a surface acoustic wave (SAW) IF bandpass filter, an
inductor capacitor (LC) IF bandpass filter, a VCO, a loop filter for PLL, an RLC
tank circuit for FSK demodulation, an RC low-pass filter in conjunction with
FSK demodulation, and a microcontroller with a operating system and MAC
software. The whole transceiver is usually assembled as a module of compact
size. The use of a module for further system integration avoids potential
complications when RF and IF parts are placed improperly causing performance
degradation.
Figure 10.15. Application of the Example Chip

The transmit power of an FHSS transceiver is defined to be between 10 and 20
dBm. An FHSS transceiver needs to operate under the received signal level of
20 dBm when transceivers are only about 3 ft apart. The receive sensitivity is
also required to be 80 dBm for the 2GFSK modulation. The allowed signal
attenuation is between 90 and 100 dB. The attenuation is about 65 dB when
transceivers are 50 ft apart according to Figure 5.10 at 2.4 GHz. The distance
between transceivers is about 800 ft apart for an attenuation of 90 dB using
the 6-dB loss per double distance rule of Equation 5.29. On the other hand,
the receiver front-end noise level, Pnoise, can be calculated according to the
input resistor thermal noise level PR=kT=-174 dBm/Hz, the antenna and
amplifier noise figure NF=14dB, and the signal bandwidth B = 1 x 106. We
have
Equation 10.5
At a signal-to-noise level of about 30 dB, the channel capacity for the FHSS
environment is
Equation 10.6
The transmission performance of an FHSS wireless Ethernet transceiver can be

further studied by computer simulation. Figure 10.16 shows a simplified
Simulink model consisting of a random data sequence generator, a Gaussian
filter, a VCO, and a Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) demodulation part. The data
sequence generator consists of a binary sequence generator in conjunction
with a scaling circuit consisting of a fixed gain of 2, a subtractor, and a
constant of 1 to convert binary to ±1 levels. The Gaussian filter operates at
five times the symbol rate, and an interpolation device is used to increase the
sampling rate from the data sequence generator. The VCO has a carrier
frequency of 10 MHz (to simplify simulation) and a sensitivity of 160 kilohertz
per volt (kHz/volt). A fourth-order Butterworth low-pass filter with a corner
frequency of 750 kHz and a sampling rate of 100 MHz is used in the Frequency
Modulation (FM) demodulator.
Figure 10.16. A Simulink FHSS Transceiver Model

10.3 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
In this section, features of the DSSS wireless Ethernet are highlighted by

examining the packet structure, the 11-bit Barker code modulation process,
and the spectrum mask.
10.3.1 Summary of DSSS Standards
The packet format for the DSSS implementation of wireless Ethernet is shown
in Figure 10.17. A DSSS packet consists of a preamble, a header, and a MAC
frame. The DSSS preamble has a Sync field of 128 bits and a Start Frame
Delimiter of 16 bits. The DSSS header has a Signal field of 8 bits, a Service
field of 8 bits, a Length field of 16 bits, and a CRC field of 16 bits.
Figure 10.17. DSSS Packet Format
The DSSS preamble Sync field contains 128 bits of scrambled 1s to be used by
the receiver to detect a signal and to achieve frequency and timing
synchronization with the rest of the received packet. The SFD consists of the
binary pattern of 1111 0011 1010 0000 used for start of frame indication. The
SFD least significant bit (lsb) is transmitted first in time. The Signal field
indicates the modulation rate used for the MAC frame. The data rate equals
the Signal field value multiplied by 100 kbps (i.e., 0000 1010 for 1 Mbps and
0001 0100 for 2 Mbps). The Service field is reserved for future use. The value
0000 0000 signifies compliance. The Length field indicates the number of
microseconds, up to 216 1, required to transmit the MAC frame. The Length
lsb is also transmitted first in time. The CRC is a frame check sequence
generated against Signal, Service, and Length fields using the same Comite
Consulatif International Telephonique et Telegraphique (CCITT) CRC-16
polynomial of G(x) = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1. All bits in a DSSS packet are
scrambled with a self-synchronizing scrambler based on the generator
polynomial of G(z) = z-7 + z-4 + 1. Figure 10.18 shows a possible way of
implementation using delay elements and exclusive OR operations. The
scrambler can be initialized to any state except all 1s when transmitting.
Figure 10.19 shows a possible implementation for the descrambler.
Figure 10.18. A Self-Synchronizing Scrambler Realization

reserved.)
Figure 10.19. A Self-Synchronizing Descrambler Realization

reserved.)
Within the 2.4-GHz IMS band, there are 11 carriers that are 5 MHz apart,
allocated by the FCC for U.S. and Canada DSSS operations starting at 2.412
GHz. To minimize interference, coexisting carriers need to be 30 MHz apart.
Therefore, at least two separate DSSS wireless Ethernets can coexist at the
same location. Starting from the MAC frame, each bit, for 1 Mbps, or each pair
of bits, for 2 Mbps, are modulated to the radio carrier frequency at a rate of 1
million symbols per second. For the MAC frame, each symbol carries 1 or 2 bits
for 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps, respectively. On the other hand, each symbol consists of
11 chips corresponding to the 11-bit Barker code of +1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1 +1 1
1 1. In other words, the bandwidth-related signaling rate is effectively 11
Mega-chips per second (Mcps). Because of the use of this Barker code, the
spectrum of the DSSS wireless Ethernet becomes 11 MHz, even though the
symbol rate is only 1 MHz. The Barker code is used because of its very high
peak autocorrelation value when aligned for further SNR enhancement at the
receiver. Let the Barker code be B(k), we have
Equation 10.7
and
Equation 10.8
For 1 Mbps, a 1 bit is represented by the original Barker code, or 0 phase, and
a 0 bit is represented by the sign reversal of the Barker code, or a p shift. For
2 Mbps, bit combinations of 00, 01, 11, and 10 are represented by 0, p/2, p,
and p/2 phase shifts of the Barker code, respectively. p/2 and p/2 phase shifts
are implemented using in-phase and quadrature channels of amplitude-
scaled Barker codes. The process of formulating a Barker code of desired phase
is called spreading, and the process of multiplying the received chip and
accumulating the sum is called despread. The use of this 11-bit Barker code
can provide a spreading gain of 10 x log (11) 10.4 dB. The DSSS wireless
Ethernet transmit power resulting from the 11-Mcps Barker code is defined to
be between 1 and 1000 mW. With a bandwidth of 11 MHz, the PSD level is
between 70 and 40 dBm/Hz. The unfiltered power spectrum resulting from the
Barker code and the spectrum mask defined by the standards are shown in
Figure 10.20. Additional low-pass, at Barker code, or bandpass, at IF or RF,
filtering is required to meet the mask requirement.
Figure 10.20. Barker Code Power Spectrum and DSSS PSD

Mask (From IEEE Std. 802.11. Copyright © 1999 IEEE. All
rights reserved.)
10.3.2 DSSS Transceiver Architecture and Performance
Estimation
Figure 10.21 shows a functional block diagram of a typical DSSS wireless

Ethernet transceiver. There are two PLL-controlled local oscillators: VCO/PLL2
for the IF of about 100 MHz and VCO/PLL1 for the choice of a particular DSSS
carrier. In the transmit path, bits or bit pairs are encoded into Barker code
symbols. Barker code symbols are separately converted to analog formats for
in-phase and quadrature channels. After low-pass filtering, symbols are
modulated and combined in the IF. Complex IF symbols are then modulated to
RF, amplified, and sent to the antenna for transmission. In the receiving path,
the RF signal from antenna is amplified and then demodulated to IF. After
additional amplification, IF symbols are demodulated to baseband of separate
in-phase and quadrature channels. After low-pass filtering, baseband symbols
are converted to digital formats. Digital symbols in the format of Barker code
chips are despreaded for SNR enhancement. Enhanced symbols are then
decoded into bit streams. The operation of a DSSS transceiver is half-duplex,
and local oscillators are used for either transmit or receive. Because the
amplitude information of DSSS symbols is very important, received signal
strength is monitored at both the IF amplifier and the analog-to-digital
convertor (ADC) stages. RF and IF amplifier gains are adjusted to maintain
proper signal level at analog-to-digital outputs for further signal processing.
Received signal strength indication is used for both Clear Channel Assessment
(CCA) and Automatic Gain Control.
Figure 10.21. DSSS Transceiver Structure

To transmit, the CCA is first checked. The transceiver microcontroller then
assembles a packet in the right format, turns on the transmit path circuits, and
sends the packet as a bit stream through the encoder. The transceiver is
normally in the receive mode to monitor the presence of any packet in the RF
medium. After the RF energy is indicated by CCA, the transceiver adjusts its
gain level and tries to catch the Start Frame Delimiter. If the SFD is detected,
CRC bits are checked before the rest of the packet is collected to be sent to the
transceiver microcontroller for data recovery. Meanwhile, timing information is
also derived from the preamble for proper adjustment for recovery of the rest
of the packet.
Figure 10.22 shows an example of a DSSS transceiver chip set from Intersil.
This chip set consists of a MAC part, a baseband processor, an IF modem, an
RF/IF convertor, an LNA, and a PA. The MAC part is based on a 16-bit ARM core
with control and MAC firmware residing on external memory. The ARM core is
a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) microcontroller. The MAC part uses
dedicated circuits for WEP processing. The MAC part also contains a host
interface to a PC or other devices, a radio control interface, and a digital serial
interface to write to or read from registers on other chips. The baseband
processor contains in-phase and quadrature channel ADCs, an RSSI ADC, and
demodulation and modulation circuits. The IF modem contains in-phase and
quadrature channel digital-to-analog convertors (DAC), IF modulation and
demodulation circuits, and IF amplifiers. The RF/IF convertor contains RF
amplifiers and RF modulator and demodulators. This chip set needs two
external oscillators, RF and IF bandpass filters, and some memory chips to
form a DSSS transceiver.
Figure 10.22. A DSSS Chip Set Example

The transmit power of a DSSS transceiver is defined to be between 0 and 30
dBm. A DSSS transceiver needs to operate under the received signal level of 4
dBm when transceivers are close by. The receive sensitivity is also required to
be 80 dBm for the 2-Mbps DQPSK modulation. The allowed signal attenuation
is between 80 and 110 dB. The maximum operable distance between
transceivers could exceed 2000 ft at the 30-dBm transmit power level in a
barrierless transmission environment. On the other hand, the receiver front-
end noise level Pnoise can be calculated according to the input resistor thermal
noise level PR = kT = 174 dBm/Hz, the antenna and amplifier noise figure NF
= 14 dB, and signal bandwidth B = 11 x 106. We have
Equation 10.9
At a signal-to-noise level of about 9.59 dB, the channel capacity for the DSSS
environment is
Equation 10.10
The transmission performance of a DSSS wireless Ethernet transceiver can be

further studied by computer simulation. Figure 10.23 shows a simplified
Simulink model consisting of a random data sequence generator, a transmitter,
and a receiver.
Figure 10.23. A Simulink DSSS Simulation Model

Figure 10.24 shows the internal structure of the Simulink transmitter model.
Binary data sequence is first converted into symbols of ±1 levels. For this
assumed 1-Mbps throughput, the same data symbol is sent through both in-
phase and quadrature channels. The symbols are spread to a chip rate of 11
MHz by an interpolation and Baker code filters. The sampling rate is further
increased to 110 MHz by another interpolation filter for subsequent low-pass
filtering and modulation processes. These two fourth-order Butterworth low-
pass filters have corner frequencies of 5.5 MHz. They might be realized with
analog circuits in a real implementation. The low-pass filtered Baker code chips
are modulated with cosine and sine waves of a carrier. The carrier frequency
for this Simulink model is 11 MHz. Again, the carrier might come from a VCO
in a real implementation.
Figure 10.24. The Simulink DSSS Transmitter Model
Figure 10.25 shows the internal structure of the Simulink receiver model. The
received signal is first bandpass-filtered to minimize out-off-band noise. This
second-order Butterworth bandpass filter has corner frequencies at 5.5 and
16.5 MHz. The bandpass-filtered signal is demodulated with cosine and sine
waves of an 11-MHz carrier. In-phase and quadrature baseband channels are
also recovered after low-pass filtering by low-pass filters of the fourth order.
Low-pass filtered signals are decimated to 11 mega samples per second for
despreading by Barker code filters. Peaks are then registered to recover data
symbols.
Figure 10.25. The Simulink DSSS Receiver Model

10.4 Complementary Code Keying
Eight-chip Complementary Code Keying (CCK) is used as the modulation

method for HRDSS (5.5 and 11 Mbps) transmissions. The CCK chip signaling
rate is 11 MHz and is the same as that of DSSS. The signal bandwidth of CCK
is therefore also 11 MHz and is compatible with DSSS systems. The HRDSSS
basic packet format is the same as that of DSSS. An optional short packet
format is also provided to reduce transmission overhead for 2-, 5.5-, and 11-
Mbps rates. An optional HRDSSS packet binary convolutional coding (PBCC)
modulation method can also be used in place of the CCK modulation.
10.4.1 Summary of 802.11b Standards
Two different preambles and headers are defined: the mandatory supported
long preamble and header, which is interoperable with the 1- and 2-Mbps
DSSS specification, and an optional short preamble and header. Figure 10.26
shows the long packet format for HRDSSS transceivers. The long packet
format is the same as that used by DSSS transceivers. There are several new
definitions in the Signal and Service fields. High rates and corresponding
encodings are different in the Signal field. A bit is used in the Service field to
indicate the length that is expressed in whole microseconds. Another bit is
used in the Service field to indicate whether the optional PBCC mode is being
used. One bit is used in the Service field to indicate that the transmit carrier
frequency and bit clocks are locked.
Figure 10.26. Long Packet Format
Figure 10.27 shows the optional short packet format for HRDSSS transceivers.
The short packet format also consists of a preamble, a header, and a MAC
frame. The short packet format preamble has a Sync field of only 56 scrambled
0 bits and a Start Frame Delimiter of 16 bits. The short packet format SFD is
the time reversal of long packet format SFD. The short packet format SFD has
a binary pattern of 0000 0101 1100 1111 transmitted lsb first. The short
packet format header also has a Signal field of 8 bits, a Service field of 8 bits,
a Length field of 16 bits, and a CRC field of 16 bits. The CRC is generated
using the same CCITT CRC-16 polynomial of G(x) = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1. The
short packet format preamble uses the 1-Mbps Barker code DBPSK modulation.
The short packet format header uses the 2-Mbps Barker code DQPSK
modulation, and the MAC frame is transmitted at 2, 5.5, or 11 Mbps. All bits in
an HRDSSS packet are scrambled with the same self-synchronizing scrambler
based on the generator polynomial of G(z) = z7 + z4 + 1.
Figure 10.27. Short Packet Format
The CCK modulation for HRDSSS wireless Ethernet was jointly proposed by
Harris and Lucent during the 1998 July 802.11b working group meeting.
Before that joint proposal, both companies made similar but different
modulation proposals based on the 11-MHz chip signaling rate for HRDSSS.
Lucent proposed the Barker code pulse position modulation (BCPM) method
and Harris proposed the M-array Bi-Orthogonal Keying (MBOK) and
Quadrature M-array Bi-Orthogonal Keying (QMBOK) methods. The joint CCK
proposal uses 4 bits to select an eight-chip code word among 16 code words for
5.5 Mbps and 8 bits to select an 8-chip code word among 256 code words for
11 Mbps. Because each chip can be represented by a binary complex number
for the in-phase and the quadrature channels, significant distances are
maintained among different code words.
Lucent's earlier BCPM [2] proposal defined eight different pulse positions for
the Barker code chip sequence (i.e., the original Barker code and seven
additional time-rotated versions are used for signaling). Three additional bits
can be carried on each symbol if in-phase and quadrature channels use the
same time-rotated Barker code, and six additional bits can be carried on each
symbol if in-phase and quadrature channels can choose their time-rotated
Barker codes independently. These additional 3 and 6 bits lead to transmission
rates of 5 and 8 Mbps, respectively. The transmission rate can be further
increased to 8 x 11/9 = 9.78 if the symbol duration is reduced to 9 chips
instead of 11. To recover bit information carried in pulse positions, channel
equalization techniques are necessary to minimize the effect of intersymbol
interference caused by channel dispersion.
Harris's MBOK and QMBOK proposal is based on modified Walsh codewords.

Walsh codewords have the property of high autocorrelation and zero cross
correlation or orthogonality. Walsh codewords are rows of Hadamard matrix Hi,
where i is the matrix dimension. A Hadamard matrix of dimension 2n can be
constructed based on a Hadamard matrix of dimension n. We have
Equation 10.11
where is the sign reversal version of Hn. Starting with H1=[1], we have
Harris's modified Walsh codewords can be described by rows of the following

matrix. All columns of this modified Walsh code matrix Hm8 can be identified
by a codeword or its sign reversal of.H8.
Equation 10.12
MBOK uses 3 bits to select one codeword from the preceding eight codewords
and 1 bit to reverse signs of every bit in the codeword. The transmission rate
of MBOK is therefore 4 x 11/8 = 5.5 Mbps. QMBOK uses 4 bits for the in-phase
channel codeword and another 4 bits for the quadrature channel codeword
independent selections. The transmission rate of QMBOK is 8 x 11/8 = 11
Mbps. These modified Walsh codewords are called bi-orthogonal for zero cross
correlation between codewords except for codeword pairs with reversed signs
where the cross correlation is the negative of the autocorrelation.
Polyphase complementary codes were eventually adapted by the 802.11b

standards for their better performance at 11 Mbps especially in the multipath
environment with cross in-phase and quadrature channel interference [3].
Unique features of a pair of binary complementary codewords were first
discovered by Marcel J. E. Golay in 1951 [4] and further discussed in 1961 [5].
Golay used a pair of binary sequences as shown in Figures 10.28 and 10.29 to
demonstrate these features.
Figure 10.28. Example Complementary Binary Sequence 1
Figure 10.29. Example Complementary Binary Sequence 2

Sequence 1 has four pairs of like elements and three pairs of unlike elements,
both with a separation of one; whereas Sequence 2 has four pairs of unlike
elements with a separation of one and three pairs of like elements.
Complementary codes are defined as a pair of equal finite-length sequences
having the property that the number of pairs of like elements with any given
separation in one series is equal to the number of pairs of unlike elements
with the same separation in the other. Complementary codes are characterized
by the property that their aperiodic autocorrelation is zero everywhere except
at the zero shift. Let the ith complement codeword of n elements be
and the aperiodic autocorrelation of the code word be
. For a pair of complementary codewords, we have
Equation 10.13
The concept of a complementary codeword pair was late extended to a set of N

complementary codewords [6]. Similarly, we have
Equation 10.14
Elements of complementary codewords were further extended to have multiple

phases of unit magnitude instead of only binary values (i.e., , I = 0, 1,
2, …, L 1, q = 2p/L instead of ). The aperiodic autocorrelation of
polyphase complementary codewords becomes where is a

complex conjugate of and Equation 10.14 still holds. Methods of finding
polyphase complementary codewords of various lengths were also discovered
[7, 8].
CCK length 8 polyphase complementary codewords can be obtained based on

length 4 polyphase complementary codewords. Length 4 polyphase
complementary codewords are derived by obtaining one pair of complementary
codewords at a time. A pair of length 4 polyphase complementary codewords
has the following general formats. We have a polyphase codeword,
, and its complementary polyphase codeword,
. A pair of length 4 polyphase codewords is
defined by
Equation 10.15
General formats for a pair of length 4 complementary polyphase codewords

become and . f0and
q0 can be considered as a rotation to either codeword, respectively. By setting
f0 = 0, and q0 = 0 and observing ep = 1, we have and
. For f1 = ¼/2, we have and .
Rotating S4 and C4 by setting f0 = ¼/2, ¼, 3¼/2, and q0 = ¼/2, ¼, 3¼/2
independently, we obtain 16 pairs of, or 32, length 4 polyphase complement
codewords.
Next, pairs of length 8 polyphase complementary codewords are formed using

pairs of length 4 polyphase complementary codewords. We have
and . By setting f0 = 0, ¼/2, ¼, 3¼/2, we can form 64 pairs of,
or 128, length 8 polyphase complementary codewords. Another 64 pairs of, or
128, length 8 polyphase complementary codewords can be formed using
and . These polyphase complementary codewords are
described by the IEEE 802.11b standards as
Equation 10.16
where 1, 2, 3, are defined by data bits D =d0d1d2d3d4d5d6d7. Specifically, 1 is

a rotation fact of the codeword and is determined by bit pairs d0d1. 00, 01, 11,
and 10 bit pairs of d0d1 specify 0, p/2, p, and p/2 phase rotation of the
codeword, respectively, for even symbols. Data bits d0d1 are complemented
first for odd symbols. 2, 3, and 4 are determined by bit pairs d2d3,d4d5 , and
,d6d7 respectively. 00, 01, 11, and 10 pairs of d2d3, d4d5, , and d6d7 specify 0,
p/2, p, and p/2 phase for , 2, 3 and, 4 respectively. Assuming 0 value for 1,
polyphase complementary codewords corresponding to bit values of
d2d3d4d5d6d7 are listed in Table 10.2 where 0, p/2, p, and p/2 phases are
represented by 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Table 10.2. Polyphase Complementary Codewords
Data Symbol Data Symbol Data Symbol Data Symbol
000000 00020020 010000 20222000 100000 10121030 110000 30323010
000001 22200020 010001 02002000 100001 32301030 110001 12103010
000010 11130020 010010 31332000 100010 21231030 110010 01033010
000011 33310020 010011 13112000 100011 03011030 110011 23213010
000100 22022220 010100 02220200 100100 32123230 110100 12321210
000101 00202220 010101 20000200 100101 10303230 110101 30101210
000110 33132220 010110 13330200 100110 03233230 110110 23031210
000111 11312220 010111 31110200 100111 21013230 110111 01211210
001000 11021120 011000 31223100 101000 21122130 111000 01320110
001001 33201120 011001 13003100 101001 03302130 111001 23100110
001010 22131120 011010 02333100 101010 32232130 111010 12030110

001011 00311120 011011 20113100 101011 10012130 111011 30210110
001100 33023320 011100 13221300 101100 03120330 111100 23322310
001101 11203320 011101 31001300 101101 21300330 111101 01102310
001110 00133320 011110 20331300 101110 10230330 111110 30032310
001111 22313320 011111 02111300 101111 32010330 111111 12212310
For 5.5-Mbps transmission, only four polyphase complementary codewords and

their rotations are required. After extensive computer simulation studies,
these four polyphase complementary codewords, listed in Table 10.3, are
selected for their outstanding performance under various multipath wireless
channel conditions. The first two bits are used again to rotate these codewords
according to these same even and odd symbol rules.
Table 10.3. Polyphase aCodewords for 5.5 Mbps
Data Symbol
0000 10121030
0001 32301030
0010 30323010
0011 12103010
These various multipath channel models used for simulation performance

studies can be described by
Equation 10.17
Equation 10.18
Equation 10.19
where is a zero mean Gaussian random variable with variance

produced by generating an N(0,1) Gaussian random number and multiplying it
by , and is chosen so that the condition is satisfied to

ensure the same average received power. Ts represents the sampling period,
and TRMS represents the delay spread of the channel. The number of samples
to be taken in the impulse response should ensure sufficient decay of the
impulse response tail (e.g., kmax = 10 x TRMS/TS). For a sampling rate of 11
MHz, we have TS = 1/fsample 91 ns. For TRMS = 200 ns, we have kmax = 10 x
200/90 23. Figure 10.30 shows a corresponding channel model.
Figure 10.30. A Multipath Channel Model
Before finalizing the adaptation of the CCK modulation for 802.11b, another
binary convolution code (BCC)based modulation proposal was presented by
Alantro, which later became a subsidiary of Texas Instruments, Inc. It was
argued that BCC can provide additional coding gain for its Trellis structure and
that the multipath channel effect can be minimized by using scrambling.
Although not accepted as the standardized modulation method, texts for the
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum with packet binary convolution code
(DSSS/PBCC) were included in the 802.11b standards as an optional
modulation method. The binary convolution code proposed for DSSS/PBCC is
defined by the
Equation 10.20
or in octal form shown by
Equation 10.21
The convolution encoding process can be implemented with six delay elements
and exclusive OR operations as shown in Figure 10.31. For every data bit input
x, two output bits y0 and y1 are generated.
Figure 10.31. A DSSS/PBCC Encoder Implementation (From

The output of the binary convolutional code is mapped to a constellation using

one of two possible rates. The 5.5-Mbps rate uses BPSK, and the 11-Mbps rate
uses QPSK. In BPSK mode, each pair of output bits from the encoder is taken
serially (y0 first) and used to produce two consecutive BPSK symbols. In QPSK
mode, each pair of output bits is used to produce one symbol. A 256-bit
pseudo-random sequence is generated from a 16-bit seed sequence of
0011001110001011 for scrambling. This 256-bit sequence is produced by
using the 16-bit seed sequence 16 times. More precisely, this 256-bit sequence
is formed by using the original 16-bit seed sequence as the lead and is
followed by 15 left-rotated versions of the seed sequences in steps of a 3-bit
left-rotate for each subsequent sequence. This 256-bit sequence is used for
scrambling by rotating the QPSK symbols by 90° and reversing the sign of x-
axis for BPSK symbols when a 1 bit is encountered. The transmission
throughput of a DSSS/PBCC system can be increased to 22 Mbps if the 8-
phase shift keying (8PSK) modulation method is used.
The transmit power level and the PSD mask of HRDSSS are the same as those
defined for DSSS for spectrum compatibility where different HRDSSS and
DSSS transceivers can share the same spectrum to operate. On the other
hand, the minimum separation frequency is reduced to 25 MHz for non-
overlapping channels. Three non-overlapping channels with carrier frequencies
at 2.412, 2.437, and 2.462 GHz and six overlapping channels with carrier
frequencies at 2.412, 2.422, 2.432, 2.442, 2.452, and 2.462 are defined for
North American HRDSSS operations.

Estimation
Figure 10.32 shows a functional block diagram of a typical HRDSSS wireless

Ethernet transceiver. Compared with that of a DSSS transceiver, the
differences are the modulation part before DAC and the demodulation part
after ADC. In the transmit path, instead of spreading with Barker code of 11
chips for 1 or 2 bits, a complementary codeword of 8 chips is selected for every
4 or 8 bits. In the receiving path, instead of despreading, a pair of matched
filters are used. Higher sampling rate ADCs are necessary for the
implementation of matched filters. Outputs from matched filters are decimated
to the chip signaling rate and then correlated with 4 or 64 codewords using the
fast Walsh transform algorithm to identify the correct symbol and its rotation
angle. Identified symbols are then decoded into bit streams.
Figure 10.32. HRDSSS Transceiver Structure

A desired codeword can be created in a few steps. The first 2 bits of each group
of 8 bits are reserved for codeword rotation. The next three pairs of bits are
used to create three base phases, 1, 2, and 3. These three phases are then
used to generate phases of the first seven chips; the last chip always has a 0
phase. A codeword is constructed based on phases of these eight chips
resulting in a pair of real and imaginary eight-chip sequences with values of 1,
0, and +1. This pair of sequences might be swapped or sign-reversed
depending on values of the first pair of 2 bits and the even/odd symbol rule.
On the other hand, a lookup table can also be used to pick up a codeword
among 64 with 6 input data bits; the codeword is then rotated based on the
other 2 input data bits.
The demodulator of a RAKE receiver (whose structure is similar to that of a

garden rake) can be implemented with a combination of a pair of higher
sampling rate matched filters for SNR optimization, a modified fast Walsh
transform operation for codeword identification, and maybe a decision
feedback channel equalizer for channel interference cancellation. The
frequency response of a matched filter is the complex conjugate of the
received signal. In other words, the time domain response of a matched filter
is the same as that of the received signal. Filter coefficients of these matched
filters can be identified by comparing received signal against the known
preamble of Sync and SFD fields at the beginning of a packet under the high
SNR condition. In a low SNR environment, the time domain response of a
matched filter can be based on the accumulation effect of those known
transmitter and receiver filters.
Right-multiplying a Hadamard matrix (consisting of Walsh codewords) by an

input data vector is defined as a Walsh transform as shown by
Equation 10.22
where X is an input column vector of size N, HN is a Walsh-Hadamard matrix of
dimension N by N, and Y is the output column vector of size N. The original
data vector can be recovered by the inverse Walsh transform of the output
column vector Y, as defined by
Equation 10.23
A two-dimensional Walsh transform is also defined, as shown by
Equation 10.24
where X, HN, and Y all are dimension N by N matrices. The inverse two-
dimensional Walsh transform is shown by
Equation 10.25
A Walsh transform of a data vector of size N takes N2 addition and/or

subtraction operations. A fast Walsh transform (FWT) can be implemented to
reduce the required number of operations to N log2 N. The FWT is derived
based on the partition of a Hadamard matrix into a product of log2 N matrices
whose rows only have two nonzero entries. Define a special matrix operator
and the construction of a Hadamard matrix can also be described by

the following Kronecker product operation [9]:
Equation 10.26
For example, we have
Equation 10.27
More interestingly, the construction of a Hadamard matrix can also be

described by the following Kronecker product operation on 2 by 2 identity
matrices [10]:
Equation 10.28
where has only two nonzero entries on each row. For example, we have
Equation 10.29
Similarly, we have
Equation 10.30
For this example, these three matrix multiplications, starting from the
rightmost, lead to the butterfly structure shown in Figure 10.33.
Figure 10.33. Fast Walsh Transform Butterfly Structure
This FWT cannot be used for the quadrature phase complementary codewords
directly. Similar fast transformations involving only one operation between a
pair of numbers can be derived by examining relationships between pairs of
adjacent bits, groups of four bits, and valid codewords. A butterfly structure for
processing quadrature phase complementary codewords using the FWT
principle is shown in Figure 10.34. From each data point, the top line indicates
an addition, the second a 90° rotated addition, the third a subtraction, and the
bottom a 90° rotated subtraction. Notice that chip 2 (X6), and chip 5 (X3) are
negated before the execution of the butterfly computation. Only two of the
three stages of operation are included in Figure 10.34. The last stage of the
operation pairs an output from the second stage of the left block with one from
the second stage of the right block of the same row and performs +, j, , and j
calculations. Inputs X0 through X7 are either real or imaginary for an ideal
channel and can be complex numbers owing to channel distortion. A real
operation adds or subtracts real and imaginary components separately. An
operation involving j adds or subtracts real components to or from imaginary
ones and vice versa. There are 64 complex outputs from the last stage of the
butterfly operation. The output with the largest amplitude indicates matched
codewords. The phase of the output indicates the rotation of the codewords.
Figure 10.34. Fast Walsh Transform to a Quadrature Input

Vector
This modified FWT for quadrature phase complementary codewords can also be
described by the following matrix expression involving 8 by 16, 16 by 32, and
32 by 64 matrices whose rows contain only two nonzero elements:
Equation 10.31
where , and . The use of this

modified FWT can reduce the required number of operations for codeword
correlation from 8 x 64 = 512 to 16 + 32 + 64 = 112. MATLAB programs for
the binary and modified Walsh transforms are included at the end of this
chapter.
A Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE) can use identified symbols to cancel

interchip interference as shown in Figure 10.35. Identified symbols from the
FWT are decoded into data bits and also used to retrieve the write codeword of
corresponding chips with real and imaginary components. The DFE with
coefficients calculated from the estimated channel impulse response uses these
chips to subtract interchip interference from matched filter outputs. Interchip
interference cancellation is performed eight chips at a time in conjunction with
the availability of each arriving symbol. On the other hand, the cancellation
value for each chip needs to be accumulated across symbol boundaries.
Figure 10.35. Application of a Decision Feedback Equalizer

Figure 10.36 shows an example of a HRDSSS transceiver chip set from
Intersil. This chip set consists of a MAC part, a baseband processor, an IF
modem, an RF/IF convertor, and a power amplifier.
Figure 10.36. HRDSSS Transceiver Chip Set Example
Details of the baseband transmit block are shown in Figure 10.37. Data bits
are first passed through the scrambler. A preamble and a header are attached
before the Barker code or CCK modulation for 1, 2 or 5.5, 11 Mbps,
respectively. Data symbols are then passed through transmit filters before
reaching DACs. An AGC is used to regulate the transmit power. The gain and
the output power level of a Power Amplifier might vary considerably because of
different variations introduced during the manufacturing process. If not
regulated, the transmit power level might vary in a range of 5 dB. That might
lead some transceivers to exceed the power limits and others to not transmit
enough power. The power level of the PA is monitored through an ADC and the
gain of the IF amplifier is properly controlled through a DAC via an AGC loop.
Figure 10.37. Baseband Transmitter Structure

Details of the baseband receiver block are shown in Figure 10.38. Received
signals from DACs are first interpolated for timing adjustment. Digitized
samples with correct timing are selected by the down converter and passed
through matched filters. A Barker code correlator or an FWT-based CCK
correlator is used for symbol identification for 1/2 Mbps (or 5.5/11 Mbps)
throughputs. A DFE and a more accurate timing/carrier recovery PLL are used
for the HRDSSS operation. In the receiver path, the gain is adjusted in two
stages. The gain of the RF amplifier is controlled by a DAC according to the
dynamic range of the digitized signal while a fixed gain in the IF stage can be
turned on and off depending on the signal level detected by the CCA functional
block. Some coordinations are required between RF and IF gain adjustments.
Figure 10.38. Baseband Receiver Structure

The transmit power of an HRDSSS transceiver is also defined to be below 30
dBm. An HRDSSS transceiver needs to operate under the received signal level
of 10 dBm when transceivers are close by. The receive sensitivity is required
to be 76 dBm for the 11-Mbps CCK modulation. The allowed signal attenuation
is between 76 and 106 dB for a transmit power of 0 and 30 dBm, respectively.
The maximum operable distance between transceivers could exceed 1000 ft at
the 30-dBm transmit power level in a barrierless and low noise transmission
environment. The receiver front-end noise level is the same as that of DSSS
because it is in the same signal bandwidth and is equal to 89.59 dBm. At a
signal-to-noise level of about 13.59 dB, the channel capacity for the DSSS
environment is
Equation 10.32
The transmission performance of an HRDSSS wireless Ethernet transceiver can
be further studied by computer simulation. Figure 10.39 shows a simplified
Simulink model which consists of a random data sequence generator, a
transmitter, a multipath channel model, and a receiver.
Figure 10.39. A Simulink HRDSSS Simulation Model
Figure 10.40 shows the internal structure of the Simulink transmitter model. A
binary data sequence is fed through the CCK encoder to generate in-phase and
quadrature chips at a chip rate of 11 megahertz per second (MHz/s). The
sampling rate of these chips is further increased tenfold for low-pass filtering.
These two fourth-order Butterworth low-pass filters have corner frequencies at
5.5 MHz. To use the baseband multipath channel model, the modulation
process is omitted.
Figure 10.40. The Simulink HRDSSS Transmitter Model
Figure 10.41 shows a possible implementation of the CCK encoder. Four pairs
of bits are formed to generate four individual base phases after the serial-to-
parallel conversion. Eight phases are then calculated for each individual chip.
These phases are then translated to in-phase and quadrature chip values via
separate parallel-to-serial conversion processes.
Figure 10.41. A Simulink CCK Encoder Model

Figures 10.42 and 10.43 show bit-to-phase conversion circuits for the first
phase, corresponding to the first and the second bits, and for the rest of the
phases.
Figure 10.42. Bit-to-Phase Encoder I
Figure 10.43. Bit-to-Phase Encoder II
Figure 10.44 shows the multipath channel model consisting of in-phase and
quadrature FIR filters whose coefficients are calculated according to Equations
10.17, 10.18, and 10.19.
Figure 10.44. A Simulink Multipath Channel Model
Figure 10.45 shows the internal structure of the Simulink receiver model. With
the demodulation process omitted for simplicity, received signals are passed
through the in-phase and the quadrature-matched filters first. Filtered signals
are then decimated to the original chip rate of 11 MHz. An FWT is used to
generate 64 codeword correlation outputs. These correlation outputs are
converted to four base phases by the four-phase decoder. Original bit streams
are recovered by the phase-to-bit (P2B) decoder. Original chips are also
recreated by the phase-to-chip (P2C) decoder to be used by the decision
feedback channel equalizer for interchip interference cancellation.
Figure 10.45. The Simulink HRDSSS Receiver Model
Figure 10.46 shows the implementation of the FWT functional block, which
consists mainly of three matrices, each of which has only two nonzero entries
in each row, as described by Equation 10.31.
Figure 10.46. A Simulink FWT Model

Figure 10.47 shows a possible implementation of the four-phase decoder. One
of these 64 correlation outputs is selected for its maximum magnitude. Four
base phases are then produced corresponding to that selection and the phase
angle of that selected autocorrelation output.
Figure 10.47. A Simulink Codeword Decoder Model
Figure 10.48 shows the implementation of one of these 64 four-phase

generation cells. After a cell is activated by matching the maximum input InM
and the corresponding input InA, a phase angle related to the corresponding
input as well as three other stored phases are made available to the output.
Figure 10.48. A Phase Identification Cell
Figure 10.49 shows the implementation of the phase-to-bit decoder. It consists

of four individual phase-to-bit conversion cells, corresponding to 4 bit pairs,
and a parallel-to-serial convertor.
Figure 10.49. A Simulink Phase-to-Bit Decoder

Figures 10.50 and 10.51 show implementations of phase-to-bit conversion
cells corresponding to the first pair and to the remaining three pairs of bits
because of the different bit-to-phase encoding rules.
Figure 10.50. Phase-to-Bit Decoder I
Figure 10.51. Phase-to-Bit Decoder II

Figure 10.52 shows the implementation of the phase-to-chip sequence
decoder. These four base phases are used to formulate the phases of eight
individual chips. Formulated individual phases are then converted to values of
+1, 0, and 1 for in-phase and quadrature parts of a chip sequence with the
help of two separate parallel-to-serial convertors.
Figure 10.52. A Phase-to-Chip Decoder

10.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
A 64-point complex number IFFT/FFT operation forms the modulation

mechanism for this 802.11a wireless Ethernet. Among 64 subcarriers, 48 of
them are used for BPSK, QPSK, 16) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM),
or 64QAM, 4 of them are used for pilot tone. Complex time domain signals are
modulated onto in-phase and quadrature channels of an RF carrier separately.
A rate 1/2 convolution code is used for error protection. Rate 2/3 and 3/4 codes
are derived through puncturing. An interleaving process is used to randomize
subcarrier and bit location distribution among each OFDM symbol.
10.5.1 Summary of 802.11a Standards
The packet format for the OFDM implementation of wireless Ethernet at 5 GHz
is shown in Figure 10.53. An OFDM packet consists of a preamble, a header,
and a MAC frame. The OFDM preamble has a Sync field of 10 short symbols
and 2 long symbols. The OFDM header has 1 Signal symbol including a Rate
field of 4 bits, followed by a reserved bit, a Length field of 12 bits, followed by
a parity bit and 6 tail bits. The MAC frame is further encapsulated with a
Service field of 16 bits in the beginning and 6 tail bits as well as some
necessary PAD bits at the end.
Figure 10.53. OFDM Packet Format (From IEEE Std. 802.11.

The OFDM preamble Sync field is to be used by the receiver to detect a signal
and to achieve initial frequency and timing synchronization to receive the rest
of the packet. The preamble lasts 16 µs as shown in Figure 10.54. Short
preamble symbols are indicated by t1 through t10, and long preamble symbols
are labeled as T1 and T2.
Figure 10.54. Preamble Structure (From IEEE Std. 802.11.
A normal OFDM symbol is created through the inverse fast Fourier transform
of data bits in a transmitter. Data bits are recovered in a receiver using the
fast Fourier transform. The IFFT/FFT size for 802.11a is 64. Each IFFT/FFT
block has 64 complex time domain points and 64 complex subcarriers in
frequency domain. Complex time domain signals are represented by in-phase
and quadrature parts of an OFDM wireless Ethernet carrier frequency. The
interval between adjacent time points is 50 ns corresponding to a base
sampling rate of 20 MHz. The duration of an IFFT/FFT block T is 64 x 50 = 3.3
µs. The frequency between adjacent subcarriers is therefore 20 MHz/64 =
312.5 kHz. Among these subcarriers, 48 are used for carrying data bits, 4 are
reserved for pilot tones with carrier/timing information, carrier 1 is not used
for avoiding DC bias, and carriers 2838 are not used for minimizing
interference between coallocated 802.11a wireless Ethernet systems using
adjacent channel frequencies. To avoid channel intersymbol interference, a
cyclic prefix of 16 points is appended in front of each time domain OFDM
symbol. A normal OFDM symbol duration is therefore 80 x 50 ns = 4 µs. The
OFDM symbol rate is 250 kHz.
A short preamble symbol is created by IFFT for the sequence {0, 0, 1 +

j, 0, 0, 0, 1 j, 0, 0, 0, 1 + j, 0, 0, 0, 1 j, 0, 0, 0, 1 j, 0, 0, 0, 1 + j, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1 j, 0, 0, 0, 1 j, 0, 0, 0, 1 + j, 0, 0, 0, 1 + j, 0, 0, 0, 1 + j, 0, 0, 0, 1
+ j, 0, 0} on to these 53 subcarriers including the number 1 DC subcarrier in
the middle. This sequence is modulated to subcarriers 3964 and 127. The
multiplication factor of is used to normalize the average power of the
resulting OFDM symbol because only 12 out of 52 subcarriers are activated.
This sequence after IFFT has a periodicity of T/4 = 0.8 µs. In other words, this
sequence after IFFT represents four short preamble symbols. A long preamble
symbol is created by the IFFT of the sequence L = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1} on to these 53 subcarriers including the
number 1 DC subcarrier. Again this sequence is modulated to subcarriers 3964
and 127.
The Signal field of 24 bits contains Rate and Length subfields. The first 4 bits
encode the Rate information. The fifth bit is reserved for future use. The next
12 Length bits indicate the number of bytes for the MAC frame before
encapsulation. The following bit is a positive parity (even parity) bit for the
previous 17 bits. The last 6 bits constitute the Signal Tail field and are all
zeros. The size of the signal field is doubled to 48 bits after the rate 1/2
convolution encoding, and these 48 bits are mapped to 48 data-carrying
subcarriers to create the single Signal OFDM symbol with BPSK modulation.
The Service field before the MAC frame consists of 16 bits. The first 7 bits are
zeros and are used to synchronize the descrambler in the receiver; the
remaining 9 bits are reserved for future use. These 6 tail bits, which are
required to reset the convolutional encoder, after the MAC frame are also all
zeros. A number of PAD bits are added to make the encapsulated MAC frame
fill a multiple number of whole OFDM symbols of 48, 96, 192, or 288 bits.
The encapsulated MAC frame is scrambled with a length-127 frame-

synchronous pseudo-random sequence. This pseudo-random sequence is
created using the generator polynomial as described by
Equation 10.33
Figure 10.55 shows a possible implementation of this frame-synchronous

scrambler. The encapsulated MAC frame is also coded with a binary convolution
encoder of coding rate R = 1/2, 2/3, or 3/4, corresponding to the desired data
rate. The rate 1/2 binary convolution code is defined by
Equation 10.34
Figure 10.55. Scrambler Implementation (From IEEE Std.

or in octal form shown by
Equation 10.35
The convolution-encoding process can be implemented with six delay elements

and exclusive OR operations as shown in Figure 10.56. For every data bit
input, two output bits A and B are generated. Bit A is taken out ahead of bit B.
Figure 10.56. Convolution Encode Implementation (From IEEE

Std. 802.11. Copyright © 1999 IEEE. All rights reserved.)
Higher convolution encoding rates are derived from this encoder by

puncturing. Puncturing is a procedure for omitting some of the encoded bits in
the transmitter (thus reducing the number of transmitted bits and increasing
the coding rate) and inserting dummy zeros into the convolutional decoder on
the receive side in place of the omitted bits. For rate 2/3 encoding, starting
with the first pair of encoded bits, the puncturing procedure takes away a B
output bit from the second pair and repeats this process for every group of two
pairs. For rate 3/4 encoding, starting with the first pair of encoded bits, the
puncturing procedure takes away a B output bit from the second pair and an A
output bit from the third pair and repeats this process for every group of three
pairs.
Interleaving across multiple subcarriers within a symbol is performed on these

convolution encoded bits before modulation to randomize subcarrier and bit
position distribution. The interleaving block size corresponds to the number of
bits in a single OFDM symbol, NCBPS. The interleaver is defined by a two-step
permutation. The first permutation ensures that adjacent coded bits are
mapped onto nonadjacent subcarriers. The second ensures that adjacent coded
bits are mapped alternately onto less and more significant bits of the
constellation. We denote k as the index of the encoded bit before the first
permutation, i as the index after the first and before the second permutation,
and j as the index after the second permutation. The first permutation is
defined by
Equation 10.36
The function floor( ) denotes the largest integer not exceeding the parameter
(i.e., floor[5.6] = 5). The second permutation is defined by
Equation 10.37
The value of s is determined by the number of coded bits per subcarrier NBPSC
according to
Equation 10.38
The second permutation effectively is not required for NCBPS = 48 and s = 1.
For NCBPS = 48, s = 1, and k = 7, we have i = 21 and j = 21; and for NCBPS =
192, s = 4, and k = 7, we have i = 84 and j = 85.
The deinterleaver, which performs the inverse relation, is also defined by two
permutations. We denote j as the index of the original received bit before the
first permutation, i as the index after the first and before the second
permutation, and k as the index after the second permutation. The first
permutation is defined by
Equation 10.39
where s is defined in Equation 10.38. The second permutation is defined by
Equation 10.40
For NCBPS = 48, s = 1, and j = 21, we have i = 21 and k = 7; for NCBPS = 192,
s = 4, and j = 85, we have i = 84 and j = 7.
We can have BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM for subcarrier modulations
depending on the RF channel SNR. Each subcarrier for a particular
encapsulated MAC frame uses the same modulation method. Each OFDM
symbol can therefore carry 48, 96, 192, or 288 bits corresponding to BPSK of
1 bit, QPSK of 2 bits, 16QAM of 4 bits, and 64QAM of 6 bits per subcarrier.
Combined with convolution encoding ratio of 1/2, 2/3, or 3/4 and a symbol rate
of 250 kHz, available OFDM wireless Ethernet transmission throughputs are 6,
9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbps. They use 1/2 and BPSK, 3/4 and BPSK, 1/2
and QPSK, 3/4 and QPSK, 1/2 and 16QAM, 3/4 16QAM, 2/3 and 64QAM, and 3/4
and 64QAM encoding ratios and modulation methods, respectively.
The transmit power of an OFDM wireless Ethernet is limited to 40, 200, and
800 mW for 5.155.25, 5.255.35, and 5.7255.825 GHz frequency bands,
respectively. There are four OFDM wireless Ethernet channels defined for each
of the above three frequency bands. These carrier frequencies are 5.18, 5.20,
5.22, 5.24, 5.26, 5.28, 5.30, 5.32, 5.745, 5.765, 5.785, and 5.805 GHz.
Adjacent channels are 20 MHz apart. The PSD of each OFDM wireless Ethernet
channel is defined by the mask as shown in Figure 10.57. PSD limits are 56.5,
49.5, and 43.5 dBm/Hz for a signal bandwidth of 18 MHz for these three
frequency bands, respectively.
Figure 10.57. OFDM Channel PSD MASK (From IEEE Std.


Estimation
Figure 10.58 shows functional block diagrams of an OFDM wireless Ethernet

transmitter and a corresponding receiver. In the transmitter, data information
bits pass through a convolution encoder and an interleaver and are then
mapped into these 48 subcarriers for IFFT. A Guide Interval (GI), also known
as the cyclic prefix, is created for each symbol by duplicating the last 16 points
of the IFFT outputs in front of the original 64-point outputs. Real and
imaginary parts of the symbol in time domain are filtered separately before
being modulated onto the in-phase and the quadrature parts of an
Intermediate Frequency carrier, respectively. The IF carrier is then modulated
into the desired OFDM RF channel. In the receiver, the received RF signal is
demodulated in an IF carrier. The IF carrier is then demodulated into separate
in-phase and quadrature channels after IF amplification and AGC. The GI is
removed before these in-phase and quadrature signals, representing the real
and imaginary parts of the input, are sent through the FFT operation. Outputs
from the FFT are converted into a serial bit stream after deinterleaving and
demapping. Data bits are recovered after convolution decoding, which can be
implemented with the Viterbi algorithm.
Figure 10.58. An OFDM Transceiver Structure (From IEEE Std.

Figure 10.59 shows an example of a OFDM transceiver chip set from Atheros.
This chip set consists of a baseband/MAC part (AR5210) and an RF part
(AR5110). ADCs and DACs are contained in the baseband/MAC part. The host
interface function is also included in the baseband/MAC part. The RF part
contains RF/IF receive amplification and demodulation functions including LNA,
RF/IF transmit modulation and amplification functions including PA, a
frequency synthesizer, and some bias/control functions. This chip set needs
external crystals, an RF filter, a transmit/receive switch, baseband filters, and
an external Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) memory chip
to form an OFDM transceiver.
Figure 10.59. An OFDM Transceiver Chip Set Example

The transmit power of an OFDM transceiver is defined to be limited at 16, 23,
and 29 dBm for these three frequency bands, respectively. An OFDM
transceiver needs to operate under the received signal level of 30 dBm when
transceivers are close by. The receive sensitivities are required to be 82, 81,
79, 77, 74, 70, 66, and 65 dBm for 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 54 Mbps
transmission throughputs, respectively. The allowed signal attenuation is
between 81 and 111 dB depending on the transmit power level and the desired
receiver sensitivity. The maximum operable distance between OFDM
transceivers is similar to or a little shorter than those between HRDSSS
transceivers. The receiver front-end noise level is a little higher than that of
DSSS because it has a wider bandwidth and is equal to 87.44 dBm. At a
signal-to-noise level of about 13.59 dB, the channel capacity for the DSSS
environment is B = 20 MHz:
Equation 10.41
Using the channel capacity calculation expression and

different SNRs, corresponding channel capacities are calculated for different
modulation schemes and summarized in Table 10.4.
The transmission performance of an OFDM wireless Ethernet transceiver can

be further studied by computer simulation. Figure 10.60 shows a simplified
Simulink model that consists of a random data sequence generator, a
transmitter, a multipath channel model, and a receiver.
Figure 10.60. A Simulink OFDM Simulation Model

Figure 10.61 shows the internal structure of the Simulink transmitter model. A
binary data sequence is first passed through the rate 1/2 convolution encoder.
Convolution-encoded bits are then formulated into 52 complex numbers
corresponding to these subcarriers for IFFT operation. Complex number
outputs from IFFT are converted to serial with prefixes added for in-phase and
quadrature channels separately. The carrier modulation process is omitted to
use the complex multipath channel model.
Figure 10.61. The Simulink OFDM Transmitter Model
Table 10.4. 802.11a Environment Channel Capacities
Throughput (Mbps) Sensitivity (dBm) SNR (dB) Capacity (Mbps)
6 82 5 41
9 81 6 46
12 79 8 57
18 77 10 69
24 74 13 87
36 70 17 113
48 66 21 139
Figure 10.62 shows the implementation of the constellation encoder with a

serial-to-parallel convertor and 52 individual 4QAM, or QPSK, encoding cells.
Zeros are inserted at subcarriers 1 and 2838 corresponding to the subsequent
IFFT operation.
Figure 10.62. A Possible Encoder Implementation
Figure 10.63 shows the possible implementation of a 4QAM encoding cell. Two
bits are separately used to drive the real and imaginary parts of a subcarrier.
Figure 10.63. A 4QAM Encoding Cell
Figure 10.64 shows the possible implementation of the prefix addition and
parallel-to-serial conversion function block. The last 16 points of the IFFT
output are repeated in front of the 64-point original output to create an 80-
point complex time domain symbol. Real and imaginary parts are separated for
the multipath channel model for this simulation and for separate in-phase and
quadrature channel modulations in a real implementation.
Figure 10.64. Transmit Parallel-to-Serial and Prefix Addition

Function
Figure 10.65 shows the internal structure of the Simulink receiver model.
Prefixes are removed before received signals are converted to frames of 64
complex numbers for FFT operation. Outputs from the FFT are decoded into a
bit stream by the constellation decoder. Data bits are recovered using the
Viterbi decoder.
Figure 10.65. The Simulink OFDM Receiver Model
Figure 10.66 shows a possible implementation of the received signal serial-to-

parallel conversion and prefix removal functional block.
Figure 10.66. Receiver Serial-to-Parallel and Prefix Removal

Function
Figure 10.67 shows that the constellation decoder is made up of 52 individual
4QAM decoding cells followed by a parallel-to-serial convertor.
Figure 10.67. A Possible Decoder Implementation
Figure 10.68 shows the possible implementation of a 4QAM decoding cell.

Complex inputs are separated into a real part and an imaginary part for level-
to-bit conversion.
Figure 10.68. A 4QAM Decoding Cell

10.6 MATLAB Files
10.6.1 RC4 Encryption
%Initialize the secret key

MyKey(1)=164;
MyKey(2)=4;
MyKey(3)=24;
MyKey(4)=107;
MyKey(5)=251;
MyKey(6)=66;
MyKey(7)=186;
MyKey(8)=95;
%Initialize data
data=round(rand(1,300)*256);
%Create an array of size 256 filled with numbers from 0 to 255.
for i=1:256
S(i)=i-1;
end
% Create another array of size 256 filled with repetitions of the ke
for i=0:255
K(i+1)=MyKey(mod(i,length(MyKey))+1);
end
% Initialize the order of S according to the secret key.
j=0;
for i=0:255
j=mod(j+S(i+1)+K(i+1),256);
temp=S(i+1);
S(i+1)=S(j+1);
S(j+1)=temp;
end
% The encrypted data is generated one byte at a time.
i=0;
j=0;
for k=1: length(data)
i=mod(i+1, 256);
j=mod(j+S(i+1), 256);
temp=S(i+1);
S(i+1)=S(j+1);
S(j+1)=temp;
t=mod(S(i+1)+S(j+1),256);
PS=S(t+1);
edata(k)=bitxor(data(k),PS);
end
10.6.2 Gaussian Filter Coefficients
% Obtain normalized Gaussian filter coefficients

f3dbT=0.5;
T=1/1e6;
f3db=0.5/T;
alp=0.5887/f3db;
dt=1/5e6;
k=[-5:5];
hg=exp(-(pi^2/alp^2)*dt^2*k.^2);
10.6.3 Complementary Codewords
% Matlab code to produce the 0 phase version of

% length 8 complementary code set
% Set up data bits matrix
db=zeros(64,6);
db(2,6)=1;
for i=1:2
db(i+2,6)=db(i,6);
db(i+2,5)=1;
end
for i=1:4
db(i+4,5:6)=db(i,5:6);
db(i+4,4)=1;
end
for i=1:8
db(i+8,4:6)=db(i,4:6);
db(i+8,3)=1;
end
for i=1:16
db(i+16,3:6)=db(i,3:6);
db(i+16,2)=1;
end
for i=1:32
db(i+32,2:6)=db(i,2:6);
db(i+32,1)=1;
end
% Set up imaginary number and phase table
jj=sqrt(-1);
b2p=[0 pi/2 pi 3*pi/2];
% Form codewords
for i=1:64
p1=b2p(1+db(i,1)+2*db(i,2));
p2=b2p(1+db(i,3)+2*db(i,4));
p3=b2p(1+db(i,5)+2*db(i,6));
p1a=p1/pi*2;
p2a=p2/pi*2;
p3a=p3/pi*2;
cc(i,1)=exp(jj*(p1+p2+p3));
cc(i,2)=exp(jj*(p2+p3));
cc(i,4)=-exp(jj*(p3));
cc(i,6)=exp(jj*(p2));
cc(i,7)=-exp(jj*(p1));
cc(i,8)=1;
ca(i,1)=mod(p1a+p2a+p3a,4);
ca(i,2)=mod(p2a+p3a,4);
ca(i,4)=mod(p3a+2,4);
ca(i,6)=mod(p2a,4);
ca(i,7)=mod(p1a+2,4);
ca(i,8)=0;
end
10.6.4 A Multipath Channel Model

% Set up sampling time and delay spread
TS=1/11e6;
TRMS=200e-9;
n=ceil(10*TRMS/TS);
jj=sqrt(-1);
% Set up channel model
delt0=1-exp(-TS/TRMS);
hk(1)=(randn(1)+jj*randn(1))*sqrt(delt0/2);
for i=1:n
delt(i)=delt0*exp(-i*TS/TRMS);
hk(i+1)=(randn(1)+jj*randn(1))*sqrt(delt(i)/2);
end
plot([1:n+1],real(hk),[1:n+1],imag(hk),[1:n+1],abs(hk))
xlabel('Sample Index')
ylabel('Amplitude')
grid
gtext('Magnitude')
gtext('Real')
gtext('Imaginary')
10.6.5 Fast Walsh Transform
% Fast Walsh Transform

% FWT size
n=8;
% Create a test data vector
H1=1;
H2=[H1 H1; H1 -H1];
H4=[H2 H2; H2 -H2];
H8=[H4 H4; H4 -H4];
x=H8(5,:);
% Carry out log2(n) stages of
% n/2 additions and subtractions
for i=1:log2(n)
blk=2^(3-i);
dis=2^(i-1);
for j=0:2*dis:2*dis*(blk-1)
for k=1:dis
y(j+k)=x(j+k)+x(j+k+dis);
y(j+k+dis)=x(j+k)-x(j+k+dis);
end
end
x=y;
end
10.6.6 Modified Fast Walsh Transform
% Fast Walsh Transform for quadrature phase

% complementary code words
jj=sqrt(-1);
for k=1:64
for i=1:4
x2((i-1)*4+1)=cc(k,8-2*(i-1))+cc(k,7-2*(i-1));
x2((i-1)*4+2)=cc(k,8-2*(i-1))+jj*cc(k,7-2*(i-1));
x2((i-1)*4+3)=cc(k,8-2*(i-1))-cc(k,7-2*(i-1));
x2((i-1)+4+4)=cc(k,8-2*(i-1))-jj*cc(k,7-2*(i-1));
end
for i=1:2
for j=1:4
x3((i-1)*16+j)=x2((i-1)*8+j)+x2((i-1)*8+j+4);
x3((i-1)*16+j+4)=x2((i-1)*8+j)+jj*x2((i-1)*8+j+4);
x3((i-1)*16+j+8)=x2((i-1)*8+j)-x2((i-1)*8+j+4);
x3((i-1)*16+j+12)=x2((i-1)*8+j)-jj*x2((i-1)*8+j+4);
end
end
for i=1:16
y(i)=x3(i)+x3(i+16);
y(i+16)=x3(i)+jj*x3(i+16);
y(i+32)=x3(i)-x3(i+16);
y(i+48)=x3(i)-jj*x3(i+16);
end
end
10.7 References
1. K. Kaukonen and R. Thayer, A Stream Cipher Encryption Algorithm

"Arcfour," NTERNET-DRAFT, 14 July 1999.
2. I. Bar-David and R. Krishnamoortyh, "Barker code position modulation for

high-rate communication in the ISM bands," Bell Labs Technical Journal,
Autumn 1996.
3. K. Halford, S. Halford, M. Webster, and C. Andren, "Complementary code

keying for Rake-based indoor wireless communication," Proc. IEEE
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, pp. 427430, 1999.
4. M. J.E. Golay, "Statistic multislit spectrometry and its application to the

panoramic display of infrared spectra," J. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 41, no. 7, pp.
468472, July 1951.
5. M. J.E. Golay, "Complementary series," IRE Trans. on Information Theory,

pp. 8287, April 1961.
6. C. C. Tseng and C. L. Liu, "Complementary Sets of Sequences," IEEE Trans.

on Information Theory, vol. IT-18, no. 5, September 1972.
7. R. Sivaswamy, "Multiphase Complementary Codes," IEEE Trans. on

Information Theory, vol. IT-24, no. 5, pp. 546552, September 1978.
8. R. L. Frank, "Polyphase complementary codes," IEEE Trans. on Information

Theory, vol. IT-26, no. 6, pp. 641647, November 1980.
9. P. Lancaster, Theory of Matrices, Academic Press, New York, 1969.
10. C. K. Rushforth, Fast Fourier-Hadamard decoding of orthogonal codes,

Information and Control, no. 15, pp. 3337, 1969.
Chapter 11. HomeRF
The HomeRF consortium group was formed by a few PC and wireless
technology companies during 1997. At that time, the IEEE 802.11 wireless
Ethernet standards were just released and standards conforming transceivers
were relatively too expensive for home applications. Goals of the HomeRF
group were to develop an inexpensive wireless technology to connect not only
PCs but also other popular electronic devices in a home environment. To
reduce the development time, proven technologies, such as 802.11 and DECT
(Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone), were used as building blocks for the
HomeRF specification also known as Shared Wireless Access ProtocolCordless
Access [1]. The version 1.0 of the specification was released in January 1999.
The HomeRF group has since grown to about 100 member companies. With the
development of 802.11b, the demand for higher transmission throughput had
led the HomeRF group to increase the signaling rate of its FHSS system so that
it exceeds 1 MHz within the 2.4-GHz ISM band. With a favorable ruling on
relaxed rules by the FCC, a higher throughput version of HomeRF version 2.0
was released in May 2001.
HomeRF 1.0 can provide transmission throughputs of about 0.8 or 1.6 Mbps
for asynchronous data as well as up to four voice connections. The HomeRF
transmission physical layer is based on the FHSS 2FSK (Frequency Shift
Keying) and 4FSK technology defined by IEEE 802.11 standards. Under the
CSMA/CA mechanism, the reception of every asynchronous data packet is
acknowledged by a short packet. Voice connections to telephony devices, called
I-nodes (where I stands for Isochronous), are established and managed by a
Connection Point (CP). Each voice connection consists of a pair of downstream
and upstream TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) slots. Instead of an
acknowledgment packet, the reception of a voice packet in the downstream is
indicated by a bit in the header of the packet in the upstream direction. Voice
packets are exchanged between the CP and I-nodes periodically in
synchronization with frequency hops. Transmission of voice packets occurs
right before each frequency hop, and retransmission of voice packets is
allowed right after the frequency hop. The recently approved HomeRF 2.0 can
provide higher transmission throughputs of about 5 or 10 Mbps using a
signaling rate of 5 MHz in conjunction with 2FSK and 4FSK modulations.
In this chapter, the basics of HomeRF MAC are discussed in terms of a

superframe structure, different types of MAC frames, and its encryption
algorithm. Physical layer attributes of HomeRF 1.0 specification are then
examined with respect to packet formats, data whitening methods, modulation
parameters, and frequency hopping sequences. Some features of HomeRF 2.0
specification are also mentioned.
11.1 Media Access Control Basics
The HomeRF MAC is designed to handle both asynchronous data and TDMA
(Time Division Multiple Access) voice packet transmissions. On the other hand,
the point coordination function part of IEEE 802.11 MAC is designed to handle
timing-sensitive applications through a polling system. HomeRF can be viewed
as a specialized version of IEEE 802.11 wireless Ethernet whose MAC is a
combination CSMA/CA of IEEE 802.11 and TDMA of DECT and that uses the
FHSS modulation method of IEEE 802.11. To guarantee the periodic delivery of
voice packets, a superframe is defined for HomeRF. A frequency hop starts
every superframe. Original voice packet transmissions are allocated near the
end of the superframe, and retransmission of voice packets is allowed right
after the frequency hop at the beginning of the superframe to benefit from the
frequency and time diversity. Asynchronous data transmission occurs after a
DIFS. The reception of every asynchronous data packet is acknowledged by a
short packet within a SIFS. On the other hand, all voice packets are separated
by a SIFS. Therefore, asynchronous data transmission can start a DIFS after
the frequency hop if there is no retransmission voice packets. Different
HomeRF MAC frames are defined for management tasks, asynchronous data
transmissions, and TDMA connections. For security purposes, HomeRF uses a
different encryption algorithm than the WEP of IEEE 802.11.
11.1.1 Simultaneous TDMA and CSMA/CA
HomeRF provides both data and voice transmission capabilities based on

802.11 FHSS GFSK signaling methods. To maintain constant connections, voice
packets need to be delivered periodically with minimal jitter; therefore, a
periodic superframe is defined to accommodate the needs of voice connections.
The period of the superframe depends on the voice packet size and the
throughput of each voice connection. For example, if the voice packet size is
640 bits and the throughput of each voice channel is 32 kbps, the period of the
superframe is 640/32 x 103 = 20 ms. Two voice packet time slots are required
for each full-duplex voice connection. Because each voice packet occupies a
relatively small portion of time, multiple pairs of voice packet slots,
corresponding to multiple voice connections, can be located in each
superframe. To ensure reliability, retransmission voice slots are also allocated
after a frequency hop to avoid an unfavorable transmission environment. After
retransmission voice slots, the remaining time of the superframe is available
for asynchronous data transmission. Figure 11.1 shows the general structure
of a HomeRF superframe.
Figure 11.1. Superframe Structure
Up to four pairs of voice slots and four pairs of retransmission slots can be
allocated in each superframe. All voice slots are separated by SIFS while
pending data packets need to wait for a DIFS. The duration of a super frame is
actually marked from the start of a frequency hop to the next frequency hop.
Under this definition, retransmission voice slots appear right after the Beacon
frame. Asynchronous data transmission starts whenever a DIFS can be
detected. Voice slots start by counting backwards from the end of the
superframe or the next frequency hop time. The information on the number of
voice slots is broadcast by the Beacon frame. Data transmissions are
constrained not to extend to these voice slots.
A SIFS lasts about 142 µs and a DIFS lasts about 309 µs. With 1-Mbps GFSK,
a voice packet lasts about 1 ms. On the other hand, the Beacon frame takes
about 1.3 ms. We also give the frequency hop process about 300 µs.
Therefore, a 20-ms superframe can provide a duration of about 18.258 ms for
packet transmission after the deduction of the frequency hop and Beacon
frame overhead. The duration is just about enough for allocating four pairs of
voice slots and four pairs of retransmission slots. In other words, if four voice
connections are allocated in an unfavorable transmission environment, data
transmission throughput will be reduced to below 0.5 Mbps depending on how
often retransmission occurs. On the other hand, a maximum of 17,949
asynchronous symbols can be transmitted during a superframe with no voice
or retransmission slots considering the DIFS. This leads to a maximum payload
of about 17,621 bits, or about 2202 bytes, with the 1-Mbps GFSK modulation
considering preamble, header, and CRC overhead. This is a little less than the
maximum payload size of 2312 bytes defined by IEEE 802.11 standards. In
practice, one or two voice connections can be established simultaneously with
data transmission throughputs of about 0.8 Mbps, assuming retransmission
happens not very often with the 1-Mbps GFSK modulation.
Asynchronous data packets are transmitted using the CSMA/CA algorithm. The
reception of every data packet is acknowledged by a short ACK packet within
the SIFS. A HomeRF SIFS is defined as the time for transmission delay, CRC
calculation, and turning around a transceiver from a receive mode to a
transmit mode. A HomeRF DIFS is defined as the SIFS plus a slot duration. A
slot duration is defined as the time for a transceiver to perform a CCA
operation. To avoid potential collision, transceivers wait for additional random
slot durations after the DIFS before sending their pending packets.
Management frames are also transmitted during the asynchronous data
transmission time period.
Each voice channel is sampled at 8 kHz with a resolution of 14 bits producing a

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) bit stream. Each voice bit stream is companded
and encoded into a sequence of 4-bit ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code
Modulation) codewords. Each HomeRF voice packet corresponding to a voice
channel throughput of 32 kbps contains 160 ADPCM codewords, or 640 bits
and some control information. A single voice packet is transmitted in each
voice time slot. Two voice time slots, one from a CP to an I-node called
downstream and the other in the reverse direction called upstream, are paired.
Voice slots are scheduled during the voice connection set-up process. The
reception of each downstream voice packet is acknowledged by an indication
bit in the header of the corresponding upstream voice packet. If the voice
packet is received incorrectly, the CP schedules a pair of retransmission slots
and advertises this coming event in the Beacon packet. The retransmission for
each mission packet can only be scheduled once. A single service slot can be
added right after the retransmission slots or the Beacon packet if no
retransmission is scheduled. The service slot is used by an I-node to send
management information and is created by the sending of a management
frame within the SIFS. A contention resolution procedure is defined in case
multiple I-nodes use the service slot at the same time.
11.1.2 MAC Frames
Figure 11.2 shows these general HomeRF MAC frame formats as defined by
the standards. A HomeRF MAC frame can have a type 2 or 3 header only or a
type 1, 2, or 3 header followed by a MAC frame body and its CRC.
Figure 11.2. MAC Frame Formats

The HomeRF type 1 header is associated with a TDMA MAC frame body and
consists of 9 bytes. The type 2 header is associated with a CSMA/CA MAC
frame. The type 3 header is associated with a CSMA/CA MAC frame carrying
synchronization information. The type 1 header has a Flags field of 10 bits, a
Length field of 14 bits, an NWID (Network ID) field of 24 bits, a TDMA Payload
Control field of 8 bits, and a header CRC field of 16 bits as shown in Figure
11.3.
Figure 11.3. HomeRF Type 1 Header
The HomeRF type 2 header is associated with CSMA/CA MAC frames and
additionally has a Destination Address and Source Address fields of 48 bits
each as shown in Figure 11.4.
The HomeRF type 3 header includes a synchronization information field of 32

bits each as shown in Figure 11.5.

The flags field consists of the following subfields: version of 2 bits, learn NWID
of 1 bit, MAC frame type of 5 bits, and reserved of 2 bits. There are 10
distinguishable MAC frame types associated with these three types of headers.
The Length field contains the number of symbols to the end of a packet,
starting from the beginning of the NWID field. The NWID field identifies the
network with which a node is associated. The TDMA Payload Control field
consists of the following subfields: connection ID of 2 bits, request encryption
of 1 bit, encrypted payload of 1 bit, reserved of 1 bit, and TDMA Ack of 1 bit.
The Payload Control field for CSMA/CA MAC frames consists of the following
subfields: modulation level of 2 bits, encryption level of 2 bits, compressed of
1 bit, First Frag of 1 bit, Last Frag of 1 bit, and Frag SN of 1 bit. First Frag and
Last Frag are used to indicate the first and last fragments of a fragmented
payload. Frag SN is alternately set to 1 or 0 for fragments between the first
and the last ones. The synchronization information field consists of a hop
pattern subfield of 8 bits, a hop index subfield of 8 bits, and DW count subfield
of 16 bits. The DW count value is the number of symbol periods remaining in
the dwell period after the transmission of the MAC frame header.
The MAC frame header is protected by a 16-bit CRC generated according to
Equation 11.1
The MAC frame header CRC is the 1's complement of the exclusive OR of the
remainder of xk (x15 + x14 +... + x + 1 divided by G(x) and the remainder of
the message polynomial multiplied by x16 and then divided by G(x), where k is
the number of MAC frame header bits. As a typical implementation, at the
transmitter, the initial remainder of the division is preset to all 1's and is then
modified by division of the message polynomial by the generator polynomial
G(x). The 1's complement of this remainder is transmitted, with the highest
order bit first, as the CRC field. At the receiver, the initial remainder is preset
to all 1's, and the serial incoming bits of the MAC frame header and CRC, when
divided by G(x), results in a unique nonzero polynomial, G(x) = x12 + x11 +
x10 + x8 + x3 + x2 + x + 1, in the absence of any transmission error.
The MAC frame body is protected by a 32-bit CRC generated according to

Equation 11.2
The MAC frame body is the 1's complement of the exclusive OR of the
remainder of xk (x31 + x30 + x29 + ... + x2 + x + 1 divided by G(X) and the
remainder of the MAC frame body polynomial multiplied by x32 and then
divided by G(x), where k is the number of MAC frame body bits. As a typical
implementation, at the transmitter, the remainder of the division is initially
preset to all 1's and is then modified by dividing of the message polynomial by
the generator polynomial G(x). The 1's complement of this remainder is
transmitted, with the highest order bit first, as the FCS field. At the receiver,
the remainder is initially preset to all 1's and the serial incoming bits of the
message and FCS, when divided by G(x), results in a unique nonzero
polynomial
Equation 11.3
in the absence of any transmission error.
There are seven HomeRF MAC frame types: Information Request and Station
Information (IR and SI), Data, TDMA, Connection Point Service (CPS), Ad-hoc
Beacon, CP Beacon, and Connection Point Assertion. The IR and SI frame
format is as defined in Figure 11.6. An IR and SI frame has a Type 2 header of
21 bytes, a Managed Capabilities field of 1 byte, and a Base Capabilities field
of 1 byte and is followed by a 4-byte CRC. An IR and SI frame carries the
transmitting node modulation, compression, transmit power, power savings,
and TDMA capabilities.
Figure 11.6. IR and SI Frame Format

The Data frame can have a type 2 or type 3 MAC frame header, depending on
whether synchronization information is included, followed by a MAC frame
body of the CSMA/CA type defined by IEEE 802.11 standards. The TDMA MAC
frame format is defined by Figure 11.7. A TDMA frame has a type 1 Header of
9 bytes, a TDMA Header of 1 byte, and a TDMA Payload of 85 bytes and is
followed by a 4-byte CRC. TDMA frames are used to establish full-duplex
isochronous communication links for voice applications.
Figure 11.7. TDMA MAC Frame Format
The CPS frame is as defined in Figure 11.8. A CPS frame has a Type 2 Header
of 21 bytes, a CPS request ID of 1 byte, a CSID (service ID of a power
management request) of 1 byte, and a MAC Address of 6 bytes and is followed
by a 4-byte CRC. A CPS frame is used by a transceiver for service
management.
Figure 11.8. CPS Frame Format
The Ad-hoc Beacon frame consists of only a Type 3 Header and is used by an
ad-hoc network to maintain synchronization.
The CP Beacon frame format is as defined in Figure 11.9. A CP Beacon frame

has a Type 3 Header and a number of variable size fields. A CP Beacon frame
can consist of only a header and a CRC but no other fields. Other valid fields
include Main TDMA Slot, Retry TDMA Slot, Power Management, Broadcast
Service, and Connection Management. The maximum size of a CP Beacon
payload of all fields is that of the TDMA payload.
Figure 11.9. CP Beacon Frame Format
The Connection Point Assertion frame has the frame format as defined in
Figure 11.10. A CP Assertion frame has a Type 2 Header of 21 bytes, an ACP
dwell counter of 4 bytes, a CP Priority field of 4 bits, and a CP Type field of 4
bits and is followed by a 4-byte CRC. A CP Assertion frame is broadcast by an
active CP to ensure that there is only one active CP on the network.
Figure 11.10. CP Assertion Frame Format
11.1.3 Encryption
A linear feedback shift register (LFSR)-based encryption algorithm has been

proposed for HomeRF application. The encryption can be applied either to
asynchronous data or to isochronous voice packets. Inputs to the encryption
process are an encryption key, an initialization vector of 32 bits, and a data or
voice bit stream. The output from this encryption process is a bit stream of the
same length as that of the input data or voice. Figure 11.11 shows a block
diagram of the encryption algorithm. There are five LFSRs of lengths 23, 25,
27, 29, and 31. Four of these combine to form an address. The other forms the
data into the "Algorithm M." The encryption key and IV are initially distributed
into these bits of LFSR registers. The output of Algorithm M is combined with
the outputs of all the shift registers to produce output bits. These output bits
are exclusive-ORed with the bits of the input data or voice to produce the
encrypted bit stream.
Figure 11.11. A Block Diagram of the Encryption Algorithm

11.2 HomeRF 1.0 Physical Layer Attributes
A HomeRF packet is created by attaching a preamble to the MAC frame and

inserting a 4FSK filed between the MAC frame header and the MAC frame body
if the 4FSK modulation is utilized. Data whitening, modulation, and frequency-
hopping schemes are very similar to those of an IEEE 802.11 FHSS system. A
HomeRF transceiver needs an additional voice/telephone interface. Receiver
sensitivities are more relaxed resulting in channel capacities that are higher
than those in the FHSS system.
11.2.1 Packet Format
The HomeRF packet format is shown in Figure 11.12. A HomeRF packet

consists of a preamble, a PSDU1 (PHY Service Data Unit 1), followed by an
optional 4FSK Symbol field, and a PSDU2. The HomeRF preamble has a Sync
field of 80 bits and a Start Frame Delimiter of 16 bits.
Figure 11.12. Packet Format
The preamble Sync field contains an alternating zero-one pattern, starting

with zero and ending with one, to be used by the receiver to detect a signal
and to achieve frequency and timing synchronization with the rest of the
received packet. The SFD consists of the binary pattern of 1111 0011 0100
0010 used for start-of-frame indication and transmitted with the leftmost bit
first. The variable length PSDU1 field carries the MAC frame header and is
transmitted using 2FSK. There is a 4FSK symbol field if the following PSDU2
field is transmitted using 4FSK modulation. The 4FSK symbol field consists of a
128-bit pattern specified by the HomeRF standards and can be used for
receiver adjustment. The variable length PSDU2 field carries the MAC frame
body including CRC. PSDU2 may be transmitted using either 2FSK or 4FSK
modulation.
11.2.2 Data Whitening
To maintain an even DC level across the received signal, the physical layer
uses a data-whitening algorithm, called Bias Suppression Encoding, similar to
that used for FHSS wireless Ethernet. Both MAC frame header, PSDU1, and
MAC frame body, PSDU2, are whitened using a pseudo-random sequence of
length 127, which is created based on the generator polynomial S(x) = x7 + x4
+ 1. The preamble and the 4FSK Symbol field are not whitened. The original
MAC frame is exclusive-ORed with the repetition of this pseudo-random
sequence to form the whitened MAC frame. In addition, a stuff symbol is
inserted after the preamble and after every 32 whitened MAC frame symbols.
The 4FSK Symbol field is bypassed if it exists and a stuff symbol is inserted
after the 4FSK Symbol field and after every 32 whitened PSDU2 symbols.
The stuff symbol after the preamble is initialized to 0 or to 00 for 2FSK or

4FSK, respectively, after the 4FSK Symbol field. Meanwhile, an accumulation
of bias is established by summarizing weights of each symbol for PSDU1 and
PSDU2 separately only if the 4FSK Symbol field exists. For 2FSK, a 1 has a
weight of 2 and a 0 has a weight of 2. For 4GFSK, weights are 3, 1, 1, and 3
for 10, 11, 01, and 00 bit combinations, respectively. Whenever the bias
accumulation of a 32-symbol block is different than the previous total bias
accumulation, the leading stuff symbol and following 32 symbols of the block
are all negated for subsequent transmission and the inclusion in the total bias
accumulation. The negation of 4FSK symbols is equivalent to reversing the
most significant bit of these bit combinations. These negated symbols can be
recovered at the receiver by recognizing a 1- or a 10-bit combination at the
leading synchronization symbol.
11.2.3 Modulation
A Gaussian filter with a nominal bandwidth period product of 0.5 is used for
both 2FSK and 4FSK modulations. For 2FSK modulation, a symbol for a 1 bit is
represented by a positive frequency shift of 160 kHz from the carrier
frequency and a symbol for a 0 bit is represented by a negative frequency shift
of 160 kHz from the same carrier frequency. For 4FSK modulation, there are
four possible frequency shifts of ±72 kHz and ±216 kHz. Bit combinations of
10, 11, 01, and 00 are represented by frequency shifts of 216, 72, 72, and
216 kHz, respectively. Bit rates of 1 and 2 Mbps are provided by 2FSK and
4FSK modulations, respectively. For the normal operation, the transmit power
is defined to be between 16 and 20 dBm. For the low power operation, the
transmit power is defined to be between 0 and 4 dBm. Averaged over an
approximate bandwidth of 1.4 MHz accounting for both Gaussian filtering and
modulation effects, PSD levels are between 45.5 and 49.5 dBm/Hz or 61.5 and
57.5 dBm/Hz for normal or low power operations, respectively. A HomeRF
transceiver can operate on a received signal level of 76 and 62 dBm for 2FSK
and 4FSK, respectively. The transceiver can also operate for received signals
as strong as 20 dBm.
11.2.4 Frequency Hopping
Within the 2.4-GHz ISM band, 79 frequency channels, at 1 MHz apart, are
defined starting with channel 0 of 2.402 GHz and ending with channel 79 of
2.48 GHz. Among these channels, 75 of them, channels 478, are used by
HomeRF. A base-hopping sequence for HomeRF is defined by
Equation 11.4
where f(I) is the hopping channel number, x is the hop pattern, I is the hop
index, and b(I) is the base-hopping sequence as defined by Figure 11.13.
Different HomeRF home wireless networks can be established using different
hop patterns. When the hop pattern x is zero, a HomeRF network hops
following the base-hopping sequence.
Figure 11.13. The Base-Hopping Sequence

The hopping frequency of HomeRF depends on the size of the superframe,
which is defined in the Synchronization field of the type 3 header. The
superframe is shared by voice channels and asynchronous data traffic. The
HomeRF minimum hopping rate can be calculated based on the TDMA payload
size and the transmission throughput of a voice channel. The TDMA payload
size is 85 bytes or 680 bits. HomeRF voice channels are encoded with the
ADPCM at a bit rate of 32 kbps. Therefore, we need at least 32 x 103/680 =
47.059 packets per second to carry these voice channels. Because a voice
packet can only be presented once and repeated once during each hop, the
minimum hop frequency is therefore 48 hops per second. The typical HomeRF
hopping frequency is 50 hops per second. The typical duration of a HomeRF
hop is 20 ms.
Figure 11.14 shows the general structure of a HomeRF transceiver, which

consists of an RF front end, a MAC function, a Data/Host Interface, and/or a
Voice/Telephone Interface depending on whether it is for an A-node, I-node, or
AI-node. Requirements for the RF front end are almost the same as those for
an 802.11 FHSS transceiver. The CSMA/CA part of MAC is also very similar to
that of IEEE 802.11. The HomeRF MAC requires additional functions for TDMA
voice connection management. The Data/Host Interface could be as simple as
a serial interface or as advanced as a USB or a PC card interface. ADC, DAC,
compander, and ADPCM codec can also be included in the Voice/Telephone
Interface.
Figure 11.14. HomeRF Transceiver Structure

A HomeRF transceiver is required to operate on received signal levels of 76
and 62 dBm for 2FSK and 4FSK, respectively. On the other hand, the receiver
front-end noise level Pnoise is calculated according to the input resistor thermal
noise level, PR = kT = 174 dbm/Hz, the antenna and amplifier noise figure, NF
= 14 dB, and signal bandwidth, B = 1.3 x 106 or B = 1.4 x 106. We have
Equation 11.5
Equation 11.6
At signal-to-noise levels of about 36.5 and 23 dB, channel capacities for the
HomeRF environment are
Equation 11.7
Equation 11.8
11.3 Highlights of HomeRF 2.0
To improve the transmission performance of HomeRF, especially for the

increased throughput of asynchronous data, the HomeRF 2.0 standards have
been proposed and approved. HomeRF 2.0 enables up to eight voice
connections and is capable of providing streaming audio and video sessions.
The high transmission throughput of HomeRF is made possible by using a
GFSK signaling rate of 5 MHz instead of 1 MHz. The higher signaling rate
results in transmission throughputs of 5 and 10 Mbps for 2FSK and 4FSK
modulations, respectively. Within the ISM band of between 2430 and 2477
MHz with a single channel bandwidth of 5 MHz, 15 instead of 75 non-
overlapping channels can be allocated. Using equalization techniques, similar
receiver sensitivities can be maintained for 2FSK and 4FSK modulations under
normal channel spread conditions. The maximum transmit power for HomeRF
2.0 is increased to 27 dBm.
At a bandwidth of 5 MHz, the receiver front-end noise level Pnoise is calculated

according to the input resistor thermal noise level of PR = kT = 174 dBm/Hz,
the antenna and amplifier noise figure of NF = 14 dB, and the signal
bandwidth of B = 5 x 106 = 67. We have
Equation 11.9
Assuming the required signal level of 76 and 62 dBm for 2FSK and 4FSK,
respectively, the SNRs at the receiver front end are about 31 and 17 dB. The
corresponding channel capacities for the HomeRF 2.0 environment are
Equation 11.10
Equation 11.11
11.4 Reference
1. J. Lansford and P. Bahi, "The design and implementation of HomeRF: A radio

frequency wireless networking standard for the connected home," Proc. of the
IEEE, vol. 88, no. 10, pp. 16621676, October 2000.
Chapter 12. Home Networking Protocols
When a user interacts with a Web server over the Internet using his PC
connected through a home network to an ADSL line, IP packets are exchanged
frequently across many different segments of a network connection. IP packets
are encapsulated with Ethernet frames and again with ATM cells through the
home network and the ADSL line and recovered by an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). Many different formats of home networking physical layers
discussed so far are designed to be used by communication applications mainly
through a PC. Transmission physical layers usually provide only physical layer
signaling and Media Access Control capabilities. Functions to utilize these
physical layers such as Logic Link Control and Internet Protocols are usually
implemented as a part of a computer operating system, such as Windows or
Linux, or require dedicated hardware for the case of a home router. An
integrated home network structure is better viewed through not only wiring
configurations but also involved communication protocols. For practical
purposes, many implementable home network configurations using different
physical layers are described in this chapter along with the introduction of
broadband internet access, peer-to-peer networking, network address
translation, and MAC bridge. These functional components provide
fundamental benefits to the home network utilizing those physical layers.
A broadband internet access involves a communication link between an ISP

and an ADSL or a cable modem and a connection from the modem to a PC or
PCs. An ADSL communication link is established and maintained via a
Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) of ATM cells. A cable modem communication
link relies on LLC or SNAP (SubNetwork Access Protocol). The connection from
the modem is usually a twisted pair Ethernet cable. The connection from a
modem can be extended to multiple PCs using an Ethernet hub and/or a home
router. A peer-to-peer network for sharing files and printer among multiple PCs
can be enabled by using an Ethernet hub and activating the NetBEUI protocol
on connected PCs. NetBEUI consists of a group of communication protocols for
name management, connectionless, and connection-oriented transmissions. A
single IP address can be shared by multiple PCs and their users by using a
home router with NAT (Network Address Translation) or NAPT (Network
Address Port Translation) function. NAPT maps a single public IP address of
different port numbers to a group of dynamically assigned internal IP
addresses. Different physical transmission layers can be grouped together
using the MAC bridge function. A MAC bridge relays packets among different
physical networks based on MAC addresses it learned by monitoring the
transmission traffic.
12.1 Broadband Internet Access
A popular home network application is for sharing of a broadband access

service, such as an ADSL line or a cable modem, among multiple PCs and their
users in a household. Let us first examine what is involved in connecting a
single user to the ADSL service. Figure 12.1 shows the general ADSL
installation for a single PC at a household. With the splitterless installation
approach, an ADSL modem can be located anywhere in a household as long as
a regular RJ-11 telephone jack is available. For this approach, microfilters
sometimes might need to be inserted between those RJ-11 jacks and the
connected telephone sets to isolate low input impedances of telephone sets at
high frequencies from interfering with the proper operation of the ADSL
modem. The connection between the ADSL modem and the PC is usually done
via a crossover Category 5 patch cable.
Figure 12.1. Broadband Access via ADSL
Let us look at the ADSL end-to-end system architecture to learn what

communication protocols are involved in connecting an ADSL user to the
Internet [1]. Figure 12.2 shows an ADSL end-to-end architecture from a user
to the Internet including ADSL modems, telephone loops (labeled as ADSL),
MDF (Main Distribution Frame)/POTS (Plain Old Telephone Set) Splitters, the
DSLAM (DSL Access Multiplexer), ATM links including the aggregator, and the
ISP. MDF is a physical telephone loop termination hardware platform. POTS
splitters separate telephone services from ADSL using a combination of low-
pass and high-pass filters. The DSLAM hosts ADSL transceivers at a Central
Office (CO). The aggregator does ATM traffic concentration. Sometimes, the
name of the NAP (Network Access Provider) is used for the entity providing all
necessary equipment and associated services to connect a PC at a household
to a router at the ISP. Protocol stacks along the ADSL transmission path are
also demonstrated at the bottom part of Figure 12.2. Information in packet
format enters the stack from the top and reaches the physical layer at the
bottom. Matching physical layers then carry packets from one place to the
other. This architecture was also known as the bridged Ethernet over ATM
approach. This early approach might have been replaced by the Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) over ATM architecture where a PPP connection is established
between a PC and a router and PPP instead of using Ethernet packets are
encapsulated into ATM cells.
Figure 12.2. ADSL End-to-End System Architecture
IP packets that arrive at an ADSL modem in Ethernet format are encapsulated

into ATM cells. Within an ATM cell of 53 bytes, 5 bytes are defined as the ATM
header, which contains channel and path information directing the cell to its
destination. Ethernet packets are actually encapsulated by circuits within the
ADSL modem according to rules defined by RFC (Request For Comments) 1483
and AAL5 (ATM Adaptation Layer Type 5). RFC 1483 maps the ATM channel
and path as well as payload information into proper parts of a frame to be
encapsulated into ATM cells. AAL5 is designated to handle UBR (Unspecified Bit
Rate) service, which fits the traffic characteristics of Internet access very well.
The encapsulation process, sometimes also called SAR (Segmentation And
Reassembly), prepares a cell for transmission in three steps. First, it appends a
variable-length PAD and an 8-byte trailer to a packet. The PAD ensures that
the resulting frame falls on the 48-byte boundary of an ATM cell. The trailer
includes the length of the frame and a 32-bit CRC computed across the entire
frame. Second, it segments the frame into 48-byte blocks. Finally, it places
each block into the Payload field of an ATM cell. A PVC packet transmission
connection is established between the ADSL modem and the ISP router by
assigning proper VCI (Virtual Channel Identifier) and a VPI (Virtual Path
Identifier) in ATM cell headers via the management system in the initial ADSL
installation process. Notice that a DSLAM needs to deal with ADSL traffic only
at the ATM cell level. Sometimes, packets are recovered before reaching an
ISP router if the ATM connection is not available for that last link.
The initial connection between a PC and an ISP router is established through a

few steps involving networking protocols at different levels. First, let us look at
the single PC without a home router case. When a PC is turned on, its
Ethernet NIC is activated. Ethernet transceivers in the ADSL modem and PC
exchange signals and establish a physical connection. Logic Link Control
sublayers above both transceivers then identify each other by exchanging
packets. Packet exchange between LLC sublayers is capable of MAC address
identification via the Exchange Identification (XID) command. Acting as a
bridge, the ADSL modem forwards all packets from the PC to the ISP router
and relays packets from the router back to the PC. The identity of the user can
be confirmed by comparing the PC MAC address with what is provided to the
router earlier. After the confirmation of identity, the router can exchange
further information with the PC using SNAP, which can deliver IP packets over
the LLC sublayer.
The ISP usually assigns a single IP address for each subscriber. Multiple IP
addresses are usually available at extra costs. However, this might not be
necessary if a home router can be used instead. The ISP can assign either a
fixed or a dynamic IP address for its subscriber. The fixed IP address is
assigned and reserved whenever a subscriber signs up for the service. A
dynamic IP address, on the other hand, can be assigned when a subscriber
accesses the Internet, and the same IP address can be reassigned to another
subscriber when it is no longer utilized. Because the available number of IP
addresses is limited, most ISPs prefer assigning dynamic IP addresses on
demand. An IP address is used by Internet applications such as a Web browser.
When hot links of a Web page are activated through clicking, IP packets are
exchanged between a PC and Web servers across the Internet. The choice of
using a fixed or a dynamic IP address also needs to be specified in the network
portion of a PC operating system. For Windows operating systems, it is
specified by defining TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
properties of the corresponding NIC, which can be located through the Network
icon within the Control Panel. A fixed IP address and associated subnet mask
can be entered or a dynamic IP address can be obtained automatically when
the PC is turned on and Internet applications are activated by selecting the
corresponding choice.
Along with the assigned fixed IP address, other information such as router (or
Gateway) IP address, DNS (Domain Name Server) IP address also need to be
specified in the network portion of a PC for Internet applications to function
properly. For the dynamically assigned IP address case, DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) is used to obtain an IP address through the ISP router.
The PC first sends a broadcast request (called a DISCOVER or
DHCPDISCOVER), looking for a DHCP server to answer. The ISP router then
directs the DISCOVER packet to the DHCP server. The DHCP server then
temporarily reserves an IP address for the PC and sends back an OFFER (or
DHCPOFFER) packet, with that address information. The PC sends a REQUEST
(or DHCPREQUEST) packet, letting the server know that it intends to use the
address. The server sends an ACK (or DHCPACK) packet, confirming that the
PC has been given a lease on the address for a specified period of time. The
server also configures the PC's DNS servers, WINS (Windows Internet Naming
Service) servers, and sometimes other services as well.
Next let us examine what is involved in connecting a single user to the cable
modem service. Figure 12.3 shows the general cable modem installation for a
single PC in a household. A cable modem can be located anywhere in a
household as long as a regular cable TV (RG6) plug is available. The
connection between the cable modem and the PC is also via a crossover
Category 5 patch cable.
Figure 12.3. Broadband Access via Cable Modem
Let us look at the cable modem end-to-end system architecture to learn what
communication protocols are involved in connecting a cable modem user to the
Internet [2]. Figure 12.4 shows a cable modem end-to-end architecture from a
user to the Internet including cable modems, coaxial feeder and distribution
cables, fiber nodes, fiber cables, headend CMTS (Cable Modem Termination
Systems), ATM or packet communication links, and the ISP. The CMTS contains
a downstream modulator, an upstream demodulator, and backbone network
interface adaptors. The headend equipment also provides channel-combining
and -splitting functions because modulated cable modem RF signals share the
transmission media and frequency spectrum with other cable TV video
channels. Protocol stacks along the cable modem transmission path are also
demonstrated at the bottom part of Figure 12.4. Not shown is another MAC
layer within the HFC (Hybrid Fiber Coaxial) transmission system between cable
modems and CMTS. Details of this architecture are defined by specifications
under the name of DOCSIS (Data Over Cable System Interface Specification)
released by Cable Labs [3].
Figure 12.4. Cable Modem End-to-End System Architecture
Ethernet packets that arrive at a cable modem from a PC are attached with a
new MAC header of 6 bytes to form a cable modem MAC frame, scrambled
using a generator polynomial of G(x) = x15 + x14 + 1, Reed-Solomon encoded
with t = 110 as specified by CMTS, appended with a preamble of a variable
length also specified by CMTS, and modulated to an RF carrier of between 5
and 30 MHz in the upstream direction (from a cable modem to CMTS).
Depending on the modulation baud rate, an upstream RF carrier has a
bandwidth of between 200 kHz to 3.2 MHz including guard bands. A multiple
number of upstream RF carriers can be arranged in the available upstream
spectrum of between 5 and 30 MHz. Each upstream RF carrier is shared by a
group of cable modems according to the definition of minislots of duration kt,
where k = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 and t = 6.25 µs. The cable modem
MAC is designed to ensure multiple access to a specific upstream RF carrier by
multiple cable modems without much collision. Motion Picture Expert Group
(MPEG) packets that arrive at a cable modem from a CMTS have a header of 4
bytes and a payload of 184 bytes for a total length of 188 bytes. Each MPEG
packet can contain more than one cable modem MAC frame or a partial of a
MAC frame.
Both cable modem and CMTS can be LLC hosts and IP hosts. A cable modem
and its CMTS can identify each other via the LLC layer through exchange XID
packets. IP packets can also be exchanged between a cable modem and CMTS
via the LLC layer using either DIX (DEC, Intel, and Xerox also called Ethernet
II) or SNAP protocol. Figure 12.5 shows the general Ethernet LLC frame
structure [4]. An LLC frame consists of a 2-byte Destination Service Access
Point (DSAP) address, a 2-byte Source Service Access Point (SSAP) address,
and a 1- or 2-byte Control field and is followed by data of a variable number of
bytes. Figure 12.6 shows the Ethernet II frame structure.
Figure 12.5. Ethernet LLC Frame Structure
Figure 12.6. A DIX or Ethernet II Frame

The connection between a cable modem and CMTS can thus be established and
maintained. When a PC is turned on, its Ethernet NIC exchanges signals with
that of a cable modem to establish a physical connection. A cable modem is
capable of acquiring a PC's MAC address manually or through learning. Acting
as a bridge, a cable modem forwards packets from the PC to the ISP router and
relays packets from the router back to the PC. With limited MAC bridge
function, a cable modem can filter out certain packets.
12.2 Peer-to-Peer Networking
Another popular home network application is for sharing files on hard disk
drives, printers, scanners, cameras, and the like among multiple PCs. Figure
12.7 shows how multiple PCs in a household can be interconnected via a
Category 5 twisted pairbased 10BaseT/100BaseTX Ethernet. To locate the
Ethernet hub at a central location, a star or home-run telephone wiring
topology with data-grade cables is required. Because only two pairs are used
by the Ethernet, conventional telephone sets can still be connected to the
telephone service using one remaining pair of the same Category 5 twisted
pair cable. On each wall plate, one RJ-45 jack connected to Orange/Orange
stripe and Green/Green stripe pairs is used for data networking, and another
RJ-11 jack connected to the Blue/Blue stripe pair is used for telephone service.
Home-run Category 5 wiring becomes more popular for newly constructed
homes. Without home-run data-grade cable wiring, a home network can still
be implemented using HomePNA based on existing regular telephone wiring,
HomePlug based on in-house electrical wiring, or wireless technologies such as
HomeRF and IEEE 802.11.
Figure 12.7. Home Networking via 10/100BaseT Ethernet
Networking among multiple PCs in a household or a small office environment

over an Ethernet, or other Ethernet family of network systems including
wireless Ethernet (IEEE 802.11), HomePNA, and HomePlug is usually
implemented via the NetBEUI protocol [5] available through Windows
operating systems. NetBEUI can be installed using the Add Protocol option and
selecting the Network icon within the Control Panel. In addition, each PC on a
NetBEUI-based network should choose the same group name. NetBEUI can
provide a peer-to-peer network where no PC is required to act as a server and
therefore avoids associated network set-up and management process. A laptop
PC can easily become a part of this peer-to-peer network as soon as its
Ethernet connection is plugged in and the machine is turned on, provided the
NetBEUI is properly installed. With NetBEUI, PCs can share files and printers
but not Internet access. (NetBEUI stands for NetBIOS Extended User Interface
and NetBIOS stands for Network Basic Input Output System.) The NetBIOS
interface was originally developed by Sytec, Inc., for IBM in 1983 and was
designed to be an extension to the PC BIOS to provide network services. The
NetBIOS interface consists of a set of protocols for name management,
connectionless, and connection-oriented communications. Most recently,
NetBEUI has been referred to as the NBF (NetBEUI Frame or NetBIOS Frame)
protocol.
Each node in an NBF-based network can be identified by a name of 16 bytes

instead of an address as those of Internet or Ethernet. Multiple names can be
associated with a single node of different application processes. Because there
is no hierarchy in an NBF name, routing is not directly available except over
the token ring network or through encapsulation. For applications in home or
small office environments of up to a few hundred PCs, this does not pose a
serious problem. NBF name creation and registration are carried out through
the Name Management Protocol (NMP). A node broadcasts its intention to use
a new name several times and the name is added to the local name table if no
other node contests the name claim. NMP is implemented over the Ethernet
LLC layer with four name management frames of 44 bytes each: Add Name
Query, Add Group Name Query, Add Name Response, and Name In Conflict.
Connectionless packets can be transmitted over an NBF net work via its User
Datagram Protocol (UDP). A Datagram frame consists of a 44-byte header
including receiver and sender names followed by a payload of up to 468 bytes
for a total maximum size of 512 bytes. A Datagram Broadcast frame over
Ethernet LLC also consists of a 44-byte header including only the sender name
followed by a payload. Connections oriented communication can be establish
over an NBF network via its Session Management Protocol (SMP). Under SMP,
one node calls another to establish a session. The session continues until being
terminated by either node. There are two frames of 44 bytes each for session
establishment: Name Query and Name Recognized. There are also four short
(14 bytes) session-established frames: Session Alive, Session Confirm, Session
End, and Session Initialize. There are Data Ack, Data First Middle, Data Only
Last, No Receive, Receive Outstanding, and Receive Continue frames also
defined for SMP. The Diagnostic and Monitoring Protocol (DMP) is defined to
obtain status information about nodes on an NBF network. There are four 44-
byte framesStatus Query, Status Response, Terminate Trace, and Terminate
Local & Remote Tracedefined under DMP. The UDP, SMP, and DMP frames are all
defined over the Ethernet LLC layer.
12.3 Network Address Translation
The NBF-based peer-to-peer home network does not provide the Internet
sharing capability. Windows 98 second edition and later versions include an
Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) function. Sometimes, it might be more
convenient to use a dedicated hardware home router to share a broadband
Internet access such as an ADSL or a cable modem without paying for multiple
IP addresses. Figure 12.8 shows multiple PCs sharing an ADSL via a home
router with a built-in Ethernet hub. Figure 12.9 shows a similar configuration
sharing a cable modem among multiple PCs. Figure 12.10 shows multiple PCs
sharing a cable modem via a wireless Ethernet access point with built-in home
router function. The home router obtains either a fixed or a dynamic IP
address from the ISP and assigns dynamic internal IP addresses for sharing
PCs. The home router can usually be configured (e.g., by entering a fixed IP
address) via a Web page accessible through a connected PC.
Figure 12.8. Ethernet Home Networking to Share an ADSL
Figure 12.9. Ethernet Home Networking to Share a Cable

Modem
Figure 12.10. A Wireless Ethernet Sharing a Cable Modem
A home router can be constructed with an Ethernet NIC connecting to the

ADSL or cable modem, another Ethernet NIC (or an Ethernet hub) connecting
to a PC (or PCs), and a Network Address Translation (NAT) process. A home
router with a built-in Ethernet hub also enables a peer-to-peer home network
in conjunction with the NBF protocol. A wireless Ethernet home router also
consists of an Ethernet NIC connecting to the ADSL or cable modem and a NAT
process in addition to its IEEE 802.11 access point capabilities. NAT normally
indicates the dynamic mapping of a group of public IP addresses to private IP
addresses on demand to reduce the number of IP addresses required for a
particular organization. For a household to share one IP address among
multiple PCs also involves the dealing of port numbers [6].
Figure 12.11 shows the format of an IP packet including source and

destination addresses of 4 bytes each. The Header Checksum is the 16-bit
one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16 bit words in the
header. For purposes of computing the Header Checksum, the value of the
Header Checksum field is zero. The Options can be 0, 1, or 3 bytes.
Corresponding padding will be 0, 3, or 1 bytes of zeros to make the header a
multiple of 4 bytes.
Figure 12.11. IP Packet Format
The total number of IP addresses defined by 4 bytes is large enough (about 4.3
billion), but because of routing issues, they can only be used in blocks. There
are three common classes (A, B, and C) for IP addresses with 7, 14, and 21
bits allocated for network IDs and 24, 16, and 8 bits set aside for host IDs
after 1, 2, and 3 initial bits are excluded for class identifications, respectively.
Therefore each class is capable of providing 126, 16,256, and 2,064,512
networks with 16,777,214, 65,534, and 254 hosts for each network,
respectively. Addresses with all 0s and all 1s have been reserved for self-
identification and broadcast. A network ID is usually identified by an
organization, and a host ID, by a computer within that organization. The
network ID is usually used for routing purposes. To allow more computers
access to the Internet, an organization can use a NAT to allocate dynamically
available IP addresses to computers that are actively using the Internet.
Blocks of IP addresses, 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255 for Class A,
172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255 16 for Class B, and 192.168.0.0. through
192.168.255.255 255 for Class C, have been reserved as internal IP
addresses. A NAT not only keeps a map relating internal IP addresses of active
computers to these assigned public IP addresses but also replaces an internal
source IP address with a mapped public IP address when sending a packet to
the Internet and replaces the corresponding public destination IP address with
the mapped Internal IP address when receiving a packet from the Internet
before delivering it through the internal network. A NAT also needs to
recalculate and replace the Header Checksum after replacing an IP address.
For the home network environment where only one IP address is available, the
use of port numbers is necessary for the NAT process. IP data within an IP
packet are usually represented in either a TCP or a UDP packet format. Port
numbers are within a TCP or UDP packet header. Figure 12.12 shows the
format of a TCP packet. A TCP packet contains Source and Destination Port
numbers of 2 bytes each. The Checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement
of the one's complement sum of all 16-bit words in the header and TCP data.
While computing the checksum, the checksum field itself is replaced with
zeros. The checksum also covers a 96-bit pseudo header conceptually prefixed
to the TCP header. This pseudo header contains the source address, destination
address, protocol number, and TCP packet length and protects the TCP against
misrouted segments. The TCP header padding, composed of zeros, is used to
ensure that the TCP header ends and data begins on a multiple of 4 bytes.
Figure 12.12. TCP Packet Format

Figure 12.13 shows the format of a UDP packet. A UDP packet also contains
Source and Destination Port numbers of 2 bytes each. The checksum is a 16-
bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of a pseudo header of
information from the IP header, the UDP header, and the data, padded with
zero bytes at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of 2 bytes. The pseudo
header, conceptually prefixed to the UDP header, contains the source address,
the destination address, the protocol number, and the UDP packet length. This
information gives protection against misrouted datagrams. While computing
the checksum, the Checksum field itself is also replaced with zeros.
Figure 12.13. UDP Packet Format

Port numbers are normally used for identifying particular applications. Port
numbers smaller than 256 are assigned to public applications. For example,
port numbers 25 and 80 are assigned for SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol)-based e-mail and HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)-based Web
services, respectively. Port numbers of 256 to 1023 are assigned to identify
certain commercial network application products. Port numbers larger than
1023 can be dynamically assigned by user applications including the NAT. NAT,
using dynamically assigned port numbers, is referred to as Masquerading (by
Linux) or NAPT (Network Address Port Translation). In Linux convention, port
numbers 61000 to 65096 are utilized for NAPT. An NAPT process with a single
public IP address keeps a map relating internal IP addresses (with specific port
numbers of active computers) to dynamically assigned port numbers. The
NAPT replaces an internal source IP address and associated port number with
its own public IP address and a mapped port number when sending a packet to
the Internet. The NAPT replaces its own IP destination address and the
associated port number with a mapped internal IP address and associated port
number when receiving a packet from the Internet before delivering it through
the internal network. After replacing an IP address, an NAPT also needs to
recalculate and replace the header checksum as well as the checksum of a TCP
or UDP packet after replacing a port number. Figure 12.14 shows a home
router NAPT example. The top path shows an IP packet originated from a PC
with an internal IP address of 11.4.6.12 and port number of 1257 to reach a
Web server with a public IP address of 193.46.94.115 and a port number of
80. The home router has an internal IP address of 11.4.6.1 and a public IP
address of 195.112.12.161. All internal IP addresses are assigned by the home
router via DHCP. The bottom path shows a returning packet from the Internet.
Figure 12.14. A Home Router NAPT Example

A home router with an NAPT acts as a firewall protecting all internally shared
files because Internet connections can be initiated only within the home
network. A hardware home router is usually not much more expansive than an
Ethernet hub and can be left on all the time without consuming much power. A
PC with a Windows 98 second edition or later operating system and two NICs
can also be configured as a home router. Figure 12.15 shows a PC with an
Ethernet NIC connected to an ADSL and a HomePNA NIC connected to other
PCs via existing telephone wiring for Internet sharing. The Internet Connection
Sharing (ICS) needs to be installed by selecting the Add/Remove Programs
icon within the Control Panel to make a PC act as a home router. The ICS
module can be further identified under the Internet Tools on the Add/Remove
Programs Properties screen. Once selected, an Internet Connection Sharing
Wizard will guide you through the rest of the installation process for the home
router PC. Because ICS is also an NAPT, other PCs should set up their TCP/IP
configurations to obtain internal IP addresses automatically from the home
router PC.
Figure 12.15. A HomePNA Home Network Sharing an ADSL

12.4 MAC Bridging
A home router sometimes can have more than one means to connect to PCs. A
home router can have a built-in Ethernet hub and a built-in wireless Ethernet
access point as shown in Figure 12.16. PCs connected to either Ethernet or
wireless Ethernet can share not only the ADSL broadband access service but
also files (over a peer-to-peer network), if the MAC bridge function (as defined
by the IEEE 802.1D standards [7]) is included in the home router. All LANs
(defined under the IEEE 802 standards document group) have similar but
different frame formats. A MAC bridge reframes a received packet from one
port of a LAN and forwards it to a destination node through another port
connected to a different LAN. Sometimes the recalculation of FCS is also
necessary because different LANs might use different FCS methods.
Figure 12.16. A Home Router with Ethernet Hub and Wireless

Ethernet Access Point
Figure 12.17 shows the basic structure of a MAC bridge, which consists of an
Ethernet NIC, a wireless Ethernet NIC, and an address table. A MAC bridge can
have more than two NICs and identifies MAC addresses of attached LANs by
monitoring transmission traffic. A MAC bridge also forwards broadcast packets
across different LANs to help nodes on different LANs discover each other.
Once learned, a MAC bridge forwards received packets to another LAN
according to its MAC address and makes boundaries between different LANs
transparent. It does not have to be inside a home router and a home router
can be connected to any particular LAN among a number of different LANs
connected through a MAC bridge. IEEE 802.1D allows multiple MAC bridges to
exist across a number of different LANs, and any potential loop is avoided
through the execution of the Spanning Tree algorithm.
Figure 12.17. Components of a MAC Bridge
Packets other than those of an IEEE LAN cannot be forwarded through a MAC
bridge directly; however, they can be delivered across an Ethernet-based home
network through proper encapsulation. Figure 12.18 shows the sharing of in-
house electrical wiring with an Ethernet-based HomePlug home network and
an X-10 home automation network. All three PCs have HomePlug NICs, and
one PC can control some lights and appliances equipped with X-10 devices. The
PC with an X-10 device can control these lights and appliances by sending
proper X-10 packets generated by choosing the corresponding items through
an on-screen display. Another similar screen interface can also be developed
and implemented on PCs without X-10 devices to send Ethernet (via
HomePlug) encapsulated X-10 packets to the PC with the X-10 device and ask
the PC to deliver the packets for them. The PC delivering the X-10 packet
performs a similar function as that by a MAC bridge. However, the PC might
need to provide much more help if an X-10 device is interested in talking back
to a PC that is not directly connected to the X-10 home automation network.
The task might be classified as translation instead of bridging.
Figure 12.18. HomePlug Home Network with X-10 Home

Automation
A PC-based translation process can also be developed and implemented to
interconnect PCs of an Ethernet to consumer electronics linked through a 1394
network. Figure 12.19 shows a Digital TV (DTV) is locally connected to a digital
camera, a set-top box, and a DVD with short-distance 1394 shielded twisted-
pair cables. The DTV is also connected to a remote DTV and a PC via these
Category 5 twisted pairbased 1394b links. The DTV is able to view live pictures
from the digital camera over the 1394 connection. The remote DTV and the PC
are also able to view these live pictures over these 1394b connections. If a
proper translation process is developed and implemented on the PC with the
1394b connection, the other PC should be able to exchange some packets,
which might not provide a live video link owing to the asynchronous nature,
with the digital camera via the wireless Ethernet. This translation process
might involve relaying wireless Ethernet encapsulated packets over the 1394b
connection and properly encapsulating 1394b packets for wireless Ethernet
transmission back to the PC without a 1394b connection.
Figure 12.19. Wireless Ethernet and 1394b

12.5 References
1. David Ginsburg, Implementing ADSL, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1999.
2. Data-Over-Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS), Radio Frequency

Interface Specification, SP-RFIv1.1-I05-000714, Cable Labs.
3. Data-Over-Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS), Cable Modem to

Customer Premise Equipment Interface Specification, SP-CMCI-I04-000714,
Cable Labs.
4. ANSI/IEEE Std 802.2, Part 2: Logic Link Control (LLC), 1998 Edition.
5. ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/timothydevans/cmpibmpc.htm.
6. www.suse.de/~mha/linux-ip-nat/diplom/nat.html.
7. ANSI/IEEE Std 802.1D, Part 3: Media Access Control (MAC) Bridges, 1998
Edition.
About the Author
Dr. Walter Y. Chen grew up in Shanghai, China, during the cultural revolution
of Chairman Mao. The traditional (Soviet) style of language, math, and science
curriculum was totally interrupted during the third grade of his six-year
elementary school education. Students of his age began studying newspaper
propaganda articles and attending confession-style group self-examinations
and political gatherings and street demonstrations. With so much spare time
but no formal academic work, Walter turned his curiosity to assembling
electronic devices, starting with a crystal radio and advancing to black and
white transistor television sets, with help from his uncles. Initially they helped
him debug his electronic circuits, but then they began to introduce him to
relevant books. Eventually, Walter was not only reading electronics books but
also many of his uncles' high school and college math and physics textbooks.
From this exposure, Walter determined that writing books was probably an
interesting and worthwhile thing to do.
After graduating summa cum laude from Polytechnic Institute of New York with
a B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering, Walter joined Bell Labs' One Year On
Campus (OYOC) educational program. He received his M.S. degree in Electrical
Engineering from California Institute of Technology. Walter subsequently spent
13 years working in different Bell divisions, among them AT&T Information
Systems, Bell Labs, NYNEX, and Bellcore. During these years, he was involved
in PBX systems engineering, DataPhone II ASIC design, as well as HDSL,
ADSL, and Cable Modem systems engineering, laying the foundation for the
information he presents in this book. He also earned his Ph.D. degree in
Electrical Engineering from Polytechnic University while with the Bell system.

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• Table of Contents

Home Network Basis: Transmission

Publisher : Prentice Hall PTR

Section 8.5. MATLAB Files

Editorial/production supervision: BooksCraft, Inc.

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© 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Company and product names mentioned herein are the trademarks or

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MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For MATLAB product

The MathWorks, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America 1st Printing

Pearson Education LTD.

Meanwhile, household electronics are more oriented toward digital contents

To understand home network systems, we first examine transmission

1. David Goodman, Two-way RF communication at points of convergence of

2. J. Cioffi, P. Chow, and K. Sistanizadeh, "On a multi-drop T-interface for

3. A. Reddy, K. Balemarthy, and J. J. Werner, "Characterization of in-house

4. K. Balemarthy, A. Reddy, and J. J. Werner, "Characterization of in-house

I also appreciate Bernard Goodwin of Prentice Hall Professional Technical

Figure 10.31 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.11b-1999

Figures 10.53​10.58 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.11a-1999

Information such as a text document, picture, or piece of recorded music is

An original command or encoded text can be encapsulated many times before

To take care of current as well as future home telephony, data, and

Figure 1.1. A Centralized Panel for Structured Wiring

Figure 1.2. Wall Plates

Figure 1.3. Plug Inserts for Wall Plates

Because radio wave transmission cannot be confined, its use in a home

Transmission techniques specified by HomePNA (Home Phoneline Networking

A wireless Ethernet [19] requires no wiring so that an RF home network can

Table 1.1 summarizes previously mentioned home network technologies

Table 1.1. Home Network Technology Comparison

10BaseT 10 UTP 100 m 1990 Avail Avail Avail Avail

100BaseTX 100 UTP 100 m 1995 Hot Avail Avail Avail

HomePNA 3.0 100 Telephone Wiring 2002

HomePlug 10 Electrical Wiring Whole House 2001 Avail

802.11b 5.5, 11 2.4 GHz RF 60, 35 m 1999 Avail Avail Hot

802.11a Up to 54 5 GHz RF Whole House 1999 Avail

802.11g Up to 54 2.4 GHz RF Whole House 2003

Figure 1.4. Growing Broadband-Connected Homes

Meanwhile, home network technologies will evolve. Transmission throughputs

Chapter 3 first describes the cable TV signal distribution structure. Commonly

Chapter 4 first discusses practices for residential electrical wiring and

Chapter 6 covers twisted pair​based Ethernet standards of 10BaseT, 100BaseT4,

Chapter 7 discusses some technical features of HomePNA 1.0 and 2.0

Chapter 8 introduces the IEEE 1394 technology by highlighting the original

Chapter 9 describes some in-home electrical wiring​based transmission

Chapter 10 covers wireless Ethernet standards of FHSS, DSSS, CCK

Chapter 11 discusses the basics of HomeRF MAC in terms of super frame

Chapter 12 introduces basics of broadband access network configurations,

Finally, some other home network​related recommendations and activities are

2.1.1 Specifications of Twisted Pair Cable

Figures 10.5310.58 reprinted with permission from IEEE Std 802.11a-1999

Chapter 6 covers twisted pairbased Ethernet standards of 10BaseT, 100BaseT4,

Chapter 9 describes some in-home electrical wiringbased transmission

Finally, some other home networkrelated recommendations and activities are