LABORATORY MANUAL

PHY 027

PHYSICS LABORATORY-II

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. Name of The Experiment Page

No. No.
1 To draw lines of magnetic field when South Pole of bar magnet 3-4
is towards the south pole of earth and when South Pole of bar
magnet is towards North Pole of earth.
2 To study the magnetic field along the axis of coil using 5-7
Stewart’s Gee apparatus.
3 To measure the focal length of lens (convex and concave) by 8-8
parallax method.
4 A) To verify Ohm’s laws by drawing a graph between voltage 9-13
and current.
B) To verify laws of resistances in series and in parallel
connection.
5 To convert galvanometer into ammeter/voltmeter. 14-16
6 To find the angle of prism using spectrometer. 17-19
7 To study the phenomenon of refraction with the help of glass 20-22
slab.
8 To find dielectric constant of different material using parallel 23-23
plate capacitor.
9 To study the induced e.m.f. as a function of velocity of magnet. 24-28
10 To find the frequency of AC using electric vibrator 29-31
11 To draw characteristics of a p-n junction diode and determine 32-34
knee and break down voltages.
12 To draw and study different wave forms on CRO using 35-37
function generator.

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 Experiment-1

1. Experiment: To draw lines of magnetic field when South Pole of bar magnet is towards
the South Pole of the Earth and when South Pole of bar magnet is towards North Pole of the
Earth.
2. Equipment required: Bar magnet, magnetic compass, board, paper.

3. Material Required: NIL.

4. Learning Objectives: To examine the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet and
construct the magnetic field lines.

5. Outline Procedure:
Part 1: Constructing Magnetic Field Lines of a Bar Magnet Take a piece of brown paper
(provided) onto your table. Stay far away from any iron objects. Place a bar magnet about 3
inches from the far side of the paper, as shown in Figure 1. Trace the outline of the magnet on
the paper. 3 inches, more or less.

Determine which ends of your magnet are north or south magnetic poles. Take one of your
small compasses. The arrow on the compass is magnetic and will experience a torque so that
the North Pole of the compass will point in the direction of the Earth’s magnetic field if no
other magnetic fields are present. As depicted in Figure2, the North pole of the compass
points towards the South magnetic pole of the Earth which is very close to the Earth’s
geographic North Pole.
Figure 2 Earth’s magnetic pole and compass heading.

It also means that, if you place the compass near the bar magnet, the North Pole of your
compass will point toward the South Pole of the bar magnet or away from the North pole
when placed as shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 Direction of the compass when placed near a bar magnet.

Mark the North and South magnetic poles of your magnet on the paper. Make sure you stay
away from any other magnets, electrical circuits or iron materials as you do this.
A. Construct Field Line #1: Place a compass near one end of the magnet. Make two dots on
the paper, one at the end of the compass needle next to the magnet and the second at the other
end of the compass needle. Now move the compass so that the end of the needle that was
next to the magnet is directly over the second dot, and make a new dot at the other end of the
needle. Continue this process until the compass comes back to the magnet or leaves the edge
of the paper. Draw a line through the dots and indicate with an arrowhead the direction in
which the North end of the needle pointed, as shown below in Figure 4

Figure 4 Constructing magnetic field lines

B. Construct Field Line #2: Repeat the process described above, but this time starts with the
compass touching the magnet approximately 1 cm (1/2 inch) in from the same end of the
magnet that you used above.
C. Construct Field Line # 3: Repeat once more, but start about 4 cm (1.5 inches) from the
same end.
Similarly repeat the above procedure by reversing the position of poles of bar magnet ie.
South Pole of magnet is now towards South Pole of the Earth.
Graph: NA
Error Analysis: NA
SCOPE OF RESULTS EXPECTED: Students will come to know about the magnetic field
of bar magnets and the earth. Students can locate the poles of earth and bar magnet.
6. CAUTIONS:
1. Don’t rely on the painted arrows on the pointers in the compass to tell which pole is north
and which is south; they don’t all use the same convention. Make sure the pointers can rotate
freely.
2. Make sure you stay away from any other magnets, electrical circuits or iron materials as
you do this experiment.

Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-2
1. Experiment: To study the magnetic field along the axis of coil using Stewart Gee
apparatus.
2. Equipment Required: Stewart and Gee’s apparatus, Rheostat, Ammeter, Battery
eliminator, Plug key single, Commutator four plugs.
3. Material Required: NIL.
4. Learning Objectives: This experiment would introduce the following physical concepts
and their practical demonstration as well as use:

 Magnetic field detection along coil axis.

 Magnetic meridian identification and application.
 Tangent law application.

5. Outline Procedure:

 With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter
is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian.
 Another line perpendicular to the line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer
is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as shown in the fig.
 The external circuit is connected as shown in the fig, keeping the ammeter, rheostat away
from the deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the
magnetic field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent
magnetic field due to the magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer reading, if
they are close to it.
 The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminium
pointer reads, (0, 0) in the magnetometer.
 The key K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the magnetometer
is about 70°. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in the
magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal
of current should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2° or 3°,
necessary adjustments are to be made.
 The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings
are noted in Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil
in steps (say of 2cm) at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections
before and after reversal of current are noted. The mean deflection be denoted as θ.
 The magnetometer is further moved towards east in steps of 2cm each time and the
deflections before and after reversal of current be noted, until the deflection falls to 25°.
 The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the center
of the coil in steps of 2 cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after the
reversal of current. The mean deflection is denoted as θ.
 It will be found that for each distance (x) the value in the last two columns of the second
table are found to be equal verifying equations given in theory.
 The shape of the curve is shown in the fig. The point A and B marked on the curve lie at
distance equal to half of radius of the coil (a/2) on either side of the coil

6. Brief theory and Required results: The magnitude of magnetic field (B) at a point on
the axis of a circular coil carrying current ‘I’ is given by the expression
 0 n2a 2 I
B
4 ( x 2  a 2 ) 3 2
Where ‘n’ is the number of turns, ‘a’ the mean radius of the coil and ‘x’ is the distance of
the point from the center of the coil along the axis. To measure this field the Stewart and

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 Gees type of tangent galvanometer is convenient. The apparatus consists of a circular
frame C made up of non-magnetic substance. An insulated Copper wire is wounded on
the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a
pair of terminals the number of turns used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long
base B at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The base has levelling
screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the uprights. The plane
of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through the circular coil.
A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection magnetometer is supported on a
movable platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil.
The compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis
of the coil. The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic
meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated
so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The
compass is rotated so that the aluminium pointer reads zero. Now the rectangular frame
is along East-West directions. When a current ‘I’ flows through the coil the magnetic
field produced is in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the coil. The magnetic
needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic fields. B due to coil
carrying current and the earth’s magnetic field ‘BE’ which are mutually perpendicular.
The needle deflects through an angle ‘θ’ satisfying the tangent law.

Thus B(x) = BE tan θ

Parameters:
 Least count of measuring scale.
 Least Count of magnetometer.
 Table 1

Relationship:

 0 n2a 2 I
B
4 ( x 2  a 2 ) 3 2



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 Graph: A graph is drawn between x [the distance of the deflection magnetometer from
the center of the coil] along x-axis and the corresponding tanθ and tanθ along y-axis

Error Analysis:
If one measure a physical quantity say length as 12.0cm (say) with an accuracy of say
0.1cm, so it will be recorded as l  l  12.0cm  0.1cm . These errors can be used to
draw error bars during graph plotting.

7. Cautions:
a) There should be no magnet or magnetic material near the setup.
b) The plane of the coil should be in magnetic meridian all the times during experiment.
c) The current in the coil should remain constant while performing experiment.
d) To avoid parallax errors, one should observe the needle of magnetometer in such a way
that needle covers its image in the mirror.
e) Before performing experiment try to think why all above precautions are necessary and
how they can affect the result.

Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-3
1. Experiment: To determine the focal length of given lens by parallax method.
2. Equipment required: Optical bench, Convex lens, lens stand, object pin, image pin,
and meter scale
Material required: NA
3. Learning Objectives:
1) To understand the different definitions of focal length, image distance and
object distance.
2) To get knowledge how to find out the focal length of convex or concave lens
experimentally and also get the knowledge of different sign conventions
4. Outline of the Procedure
(a) Place the convex lens on the stand in front of the white screen and get a clear image of
a distant object. Keep a pin ‘O’ in front of the lens to screen and get a clear image of distant
object. Measure the distant (d) from lens.
(b) Now see from the other side. You will see a real inverted image of the given pin.
Place another pin ’I’ on other side of the lens such that ‘I’ pin, ‘O’ pin and image of the ‘O’
pin all are in the same line.
(c) Then try to adjust the ‘I’ pin such that the tip of the ‘I’ pin and the tip of the image of
‘O’ pin coincide each other. Now see it by moving your eyesight left and right.
(d) If the two tips are not moving together then there is an apparent shift, which is called
parallax.
(e) Parallax can be removed by moving the ‘I’ pin towards or away from the lens. The
point at which parallax is removed, that distance of ‘I’ pin from the lens is called as v’.
Sign convention for used lenses:
1. Incident ray is always drawn from left towards the right of the lens.
2. All distances are measured from the optical center as the origin. In case of the
spherical mirrors or when considering refraction at a spherical surface, all distances are
measured from the pole as the origin.
3. Distances measured along the principal axis to the right of the origin are considered
positive.
4. Distances measured along the principal axis to the left of the origin are considered
negative.
When the sign convention is used, the focal length of a convex lens becomes positive and ‘u’
is always negative.
5. Required Results:
 Focal length of convex or concave lens
Relationship: According to lens’s formula,
1/f =1/v +1/u where f is focal length, u is object distance and v is image distance
Graphs: NA
Error Analysis: (Actual -observed/Actual) x 100
6. Cautions:
1. The tips of the needle should be as high as the optical center of the lens.
2. The lens stand, object stand, image pin stand should not be shaky.
3. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
4. The image and object pin should not be interchanged for different set of readings.
Learning outcomes: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-4(A)
1. Experiment: To verify Ohm’s laws by drawing a graph between voltage and current.
2. Equipments required: Resistance coil, connecting wires, key, battery eliminator,
ammeter, voltmeter etc.
3. Material required: NIL
4. Learning objectives:
(a) To learn to define steady current.
(b) To understand the need for a battery to have current.
(c) To learn about the opposition to the flow of current.
(d) To learn to use eliminator, Rheostat, Voltmeter and Ammeter.
(e) To learn to draw V-I graph to find resistance.
5. Outline of the procedure:

Fig. 4(A.1) Circuit showing the arrangement of battery, ammeter, voltmeter etc.

Get a battery eliminator or battery, key, ammeter, voltmeter and a Rheostat and connect
them as shown in the Figure 4(A)
Plug in the key and switch on the eliminator after adjusting it for 2 volts.
Position the Rheostat such that a fixed value of current flows in the circuit.
Note down the voltmeter reading for a particular value of current sent in the resistor.
Change the position of slider in Rheostat such that the current flowing is changed.
Record the current and voltage in each case and find the ration between V and I to get
resistance of the coil.
Draw a graph between V and I choosing proper scales (V on X-axis, I on Y-axis).
Find the slope of the graph.
Take the reciprocal of the slope.
The straight line nature of the graph and the value of the reciprocal of slope gives
confirmation of the resistance (being a constant).
6. Brief theory and required results:
According to Ohm’s Law, current flowing through a conductor depends on the
potential difference applied across its ends i.e. I  V , or V  IR . Resistance can be

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 found by taking the ration between the potential applied and the current flowing as a
result of it. Potential difference and current can be measured by using voltmeter and
ammeter in volts and ampere respectively.
Tabulation:

Graph:

BC
 ...............................
Slope = Z = AC
1 1
 Ohm = .............Ohm.
Resistance = Slope Z
Results:
The current through the resistor is seen to vary directly with the potential difference applied.
(ii) The value of resistance of the given resistance is found to be …….ohms.
Error analysis:
R V I
 
R V I , where  represents the error in measuring a value.
7. Cautions:
(i) Rub and remove any dust using sand paper from the tips of the wires before connecting.
(ii) After connecting before switching on, get the circuit checked by the teacher.
(iii) When not in use, switch off the supply of the current.
(iv) Use a Rheostat of low resistance so that better variation can be brought in current.
(v) Note down the zero errors in voltmeter and ammeter and do proper correction.
(vi) Avoid touching any wire by hand, when there is a supply of current.
(vii) If the wire is heated, switch off the supply for a while and then do the experiment.
(viii) Note down the reading from the scales of metres used, by placing your eye exactly in
line with it (Removes parallax).

Learning outcomes: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-4(B)
1. Experiment: To verify laws of resistances in series and in parallel connection.
2. Equipments required: Resistance coil, connecting wires, key, battery eliminator,
ammeter, voltmeter etc.
3. Material required: NIL
4. Learning objectives:
(a) To learn about resistance to the flow of electric current..
(b) To learn to use eliminator, key, ammeter, voltmeter and rheostat etc..
(c) To learn to connect resistors in parallel and series.
(d) To understand that the result will vary as they are connected in parallel or series.

5. Outline of the procedure:

Parallel

Series

Fig. 4(B.1). Series and parallel combination of resistors R1 and

R2
.

(i) Connect the circuit as shown in the above Figure 4(B).1, with a gap between A and B.
R
(ii) Connect the resistance 1 between A and B and find the (potential difference) reading in
voltmeter and ammeter.
R R
(iii) Record at least 2 values with 1 and find the value of 1 by dividing the voltmeter
reading by ammeter reading.
R
(iv) Find the mean value of 1 .
R R
(v) Replace 1 by 2 between A and B and do at least two-three trials and find 2 .
R
R R
(vi) Record atleast 2 values with 2 in Table 1 and find mean value of 2 .
R R
(vii) Now, connect 1 and 2 in series and parallel as shown in Fig. 4(B).1.
(viii) Find voltmeter, ammeter reading to find equivalent values in series and parallel
combinations.

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 R1 R2
(ix) Check whether p and Rs are equal to R1  R2 and R1  R2 respectively. Note down any
R
difference, if any.

6. Brief theory and required results:

The ratio of potential to current gives resistance. When resistances, say R1 and R2 , are placed
in parallel and series, the equivalent resistance is given by
R1 R2
and Rs = R1  R2
R p R1  R2
=
7. Tabulation:
Least count of voltmeter = x volt
Least count of ammeter = y Ampere

Table 1 Resistance R1
S.No. No. of divisions in Voltage Current Resistance
Voltmeter m Ammeter n V=mx I=ny R1
1.
2.

Table 2 Resistance R2
S.No. No. of divisions in Voltage Current Resistance
Voltmeter m Ammeter n V=mx I=ny R2
1.
2.

R
Table 3 Resistances in parallel p
S.No. No. of divisions in Voltage Current Resistance R1 R2
Voltmeter m Ammeter n V=mx I=ny Rp R1  R2
1.
2.

Table 4
R
Resistances in series s
S.No. No. of divisions in Voltage Current Resistance R1  R2
Voltmeter m Ammeter n V=mx I=ny Rs
1.
2.

8. Graph: N.A.
9. Results:
R1
(i) The value of the resistances of the given resistors is found to be = ….Ohm and
R2
= ….. Ohm.
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(ii) The resultant resistances when they are connected in parallel and series, are found to be
Rp
= ….Ohm and Rs = ….Ohm.

Error analysis:
R V I
 
R V I , where  represents the error in measuring a value.

10. Cautions:
(i) Connect the combinations of resistances properly in series and parallel as and when
required.
(ii) Before switching on after connecting, get the circuit checked by teacher.
(iii) When not in use, switch off the supply of the current.
(iv) Use a Rheostat of low resistance so that better variation can be brought in current.
(v) Note down the zero errors in voltmeter and ammeter and do proper correction.
(vi) Avoid touching any wire by hand, when there is a supply of current.
(vii) If the wire is heated, switch off the supply for a while and then do the experiment.
(viii) Note down the reading from the scales of metres used, by placing your eye exactly in
line with it (Removes parallax).

Learning outcomes: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-5
1. Aim: To convert galvanometer into ammeter/voltmeter.

2. Equipment required: Galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, variable power

supply, different shunt (variable) resistors and connecting terminals.

3. Material required: NIL.

4. Learning Objectives:

(a) To convert galvanometer into ammeters of different ranges that can be used to measure
the currents in electrical circuits.

(b) To convert galvanometer into voltmeters of different ranges that can be used to measure
the potential differences in electrical circuits.

5. Outline Procedure:

Part A: Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. The variable power supply connected gives the
required potential difference to the circuit, to send the required current through the ammeter.
Also select and connect the required shunt resistance Rs, across or parallel to the
galvanometer, such that the galvanometer shows full deflection for the required range of
current. Then the galvanometer is said to be converted into an ammeter of required range. By
increasing the supply voltage, the galvanometer reading is increased in steps of 5 divisions,
starting from zero, the corresponding ammeter readings are noted, in the table.

Part B: Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. The variable power supply connected gives the
required potential difference to the circuit. Also select and connect the required resistance ( R
) in series with the galvanometer, to convert the galvanometer into voltmeter of required
range. The selection of the resistance that should be connected in series to the galvanometer
is in such a way that the galvanometer shows full deflection for the required range. By
increasing the supply voltage, the galvanometer reading is increased in steps of 5 divisions,
starting from zero, the corresponding voltmeter readings are noted, in the table.

6. Brief theory and required results:

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter:

A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow of the current, but not to measure. Because
its scale is not marked in amperes, though its deflection is proportional to the current. Being
the sensitive instrument, galvanometer cannot be used to measure large currents , because it

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may cause damage to the coil of the galvanometer. In order to avoid this damage and to use it
as an ammeter, a low resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer. As a result, even
if a large amount of current is sent in the main circuit, only a very small fraction of it passes
through the galvanometer. The scale is calibrated in amperes, for the total current, so as to
read the current directly. To measure the current, the ammeter must be connected in series in
the circuit. The value of shunt resistance (RS) depends upon the fraction of the total current
required to pass through the galvanometer.

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter A galvanometer can be converted in to a

voltmeter by connecting a high resistance ( R ) in series with the galvanometer as shown in
the figure. The value of resistance ( R ) connected in series decides the range of the
voltmeter. The scale is calibrated in volts, so as to read the potential difference directly. To
measure the potential difference between two points, the voltmeter must be connected in
parallel across those two points in the circuit. When a high value of resistance is connected in
series to the galvanometer, only a small fraction of the total current will flow through the
galvanometer. So, this does not cause any damage to the galvanometer. Moreover, as the
current flow in the galvanometer, which is connected in parallel in the circuit, is very small, it
causes no effect in the current of the main circuit.

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7. Precautions:

1) The series resistance should be so selected such that for the required range of voltmeter,
the galvanometer shows full the deflection within the scale.

2) The continuity of connecting terminals should be checked before going to the experiment.

3) The shunt resistance ( Rs ) should be so selected such that for the required range of
ammeter, the galvanometer shows full deflection within the scale.

4) The continuity of connecting terminals should be checked before going to the experiment.

Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

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 Experiment-6
1. Experiment: To find the angle of prism using a spectrometer.

2. Equipment Required: A spectrometer, a spirit level, a source of monochromatic light, a

glass prism, a wooden screen with a circular aperture, an eye piece and an electric lamp.

3. Material used: Sodium lamp, lens, Spectrometer, glass prism.

4. Learning Objective:
 To learn optical leveling and adjustments of prism to determine the angle of prism and
the refractive index
 To acquaint oneself with the setting and alignment of spectrometer

5. Procedure:
Fig. 1-3 shows the block diagram of spectrometer, spectrometer picture with whole
arrangement and the ray diagram for image formation, respectively. After making initial
adjustments, the least count of the spectrometer is determined (as in Vernier Calipers).
Having a very fine slit, the telescope is adjusted for direct ray. A prism is placed on the prism
table as shown in the Fig. 2. The telescope is turned to catch the reflected image from one
polished face AB of the prism. Fixing in that position, the tangential screw is adjusted till the
vertical cross wire is made to coincide with the fixed edge of the image of the slit. The
readings in the vernier scales V-1 and vernier scales V-2 are noted. The telescope is then
turned to the other polished face AC of the prism. The readings in the vernier scales V-1 and
vernier scales V-2 are noted when the vertical cross wire coincides with the fixed edge of the
image of the slit. The difference between both the vernier scales V-1 readings is 2A.
Similarly the difference between both the vernier scales V-1 readings is 2A. Then the average
of the angle of the prism A is calculated.
Note: Repeat the experiment and take three such observations.

6. Observation:
(i) Value of the one division of the main scale = 0.5 degrees

Total number of vernier divisions = 30.

Least count of the vernier = 0.5 / 30 = 1 minute.
(ii) Table for the angle (A) of the prism.
Sr. Vernier Telescope reading for Telescope reading for Difference Mean A Mean A
No. reflection from first face reflection from second a-b = 2A value degrees
of 2A
face
…. …. M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total …. …. … ….
reading reading ‘a’ (in reading reading ‘b’ (in
degree) degree)
1. V1

V2
2. V1

V2
3. …….

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7. Error analysis: The percentage error of the observed prism’s angle can be calculated with
respect to the actual value of angle (i.e., 60o) of the given prism as follows.

% errors of prism’s angle = [(Observed angle – Actual angle) / Actual angle] × 100

8. Results: The average angle of the prism calculated with the help of spectrometer is ……...
Furthermore the calculated % error of prism’s angle is……%.

9. Precautions:
1. The axis of telescope, the collimator and the plane of the prism table should be horizontal.
2. The position of the eye piece should be adjusted so that the cross-wires are clearly visible
without any strain.
3. The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be adjusted to give a
parallel beam of light.
4. The slit should be narrow.
5. The prism should be placed with its refracting edge at the centre of the prism table when
finding the angle by rotating the telescopes.
6. The prism table should be levelled so that reflected image from both the reflecting faces
lies
systematically with respect to the horizon.

10. Learning outcomes: Student must write 50-100 words about the whole experiment that
what he/she learned from the experiment.

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 Experiment-7
1. Experiment: To study the phenomenon of refraction with the help of glass slab.
2. Equipment required: A drawing board, rectangular glass slab, office pins, sheet of
white paper, a protractor and sharply pointed pencil.
Material required: NIL
3. Learning objectives:
(a) To learn about laws of refraction of light.
(b) To learn about the parallel refracting surfaces.
(c) To learn about denser and rearer medium for light rays.
(d) To learn about the refractive index of a medium and Snell’s Law.
4. Outline of the procedure:

Fig. 7.1 Refraction of light through a rectangular glass slab.

 Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using drawing pins.

 Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle.
 Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the outline as ABCD.
 Take four identical pins.
 Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line joining the pins is inclined to the
edge AB.

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  Look for the images of the pins E and F through the opposite edge. Fix two other pins,
say G and H, such that these pins and the images of E and F lie on a straight line.
 Remove the pins and the slab.
 Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce the line up to AB. Let EF
meet AB at O. Similarly, join the positions of tip of the pins G and H and produce it up
to the edge CD. Let HG meet CD at O′.
 Join O and O′. Also produce EF up to P, as shown by a dotted line in Fig. 7.1.
 Draw a perpendicular NN’ to AB at O and another perpendicular MM’ to CD at O′.

5. Brief theory and required results:

In this activity, the light ray has changed its direction at points O and O′. Note that both
the points O and O′ lie on surfaces separating two transparent media. The light ray at point
O has entered from a rarer medium to a denser medium, that is, from air to glass. Angles
FON and NOO are respectively the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. Note
that the light ray has bent towards the normal. At O′, the light ray has entered from glass to
air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer medium. The light here has bent away from
the normal. Compare the angle of incidence with the angle of refraction at both refracting
surfaces AB and CD.
In Fig. 7.1, EO is the incident ray, OO′ is the refracted ray and O′ H is the emergent ray.
Angle MOH is the angle of emergence. It is seen that that the emergent ray is parallel
to the direction of the incident ray. Why does it happen so? The extent of bending of the
ray of light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass interface) and CD (glass-air
interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite. This is why the ray emerges
parallel to the incident ray. However, the light ray is shifted sideward slightly.
This Experiments show that refraction of light occurs according to certain laws.The
following are the laws of refraction of light.
(1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

(2) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for
the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as
Snell’s law of refraction.

If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,

sin i
 constant
sin r

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the
first medium.

6. Results:
(i) The angle of refraction will found to be less than the angle of incidence.

21 LMPHY027
 (ii) The angle of emergence will found to be equal to the angle of incidence.

7. Graph: N.A.

8. Precautions and/or sources of error:

(i) Glass slab should be placed well within the outline marked.
(ii) Pins should be fixed exactly vertically. Do not hammer the pins.
(iii) The foot of the pins (on the paper) should be placed in straight line.
(iv) Use of protractor in finding angle should be accurate.
(v) Angles should be fixed between 300 and 600 for incident ray.
(vi) The separation between pins should be atleast 5 cm, while ensuring straight line.
Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

22 LMPHY027
 Experiment-8
1. Experiment: To find the dielectric constant of the materials using parallel plate
capacitor.
2. Equipment required: PN junction diode, test capacitor (having facility of filling
with a dielectric),a gang capacitor, micro ammeter, variable oscillator, connecting
wires.
Material required: Bakelite sheet, cardboard
3. Learning Objectives:
1) To learn the definitions of the capacitor and capacitance of a capacitor
2) To get knowledge how the capacity of a capacitor increase with dielectric
material
3) To get knowledge how the capacitance of air is equal to one

4. Outline of the Procedure

1. Connect the variable/gang capacitor and test capacitor plug to the sockets indicated
on the front panel.
2. Adjust the frequency of oscillator and do not change that value throughout the
experiment.
3. Keep the test capacitor without dielectric and change the capacity of variable
capacitor to get the maximum deflection in micro ammeter.
4. For measuring dielectric of solids, connect the variable/gang capacitor in parallel
with the test capacitor.
5. Fill the test capacitor with the dielectric and change the capacity of variable gang
capacitor slowly to get maximum deflection in micro-ammeter.
. 5. Required Results:
Larger the value of dielectric constant of the material means greater will be its
charge storage capacity Dielectric constant for different material (mica, Bakelite etc.) is
different

Parameters:

Relationship: Dielectric constant is given by the relation: K = 1+ C1-C2/C0

Where, C1=Capacity of variable capacitor for maximum deflection in micro
ammeter when test capacitor is without dielectric.
C2=Capacity of variable capacitor for maximum deflection in micro ammeter
when test capacitor is filled with dielectric.
C0 = Capacity of test capacitor (27pF)

Graphs: NA

Error Analysis: (Actual -observed/Actual) x 100

6. Cautions:
1.Set the sensitivity to30μA maximum.
2 After the liquids dielectric experiment gang capacitor should be dry for further
experiment
3.change the capacity of variable gang capacitor slowly to get maximum deflection in
micro-ammeter
7.Learning outcomes: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

23 LMPHY027
 Experiment-9
1. Experiment: To study the induced e.m.f. as a function of velocity of magnet.
2. Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-
circular arc, an electric’s wire coil consisting of a number of turns, two weights, stopwatch,
capacitor, diode, resistance, and voltmeter.

3. Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch

4. Learning Objectives:
 Electromagnetic induction
 Induced e.m.f
 Dependence of the magnitude of induced e.m.f on the velocity of the magnet.

5. Theory: Faraday’s law states that a charge in magnetic flux (Φ) through a closed
conducting circuit induces an electro motive force (emf) ε in the circuit.

-------------------------------- (1)

The emf ε is proportional to the rate of change of the flux through the coil. The minus
sign is related to the fact that the induced emf opposes the change in the flux linking the circuit
.In MKS system ε has units of Volts (V), while Φ units of Weber (W) .In this experiment we will
measure certain effects leading from Faraday’s law and will hence indirectly verify the law. The
setup (Fig.1) basically consists of a bar magnet attached to a metallic arc. The frame the arc is
suspended at the center so that the whole frame can freely oscillate in its plane. Movable weights
are provided on the diagonal arm whose position is can be altered, leading to a variation of the
period of oscillation from about 1.5 sec to 3 sec. As it oscillates the magnet passes through two
copper coils which are connected in series with each other.

As the magnet passes through the coils the flux Φ through the coils changes with time as
shown in fig 2. The induced emf ε is generated in the coils in the form of two pulses with
opposite sign for each swing .The pulse width τ is the time over which the flux through the coil
changes during a swing. The maximum value of ε o of emf corresponding to the maximum value

of . This is related to the maximum velocity vrms of the magnet.

24 LMPHY027
 

Calculation of Vmax :
The maximum velocity of the magnet is clearly obtained at the equilibrium point i.e. at
the bottom of the swing .The velocity,
……………………………………. (2)
Where R is the radius of the arc, T is the time period of oscillation and θo is the initial release
angle.

We now give a rough argument that the maximum value of the emf εmax = εo is proportional to
vmax.
As the magnet moves, the flux Φ through the coil changes. Clearly Φ = Φ (θ) ,where θ is the
angular position of the magnet . Hence
…………………………. (3)
Thus, ε is the function of θ i.e.,

………………………………… (4)
At the equilibrium point ω = ωmax but hence emf at equilibrium position, εequ = 0. The
maximum value of the e.m.f., εmax occurs at an angle θmax just slightly before the equilibrium
point.
…………………….. (5)
Since the point θmax is close to the equilibrium θ = 0, , hence

25 LMPHY027
 ……………………….. (6)
Thus εo vmax approximately and the constant of proportionality depends only on the
geometry of the apparatus and is independent of the angle θ 0.Hence a graph of ε0 vs. vmax is
expected to approximate a straight line as shown in the Fig. 3.
In this experiment we will measure εo by charging a capacitor by the induced emf. For
this a circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 4. The diode allows current to flow only in one
direction and hence the capacitor charges only during one swing of the complete oscillation .If
the time constant RC is small compared to the pulse width then the capacitor gets fully charged
to the maximum voltage εo in the swing. However if RC > then the capacitor gets fully charged
only after several swings.

The voltage across the capacitor after n swings can be measured by closing the switch S and
discharging the capacitor through a voltmeter.

6. Outline of the Procedure:

[1] Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid
aluminium frame from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the coil.
[2] Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum time
period.
[3] Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of induced
e.m.f.
[4] Note time for about 20 oscillations with amplitude of about say 20cm and respective peak
voltage.
[5] Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak voltage
each time.
[6] Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
[7] Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter arm.
Take about three readings at this position.
[8] Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.

7. Observation table:

[A] Time period constant and amplitude variable (i.e., by keeping weight positions fixed)

Mean position of the centre of the magnet = ……..cm.

26 LMPHY027
Radius of the semi-circular arc R = ………..cm.

Sr. Amplitude, Time for 20 Mean εo εo / a = εo / Linear velocity,

No. a = R.θ0 oscillations time R.θ0
period
(T)
1. [i]
[ii]
[iii]

Mean
2.
3.

[B] Amplitude constant and time period variable (i.e., by changing weight positions)
Sr. Amplitude, Time for 20 Mean εo εo T Linear velocity,
No. a = R.θ0 oscillations time
period
(T)
1. [i]
[ii]
[iii]
Mean
2.
3.

Parameters:
 Least count of measuring meter rod.
 Least count of voltmeter.
Model Plot:

8. Results: Need to be written i.e., what types of information/data you are getting from the
experiment.
9. Error Analysis: Error in finding the velocity will be decided how accurately all the parameters
measured on which velocity depends. Following relations will help

27 LMPHY027
Also, error in the amplitude can be calculated as follows;

10. Precautions:
 The semi-circular frame should oscillate freely as a whole on the knife edge.
 The magnet should pass freely through the coils.
 The magnet should be small and should be mounted at the middle of the semi circular
arc.
 Circuit must be properly connected.

11. Learning Outcomes: Student must write 50-100 words about the whole experiment that what
he/she learned from the experiment.

28 LMPHY027
 Experiment-10
1. Experiment: To find the frequency of a.c. mains using electric vibrator.
2. Equipment Required: Electrical vibrator, a frictionless pulley, a string of uniform
thickness, a lightweight pan, a weight box, a balance and a meter rod.
3. Material Required: NIL.
4. Learning Objectives: This experiment would introduce the following physical
concepts and their practical demonstration as well as use:
 Frequency and wavelength measurement and calculations.
 Electrical vibrator working.
 Standing waves formation and measurements.
 Linear mass density.
 Longitudinal and transverse mode of vibrations.
5. Outline Procedure:
 Take 5m to 7m of string. Measure and weigh it to find its linear mass density (  ).
 Switch on the power supply to electrical vibrator and adjust the length of steel rod to
maximize the amplitude of rod end.
 In transverse mode, switch of the power supply, the string will be found to vibrate
in a number of loops. Adjust the load or length of the string to have standing wave
on it i.e. nodes and antinodes are located and immobile.

 Measure the length of the loops (l) and also the number of loops (n) formed. Load in
pan plus load of pan will decide tension (T) in the string.
 Above data can be used to calculate the frequency within limits of errors using
formula given below.
 The experiment can be repeated after changing the load in pan and then performing
same experiment in longitudinal mode also.
6. Brief theory and Required results:
The apparatus used in this experiment is shown in Figure above. In this experiment
one end of a stretched string is attached to a vibrator and the other end passes over a
pulley to a hanging weight which produces tension in the string. The stretched string
is set in motion by the vibrating support, but if the frequency of vibration is not one of
the natural frequencies of the string, the vibrational amplitude of the string is very
small. However, when the frequency f of the vibrating support is the same as one of
the natural frequencies of the string the vibrational amplitude will be large and will
exhibit clearly defined nodes and segments or loops corresponding to the standing
wave of that particular frequency.
A string is attached to the vibrator at one end, and a weight hanger at the other,
stretching over the pulley which is clamped to the lab bench. The electrical vibrator
gives the mechanical vibration of certain frequency to the string. This frequency f can
be found from the relationship

29 LMPHY027
Here T is the period or time for one cycle of the vibrator and hence waveform. A
string that is fixed at both ends can oscillate at various frequencies that are determined
by the length, tension, and mass of the string. When oscillating in this way all parts of
the string undergo simple harmonic motion at the same frequency but the amplitude
varies from point to point. The oscillating states are known as stationary or standing
waves and the frequencies of the waves are the natural or resonant frequencies of the
stretched string. Standing waves may be regarded as a superposition of propagating
waves that are repeatedly reflected at the ends of the string; the term standing or
stationary refers to the fact that the nodes (minima) and antinodes (maxima) of the
wave remain fixed in position, as shown in Figure below

The standing waves are not propagating but they are the superposition of propagating
waves and their frequency and wavelength satisfy the wave relation

Here v is the wave velocity on the string. The velocity of a transverse wave on a string
that has a mass per unit length μ and is under tension T is

In this discussion we are assuming that the ends of the string are fixed. The
wavelengths of the standing waves are determined by the condition that a whole
number of half wavelengths must equal the length of the string. In this experiment the
length of the string or load in pan is adjusted until the string vibrates in segments
forming a standing wave pattern. If the standing wave has n segments (n = 4 in above
figure) then the wavelength  and the string length L are related by

Combining these relations leads to

As the fundamental relation connecting the frequency of oscillation and the

parameters of the string (length, tension, mass per unit length) when it is vibrating in a

30 LMPHY027
standing wave pattern with n loops. Solving, the frequency of the transverse wave in
the standing wave pattern is

The tension is provided by the weight in Newton of the hanging mass.

For the longitudinal arrangement, the frequency of the electric vibrator is given by

If there are n loops contained in L length of string then L=nl.

Results can be written
Frequency of a.c. mains,  = ______  ______Hz (This result will be mean of 4-5
sets and applying error analysis, make observation table accordingly)
Parameters:
Least count of measuring meter rod.
Linear mass density of string (  ) = ________kg/m
Relationship:
  2l
1 T
f 
  (Transverse mode)
2 T
f 
  (Longitudinal mode)

Graph: NA
7. Error Analysis:
Error in finding the frequency will be decided how accurately all the parameters
measured on which frequency depends. Following relations will help
f  1 T 1 
  
f  2 T 2 m , here ‘Δ’ represents the error in measuring a value.
E.g. If one measure wavelength (from length, l) as 11.0cm (say) with an accuracy of
say 0.1cm, so it will be recorded as     11.0cm  0.1cm .
8. Cautions:
a) The string should be of uniform thickness, so that it has fairly uniform linear
mass density. Fishing cord will work if available.
b) The length of steel rod should be adjusted before attaching the string to it.
c) The standing wave should be clearly identified with clear nodes and antinodes.
d) Try to minimize pulley friction as much as possible.
e) Measure the lengths of the loops carefully as it will produce maximum error in
resulting frequency.
f) The pan shouldn’t oscillate like pendulum while you are looking for standing
wave.
g) Before performing experiment try to think why all above precautions are
required and how they can affect the result.

Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

31 LMPHY027
 Experiment-11
1. Experiment: To draw characteristics of a pn junction diode and determine knee and
break down voltages.
2. Equipment Required: PN Junction Diode Resistance 1k ohm Regulated power
supply(0 –30V) 104 Ammeter mC (0-30)mA, (0-500)μA105 Voltmeter mC (0 – 1)V,
(0 – 30)V 106 Bread board and connecting wires Reverse BiasHere the anode of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery andcathode of the diode is
connected to positive terminal of the battery.
3. Material Required: NIL
4. Learning Objective:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find knee and break down Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased
conditions for PN junction diode.
5. Outline Procedure :
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.e. anode is connected to positive of
the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 1kΏ.
3. For various values of forward voltage (Vf ) note down the corresponding values of
forward current(If ).
Reverse biased condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative
of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply.
2. For various values of reverse voltage (Vr ) note down the corresponding values of
reverse current ( Ir).

6. Brief theory and Required results:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a
junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This
region gives rise to a potential barrier Vγ called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage
across the diode at which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this
Potential.
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to
cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of
the potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward
biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction
simultaneously and constitute a forward current ( injected minority current ) due to holes
crossing the junction and entering N-side of the diode, due to electrons crossing the
junction and entering P-side of the diode). The diode can be approximated as short-
circuited switch.
If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the
potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to
move away from the junction thereby increasing the depleted region.
However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse
saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to thermally
generated carriers. The diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

32 LMPHY027
 The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:
I = Io(Exp(V/ ηVT)-1)
I=current flowing in the diode
Io=reverse saturation current
V=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV(@ room temp).
η=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon
diode.

Ckt. Diagram & Graph:

Forward biased:

Reverse Biased: For reverse biased , observer should reverse the polarity of battery.

Graph (instructions) :
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of thegraph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve x-axis as( Vf ), -ve x-axis as (Vr ) ,+ve y-axis as (If) , -ve y-axis as (Ir).
3. Mark the readings for diode forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Diode reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.
Calculations from Graph:
Static forward Resistance Rdc = Vf/If Ω
Dynamic forward Resistance rac = ΔVf/ΔIf Ω
Static Reverse Resistance Rdc =Vr/Ir Ω
Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac = ΔVr/ΔIr Ω

Results can be written:

Thus the VI characteristics of PN junction diode are verified.
1. Knee voltage,Vᵞ=If x RF = ………..V
2.Breakdown voltage,VB=Ir x Rr =……….V.
Error Analysis: (observed value – true value)/ Observed value x 100

33 LMPHY027
7. Cautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the Circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

34 LMPHY027
 Experiment 12
1. Experiment: To draw and study different waveforms on CRO using function generator.
2. Equipment required: Breadboard, Wire cutters, Wires, Oscilloscope, and Function
Generator
3. Material required: NIL.

4. Learning Objectives:
(a) By using CRO we can trace different waveforms.
(b) To find the frequency of the function generator.
(c) to understand the concept of phase shift.

5. Outline Procedure:
1. Connect function generator output at the input of C.R.O. at channel 1or at channel 2
2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 selectCH1 and if signal is
connected to channel 2 select CH2
3. Adjust Time /Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on the CRO
screen.
4. With fine tuning of time/Div make the waveform steady on screen.
5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable
6. Keep volt/div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without clipping
7. Measure peak to peak reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/div gives
peak to peak amplitude of the ac i/p wave.
8. Measure horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied by
time/div gives time period of the i /p wave.
9. Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/T.
10. Note down your readings in the observation table.

6. Brief theory and required results:

Introduction:
C.R.O. (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument which is used to observe signal
waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in amplitude of the signal
with respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen .X-axis represents time and Y-axis
represents amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms.
It is also used to observe shape of the waveform. C.R.O. is useful for troubleshooting purpose
.It helps us to find out gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits. We can measure amplitude
and frequency of the waveforms at the different test points in our circuit. Thus, it helps us for
fault finding procedure. In dual channel C.R.O. X-Y mode is available which is used to create
Lissajous patterns Latest digital storage oscilloscope display voltage and frequency directly
on the LCD and does not require any calculations. It can also store waveform for further
analysis. More detailed study on C.R.O. will be covered in EMI laboratory (SEM-V). In this

35 LMPHY027
practical, we will measure amplitude and frequency of the different waveforms like sine
wave, square wave, triangular wave and ramp wave.

36 LMPHY027
Degrees of a sine wave

Concept of phase shift.

Graph: By using tracing paper we will have the shape of different waveforms.
7. Precautions: 1) The range of voltmeter and ammeter should be checked properly.
2) The continuity of connecting terminals should be checked before going to the experiment.
Learning Outcome: To be written by the students in 50-70 words.

37 LMPHY027