PLANT DISEASES

Introduction:

Plants and plant products are tremendously important for human survival since
they provide food, clothing, furniture, a stable environment, and often housing.
Plants, whether cultivated or wild, generally grow well when the soil provides them
with sufficient nutrients and moisture, sufficient light reaches their leaves, and the
temperature stays within a normal range. However, like people, plants can get sick.
Agents similar to those that cause disease in people also can cause diseases in
plants.

Plant Pathology deals with the nature, causes, control and prevention
and all aspects of plant diseases. Nowadays the term phytopathology is also used
instead of plant pathology. The word phytopathology came from the word “phython”
means plant, “pathos” means suffering, and “logos” which means conversation
(reason). Plant pathology is the science of plant diseases; it is the science of
understanding the nature and characteristics of diseased plant as well as their
causes, plant pathogen interactions, factors affecting disease development in
individual plants and in population; and various mean of treating and controlling
disease.

As a science, plant pathology strives to increase our knowledge about

plant disease. To do this, plant pathologist study such factors as the biology of the
pathogenic organisms, the mechanisms that pathogens use to cause disease, and
interactions between pathogen and host plant. These studies help plant pathologist
to devise better methods of preventing or controlling disease and alleviating the
damage that they cause.

The art of plant pathology deals with the application of the knowledge
gained from studying the science. This includes: a) diagnosis or recognizing
particular diseases by their symptoms and signs, (b) disease assessment and
forecasting (c) recommendation of appropriate control measures, and (d) field
application of suitable control measures.

The Economic Importance of Plant Diseases

Plant diseases were present and well established on earth long before man
established himself. It has been said that human beings (as well as other animals) exist
on earth solely as guest of the plant kingdom because only the green plants can convert
the energy from the sun into food. We depend on plants not only for food but also for
our clothing’s and shelter needs and for numerous luxuries. Medicinal plants are
sources of drugs. Ornamental plants make up a multimillion dollar industry. When
diseases kill plant, all other forms of life on earth are adversely affected.

By the time man started settled agriculture, since that time and still yet is facing
with problem of protecting neighboring crops from diseases. The reason for man’s
problem is that both are competing for the same resources needed for food, clothing,
shelter and other requirements for life survival.

History has recorded numerous cases of human suffering, death and upheavals due to
plant disease epidemics. Losses of crop yields from disease have had severe effects on
the human race. The potato late light disease caused the famine and death of more
than a million people in Ireland in 1845-46. In the mid 19 th century downy mildew grape
disease was accidentally introduced in Europe. Downy mildew of grape almost
destroyed the vineyards in France, Germany and Italy. Ergot of rye grain causes
hallucinations and sometimes deadly illness. Massive European epidemics caused by
ergot of rye occurred frequently during medieval times. In the early 20 th century the
American chestnut tree was wiped out by an Asian blight disease. The chestnut was a
major source of lumber at the time. The average Englishman is a tea drinker because
the rust disease destroyed vast coffee plantations which had to be planted to tea
instead.

At present, famines and malnutrition occur in many parts of the world, especially
in the underdeveloped parts of Africa, Latin America and Asia where plant disease
control measures are inadequate or unknown. The increasing world population
compounds the problem as this means more mouths to feed and less agricultural land
to till.

Even in the United States where modern production methods are practiced and
the use of pesticides is widespread, it is estimated that farmers still lose over 4.6 million
dollars annually from plant diseases.

In the Philippines alone, enormous economic losses have been brought about by
plant diseases. The cadang-cadang disease of coconut has cost the country a loss of
over two hundred million dollars since it was first observed in 1918. Downy mildew, the
nemesis of corn, used to destroy as much as 95% of the corn crop before its control by
chemical seed treatment was discovered in 1978. This loss amounted to over 170
million pesos annually. The tungro disease of rice affected 70, 000 hectares of rice
fields in 1971 alone, causing a loss of 1.22 million cavans of rough rice valued at P30,
375, 000. Coffee and citrus plantation used to be profitable sources of income in
Batangas province until the former was ravaged by coffee rust and the latter by citrus
decline.

Plant diseases damage the crops, reduce the yields, lower the quantity and
quality, increase the cost of production and require cost outlays for material and
equipment for control measures. Besides, chemical disease controls are poisonous for
human being and are main cause of environmental degradation. Plants of economic
importance are stressed by numerous diseases. Crop losses are expressed in various
ways.

a. Reduction in yield

1. Leaf spots and leaf blight- reduced the plants photosynthetic capacity
with a concomitant decrease in yield.
2. Root pathogens- diminish the host’s vigor.
3. Fruit rotting and fruit-spotting microorganisms – lessen the number of
fruits fit for harvesting and marketing.

b. Deterioration of harvested produce during storage, marketing or

transport accounts for tremendous losses in our food supply.

c. Reduction in the quality of the produce

1. Citrus canker and scab lesions – rather unsightly and usually
command lower prices in the market.
2. Moldy cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and other commodities suffer nutrient
losses, and may carry off-flavors that are unacceptable to consumers.
3. Disease of forest trees may reduce the strength of the wood pulp and
cause an undesirable discoloration.
4. Infected seeds germinate poorly.
d. Microorganisms that colonize plant products produce poisonous
substances or toxins that endanger the health of the consumer.
 1. Peanut butter made from raw peanuts that had been infected with
Aspergillus flavus may contain aflatoxin which is carcinogenic to a
number of animals and to human.
2. Ochratoxin is a mycotoxin formed by A. ochaceus which causes
cancer of the liver.
3. Yellow rice toxins formed by Penicillium spp. resulted in several deaths
in Japan.
4. Fusarium graminearum produces an estrogenic factor in corn which
cause the testes of young male swine to atrophy and the uteri of
female pigs to enlarge and finally to abort.
5. Fumonisins formed by Fusarium spp. In corn grains may cause
esophageal cancer in man and toxic to other animals like horses.

e. A pathogen often causes the host to become weak and susceptible to

attack by other pathogens.
1. Nematodes injure the roots of plants and the injured areas serve as
avenues for the entrance of pathogenic organisms.
2. Bacterial wilt of tomato becomes more severe if the roots are attacked
by root knot nematodes.
3. Leaf pathogens usually weaken the plant such that the host becomes
susceptible to root rotting pathogens.
4. Defoliated forest trees are readily attacked by Armillaria mellea and
other fungi.
f. Diseases increase the cost of production and handling. One major input
in production is the cost of controlling diseases. In many instances, the
application of control measures result to higher economic losses. The
high cost of control is passed onto the consumers, thus we pay a
staggering price for the produce.

A. Definition and Terminology in Plant Pathology

Pathogen is any agent (biotic or abiotic) that causes a disease.

Parasite is an organism which depends wholly or partly on another living organisms for
its food.

Obligate parasite is an organism that is restricted to subsist on living organisms and

attacks only living tissues.

Facultative parasite is an organism which has the ability to be a parasite although it is

ordinarily a saprophyte

Saprophyte is an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter.

Facultative saprophyte has the ability to become a saprophyte but it is ordinarily a

parasite.

Host refers to the plant that is being attacked by the parasite.

Suscept a plant that is susceptible to a disease whether or not the pathogen is

parasitic.

Pathogenecity is the capacity of the pathogen to cause disease.

Pathogenesis refers to disease development to the plant.

Virulence refers to the quantitative amount of disease that an isolate of a given

pathogen can cause in a group of plants in term of size of lesion.
Aggressiveness measures the rate at which virulence is expressed by a given
pathogenic isolate.

Disease resistance is the inherent ability of any organisms to overcome in any degree
the effects of a pathogen (Merrill, 1980).

Susceptibility is the opposite of resistance.

Tolerance is exhibited by a plant which is severely affected by a pathogen without

experiencing a severe reduction in yield.

Disease Incidence is the percentage of plants or plant parts with a disease.

Disease severity is the percentage of diseased plant.

Vector is an agent (insect, etc) able to transmit a pathogen that causes disease.

Definition of disease was varied among the people who define it. The term has
avoided plant pathologists for so long. This may have stemmed from the fact that
scientists had labored to give a precise definition to a rather complex and broad
phenomenon. Moreover, the present trend is towards a more expanded outlook on plant
disease. Let us discuss some definition of disease that has appeared in the literature.

Definition of Disease given by different pathologist;

Whetzel (1912) = disease is a “physiological malfunctioning caused by animate agents”

Stackman and Harrar (1957) = “any deviation from normal growth or structure of plants
that is sufficiently pronounced and permanent to produce visible
symptoms or to impair quality or economic value”.

Horsfall and Dimond (1959) = disease is “a malfunctioning process caused by

continuous irritation”.

National Academy of Science (Washington, D.C. 1968) = “disease is harmful

alteration of the normal physiological and biochemical development of
plant”

Merril (1980) = defines disease as “a dynamic interaction between an organisms and its
environment which results in abnormal physiological and often
morphological or neurological changes in the organisms”

Agrios (1978) = disease is “any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or an

environmental factor which interferes with manufacture, translocation,
or utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that
the affected plant changes in appearance and yields less than a
normal healthy plant of the same variety”.

(1998) = “any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from
continuous irritation by a pathogen or an environmental factor and
leads to the development of the diseases.

Disease Development

In order for a biotic plant disease occurs three conditions must be attained:

 The host must be susceptible

 the pathogen must be present
 The environment must be favorable to the infection by the pathogen.
 All three of these factors must occur simultaneously. This is pictured as the
disease triangle below. The absence of one or more of these factors will produce no
disease.

Pathogen
Susceptible (Virulent)
HOST Disease

Favorable Environment

The Disease Triangle

1. The host must be susceptible to disease that is at the proper age and
physiological state for infection and development of disease to occur. Healthy,
strong growing non-stressed plants are less susceptible to disease than plants
under stress.
2. The pathogen must be virulent (able to cause disease) not in a state of
dormancy and present in a certain minimum population level.
3. The environment must be conducive (favorable) for the development of
disease.

The genetic of the plant determined is susceptibility or resistance to a particular

disease. Specific pathogens vary in their ability to infect different plant species. For
example, the late blight fungus can infect certain solanaceous plants such as tomato,
potato and eggplant. However, cucumbers, beans, and other type s of plants are not
susceptible to late blight.

Various physical and biochemical factors of a given plant species influence

susceptibility. These factors include plant defense mechanisms, carbohydrates and
protein types, cuticle thickness, and stomatal shape. The developmental stage of the
plant also can influence disease development. For example, damping-off diseases
occur in younger plants, but not in older plants.

Pathogens differ in their ability to survive, spread and reproduce. For instance, a
certain viral disease may occur only when a specific insect vector transports virus
particles to the susceptible plant. Or, a fungus that cannot survive cold winters may be
problematic only in the growing season following the shipment of the infected plant
material from a warmer state.

Certain temperature, light, or moisture conditions generally are necessary for a

disease to occur. Cool, moist conditions are ideal for many fungal and bacterial
pathogens. For example, the bacterial disease fire blight and the fungal disease peach
leaf curl both are more severe following wet springs.

A. Organisms Associated with Diseased Tissue

a. Primary organisms – the organisms is directly responsible for the disease.
b. Secondary organisms – the organisms is taking advantage of weakened
tissue.
c. Disease complexes and organisms succession.
i. Disease complex refers to the situation where the disease is
caused by more than one organism.
ii. Organism succession refers to the fact that plants are colonized
over time-by many different organisms.
 iii. Disease complexes add to difficulty in disease management as
identification and control of one organism may accelerate activity of
other organisms in the complex.
iv. Organisms’ succession makes primary pathogen identification
difficult.

B. Symptoms and Signs of Plant Diseases

Symptoms are the expression of the suscept or host of a pathologic condition by

which a particular plant disease may be distinguished from a healthy plant.

Example: yellowing of the leaves

Signs are expressions of vegetative or reproductive structures of the causal agent.

Example: sclerotial bodies of Sclerotium rolfsii in damping-off of seedlings.

Nature of Symptoms

A. Histological symptom unusual appearances considered to be morbid condition in

cell structure, content or arrangement. It is largely internal, can be studied only upon
breaking, cutting or sectioning of the diseased organ and in most cases upon
microscopic examination.
Examples: 1. vascular discoloration (bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops)
2. enlargement of cells (corn smut)
3. abnormal multiplication of cells (root knot)
♦ Pathological Histology is the study of histological symptom also known as
Pathological Anatomy.
♦ Morphological symptoms consist of morbid aspect assumed by the plant or
some of its organ chiefly as the result of some histological condition. It is the effect of
histological symptom.
Examples: 1. galls (orange gall of winged bean, corn smut)
2. canker (citrus canker, scab)
3. spot (Helminthosporium leaf spot of rice, corn and sorghum)
4. rot (Phytophtora fruit rot of eggplant, soft rot of any vegetable)
♦ Pathological Morphology is the science that deals with the study of
morphological symptoms.

B. Lesional symptoms are those expressed in the form of distinct localized structural
changes or lesion.
Examples: leaf spots, cankers, galls, rots
♦ Habitual Symptom is expressed in the form of unnatural or abnormal habit.
Examples: 1. wilting (bacterial wilt of solanaceous plant)
2. unnatural erectness of leaves (grassy stunt of rice)
3. damping off (damping off of seedlings)

C. Primary symptoms are those direct results of pathogen activity upon the tissues
embedded.
D. Secondary symptoms are the effects on the distant or unembbeded tissues or
organs.
Example: Bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants
♦ Primary symptom is the clogging of the xylem vessel by the bacterial cells
resulting to vascular discoloration.
♦ Secondary symptom is the wilting of the leaves

General Classifications of Symptoms

A. Necrotic Symptoms are the evidences of the disease that are incident to
degradation or death of cell protoplast or tissues. It may be general or local and
gradual or rapid.

Two types of necrotic symptom

1. Plesionecrotic symptoms are characteristics of the stages of protoplasmic organ
degradation preceding the actual death of protoplast.
Examples: yellowing, silvering, wilting or flagging
2. Holonecrotic symptoms are those showing the death of cells or tissues.
Examples:
1. Streak- elongated, narrow, superficial, necrotic lesion on the stem or the leaf
vein usually water soak at first brown.
2. Strip- is elongated narrow, necrotic lesion developing in parenchamatous
tissues in leaf of grains and cereals.
3. Spot (Spotting) - very common symptom among foliage and fruit tissue with
definite circular dead areas.
4. Shot hole- common in leaf spot of certain plant which the disease tissue drops
out leaving circular holes. e.g. Anthracnose of mango (Colletotrichum sp.)
5. Blotch- is superficial discoloration of leaves or roots in which there is necrotic
injury in epidermal tissue. e.g. Purple blotch of onion
6. Scald- blanching of the epidermis on the adjacent tissues which become pale
or brown in color commonly exhibited on roots barely on foliage.
7. Blight or Blighting- sudden death, wilting and browning of large leaf area
including veins, entire leaves or young twigs or fruits.
8. Scorch -sudden death of indefinite areas at margins or between the veins of
the leaves it is also applied to injuries on the fruits and leafing fruits.
Common causes:
1. Drought
2. Excessive heat of the sun
3. Toxic injury of fungicide or insecticide or other chemicals.
9. Firing – applied to the blanch dried or areas on grasses, corn and tobacco and
other crops.
10. Damping off- rapid rotting of the base of the stem of the seedlings at the soil
line or the falling over the above plant parts.
11. Blasts or Blasting- term commonly applied to the sudden death of young bud
in florescence or young fruits. e.g. Kernel blast of corn (Fusarium moniliforme)
12. Canker- a definite necrotic lesions in the cortical or bark tissues or roots local
disease particularly of the woody plant. e.g. Citrus canker
13. Dieback or stag head- dying backward from the tip of the twig or branches
occurring usually during dormant condition, often the result of weather injury,
fungus attack or wet soil.
14. Shelling- dropping of the fleshy portion of the fruits or the entire fruit leaving
the bare petiole.
15. Rot- condition of the dead tissue in more less advance stage of disintegration
resulting to crumbling of cells due to dissolution of the cementing materials called
as pectin.
Several type of rots.
1. Soft rot -e.g. soft rot of vegetable (Erwinia carotovora)
2. Hard rot
3. Dry rot
4. White rot
5. Red rot - e.g. red rot of sugarcane (Physalospora tucumanensis)
16. Mummification- first stage of certain disease of fruits within the rotten fruit
losses its moisture rapidly and resulted into drying characterized by dark wrinkled
usually hard mass called the “mummy” commonly to star apple.
17. Leak- symptom applied to certain soft rot in which the fruit juice exude or leak
from the disease organ.
18. Bleeding- chronic flow of the sap from the wounds or other injuries
accompanied by odor of fermentation.
19. Gummosis- oozing out of gum that flows through the opening of the bark. e.g.
citrus gummosis (Phytophtora)

B. Hypoplastic Symptoms - resulting from failure of development of growth of the

plant or some of its organs. “Hypo” which means undeveloped parts of plants.
 1. Pygmismic- symptoms are characterized by subnormal growth, expression of
the failure of the entire plant or some of its organ to reach the normal structure although
fully differentiated.
- Due to lack of cell size or cell number.

Examples:
1. Savoying- (crinkling, puckering, blistering) characterized by cupping or
pocketing of the portion of the leaf blade.
2. Rossetting- shortening of the internodes shoots or branches resulting into
crowding of the foiliage rosette. e.g. bunchy top of abaca
3. Dwarfing (stunting)- subnormal size of normal plant and some of its organ. e.g.
tungro disease of rice and grassy stunt of rice

C. Lipoplastic Symptoms- characterized by subnormal differentiation or development

of the plant or some of its parts in some feature other than size.

Examples:
1. Albication (variagation)- complete failure of chlorophyll formation.
2. Chlorosis- practical failure of development of the green color on the
chloroplast.
3. Suppression- complete prevention of the development of certain organs such
as the development of flower is prevented. e.g. smut disease of grasses tissue
4. Fern Leaf (shoe string)- leaf condition resulting from the partial or complete
suppression of development of blade or production of the leaves too little more
than the blade.

D. Hyperplastic Symptoms – expressing excessive multiplication, enlargement over

development or overgrowth of tissue or organs and the retention of the green color in
the plants. “Hyper” which means over development of plant parts.

Examples:
1. Heterochromic symptoms- symptoms expressed as abnormal discoloration of
tissue or organs.
a. Virescence (greening) - the development of the chlorophyll in tissue or
organs in which is not normally present.
b. Bronzing- peculiar coppery color exhibited by epidermis of green
leaves.
2. Proleptic symptoms- incident of the early development of normal tissues or
organ.
a. Prolepsis- premature development of shoots or bud common symptoms
following blighting, dying back or injury of branches.
b. Restoration- more or less complete development of tissues or organ
normally rudimentary.
c. Abscission (defoliation, drop, shelling)- premature falling of leaves
flowers or fruits. It is the result of premature laying down of the abscission layer.
e.g. premature falling of jackfruit

E. Metaplastic Symptoms- incident to the transformation of tissue or organs form, kind

or type into another.
e.g. Heterotophy-development of more or less normal tissue a organs in false
location. e.g. bacterial wilt of solanaceous plant root location.

Examples:
1. Phyllomonia- production of leaves or other leaf-like structure in the abnormal l
ocation.
2. Phyllody- transformation of petals or other plant parts into leaf like structure
tissue.
3. Russetting (scarfing)- brownish superficial, roughing of skin of the fruits, tuber
and other organs following to the growing epidermis.
F. Gigantismic Symptoms- complex characterized by abnormal growth that is
increased in size of cell or increase in structure, form or some of its organs.
Examples:
1. Hypertrophy- increase in size of cells.
2. Hyperplasia- increase in number of cells.
e.g. a. Callus- tissue overgrowth produced or response from injury.
b. Proliferation- continued bleeding of a part of after it has reach the stage
in which is normally ceased to develop.
c. Cracking- splitting open of the fleshy organ, roots, fruits as the result
greater count of cells of internal tissues. It may result from overgrowth or
enlargement of internal cells as the result sudden excess of available
water.
d. Curling (rolling)- abnormal curling of shoots or leaves due to localized
overgrowth of the side or in certain tissues.
e. Scab- defined more or less circular slightly raised. Result of the
overgrowth of epidermal or apical tissues. e.g. Citrus scab
f. Tumefaction- tumor-like outgrowth of any part of the plant usually results
from the irritation caused by bacteria, fungi or insects. This is also known
as “Boils Wart Clubs and Blisters”

Symptoms according to its infected plant parts.

a. Root symptoms – Injury to the roots system often includes yellowing, stunting, or
wilting of above ground parts. Wash off the roots when possible and look for the
following:

▪Small discolored or dead areas (fungi)

▪ General death of the feeder roots or the entire root system (fungi)

▪ Discoloration of the vascular tissue in the crown and the lower stem (fungi)

▪ Galls on roots (crown gall caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, fungal

diseases such as club rot of cabbage, root knot nematode).

b. Symptoms on storage organs. It includes tubers, bulb, and corms.

▪ Discolored or dead areas that go deep into storage organs (fungi, bacteria).

▪ Dry rots (fungi)

▪Soft rot

▪Scabby lesions on potato skins (bacteria)

▪Galls on storage organs (fungi, nematode)

▪ Internal problems (several viruses or bacteria, such as ring rot of potato).

c. Seedlings symptoms

▪ Seedlings fail to emerge, or fall over and die (damping –off caused by fungi)

▪ Dead areas on cotyledons or stems (fungi, bacteria)

d. Leaf Symptoms

▪ Yellowing, discoloration in localized or distinct patterns (viral)

▪ Necrotic areas on leaves, often containing fruiting bodies (fungi)

▪ Necrotic areas on leaves, often with water-soaked margins (bacteria)

 ▪ Small rusty-red, brown or black spots and stripes (fruiting bodies of rusts and
smut fungi)

▪ Leaf distortion (viral)

▪ White powdery substance on leaves (powdery or downy mildew

▪ leaf galls (fungi, insects)

▪ wilting (vascular wilt fungi, root rot pathogens, bacteria, drought)

e. Stems, branch, and trunk symptoms

▪ Cankers and complete or partial death of woody stems or branches (fungi and
bacteria)

▪ Sticky ooze from trunks and branches (bacteria, mechanical injury, insects)

▪ Large conks and bracket- like fruiting structures on trunks and branches (wood-
rotting fungi)

▪ Galls or swelling on lower trunk and/or branches (crown gall bacterium, white
pine blister rust)

▪ Witches’ broom or excessive branching (fungi, phytoplasmas)

▪ Extreme distortion, enlargement, and flattening of stems or branches

f. Flower symptoms

▪ Odd color changes and/or distortion (virus)

▪ Death of flower parts

▪ Individual flowers or seeds converted into masses of black spores (corn smut)

▪ Flowers that are green and smaller and more dense than normal (phytoplasma)

g. Fruit Symptoms

▪Fruits decay, rots and superficial spotting or russetting (fungi)

▪ Discoloration and malformation (virus)

▪Discrete spots on fruits or soft rots in storage (bacteria)

B. Signs of Plant Diseases

Signs refers to the structure of the pathogen that bare found associated with the
infected plant part.

Ex. of signs are fungal mycelia, spores and fruiting bodies, bacterial ooze,
sclerotial bodies, nematodes at various growth stages plant parts of phanerogams
(parasitic flowering plants).
 C. Plant Disease Diagnosis

Identification of specific plant diseases through their characteristic symptom and

signs including other factors that may be related to the disease process. Correct plant
disease diagnosis is necessary for recommending the appropriate control measures,
and in plant disease surveys.

Studies and work that require actual proof of pathogenecity require the
application of KOCH’S rules of proof. Koch’s postulates state that:

(1) The suspected pathogen must always be present in the plant when the disease
occur

(2) The organisms which is believed to cause the disease must be isolated and grown in
pure culture,

(3) The pure culture of the organisms must produce the symptoms and signs of the
disease when inoculated into a healthy plant, and

(4) The suspected causal organisms must be re-isolated in pure culture from the
inoculated plant and must be identical to the original organisms.

E. Classification of Plant Diseases

Identification and successive control of a particular disease is more easily when

we group plant diseases accordingly to its different classification.

1. Classification according to the affected plant organ such as root disease,

foliage diseases, fruit diseases and stem diseases.
2. Classification according to the symptoms such as leaf spots, rusts, smuts,
anthracnose, mosaic, wilts and fruit rots.
3. Classification according to the type of affected plats such as vegetables
diseases, diseases of forest trees, diseases of field crops, diseases of
ornamentals, etc.
4. Classification according to the type of pathogen that causes the disease.

Infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases

a. disease caused by fungi a. extremely high or

b. diseases caused mycoplasmas excessively low temperature
c. diseases caused by bacteria b. unfavorable oxygen
d. diseases caused by viruses condition
e. diseases caused by viroids c. unfavorable
f. diseases caused by protozoa moisture condition
g. diseases caused by parasitic d. nutrient deficiencies
flowering plant e. mineral toxicities
h. diseases caused by b nematodes f. air pollution
g. toxicity of
pesticides

3. Causes of plant diseases

a. Non-parasitic agents of plant diseases
a.1 Temperature
a.2 Lack of oxygen
 a.3 Light
a.4 Adverse meteorological conditions
a.5 Air pollution
a.6 Mineral deficiency
a.7 Excess nutrient element
a.8 Soil pH
a.9 Improper agricultural practices
a.10 Soil moisture
a.11 Naturally occurring toxic chemicals
b. Parasitic agents of plant diseases
b.1 Viroids and viruses as plant pathogens
b.2 Bacteria
b.3 Mycoplasma
b.4 Rickettsias
b.5 Fungi
b.6 Nematodes
b.7 Parasitic flowering plants as plant pathogens
b.8 Insects as vectors of plant pathogens

4. Variability in plant pathogens

a. Concepts
b. Mechanisms of variations
c. Genetics of host parasite interaction
5. Disease cycle
a. Parts of a disease cycle
b. Types of disease cycles
6. Plant disease epidemiology
a. The elements of an epidemic
b. Analysis of epidemics
c. Relation to control
7. Inoculum, inoculum survival and inoculation, and pathogen’s entry into plants
a. Types of inoculum
b. Sources of inoculum
c. Dissemination
d. Survival of inoculum
e. Inoculation
f. Inoculum potential
g. Pre-penetration
h. Ports of entry
8. Colonization of the suscept
a. Colonization by viruses, viroids and mycoplasma
b. Colonization by bacteria
c. Colonization by fungi
d. Colonization by nematodes
e. Latent infection
9. Mechanism of pathogenicity and host response
a. Interference with the uptake of water and the inorganic elements from the soil
b. Interference with translocation with inorganic compound
c. Reduction of plant’s photosynthetic capacity
d. Increase transpiration
e. Changes in growth of the suscept
f. Changes in host reproduction
g. Death of cell and tissues
10. Mechanisms of disease resistance
 a. Defense mechanisms
a.1 Passive defense
a.2 Active defense
b. Biochemical/physiological bases
c. Morphological/ anatomical bases
d. Varietal differences

Parasitic and Non-Parasitic

Causal Agents in Plant
Introduction

Disease, in plants may be defined as “a harmful alteration of the normal

physiological and biochemical development of a plant.” It can be classified as infectious
and non infectious, based on the type of symptom. The latter include damages caused
by inclement weather, pollution, unfavorable soil condition and injuries from toxic
chemicals. Pathogens are not involved and the disorder is not contagious. Infectious
diseases, on the other hand, are caused by pathogens.

At the end of this module the students will be able to:

1. Enumerate the various parasitic and non parasitic causes of plant

diseases.
2. Describe the symptoms of specific diseases caused by parasitic and non
parasitic agents.
3. Explain how non-infectious diseases are controlled.
4. Discuss how the plant pathogenic viruses are transmitted.
5. Characterize the bacteria that cause plant diseases.
6. Describe the classes of plant pathogenic fungi.
7. Describe the groups of plant parasitic nematodes and give examples
under each group

NON-PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES

Plants can grown normally only within certain ranges of various environmental
factors such as light, temperature, moisture, air, nutrients, etc. The inadequacy or the
excess of one or more of these factors leads to changes in the normal functioning of the
plant and thus disease occurs.

The non-parasitic agents of disease are characteristically non-living and

therefore are not spread from diseased to healthy plants. The disease that they cause
are non infectious. Non infectious diseases are recognized by their symptoms.
Knowledge of the c soil conditions, temperature ranges, the weather immediately before
and during disease occurrence, and other environmental factors are often necessary for
correct diagnosis. Proper diagnosis is very difficult when multiple environmental factors
are involved in disease development.

Diseases caused by non-parasitic agents have been also referred to as

physiological disorders. Plants that are weakened or stressed by abiotic agents of
diseases are more prone to infection by parasitic pathogens.

The control of these diseases is by avoiding, whenever possible, the causal

environmental factor such as chemical pollutants, excessive sunlight. Etc. some may be
controlled by providing the lacking factor as in nutrient deficiency diseases, and
diseases caused by inadequate moisture, acidic soil, etc.

The more common non-parasitic causes of diseases in plants are:

 1. temperatures
2. lack of oxygen
3. too much or too little light
4. adverse meteorological conditions
5. air pollutants
6. mineral deficiencies
7. Excess nutrient element
8. soil pH
9. excessive pesticide levels
10. improper agricultural practices
11. soil moisture
12. naturally occurring toxic chemicals
13.
A. Diseases caused by adverse physical factors

Diseases caused by too low temperatures

Freezing Injury

Freezing injury is common in temperate and frigid areas where temperatures get
down to below 00C. Ice crystals formed within cells (intracellularly) and/or between cells
(intercellularly which damage the cell membrane and sooner or later kill the cells.

Chilling Injury

Chilling injury occurs at low temperatures that are slightly above freezing. The
common symptoms of this disease are pitting and water –soaked appearance. Many
tropical fruits and vegetables are sensitive to chilling injury. Green tomatoes that are
chilled in a refrigerator are predisposed to infection by Alternaria rot and anthracnose.

Disease caused by too high temperatures

Suncald

♦ it appears on leaves or fruits that undergo prolonged exposure to high

temperatures and bright sunlight. Affected fruits exhibit a light-colored, blistered,
sometimes water soaked area. Very young leaves often wilt and die.

Heat necrosis of potato

This occurs in potatoes grown in light soils where it is hot and dry. It is
characterized by a yellow or brown discoloration in the vascular system of affected
tubers.

Diseases caused by lack of Oxygen

The blackheart disease of potato occurs when oxygen is insufficient so that the
oxygen that is available to the internal tissues of potato is used up faster than it can be
supplied. The tissues of suffocates and become black. The disease is common in
waterlogged soils and in poorly aerated storage especially during periods of high
temperatures.

Diseases caused by too much or too little light

Reduced light intensity produces plants that are etiolated. This increases their
susceptibility to infection by non-obligate parasites but decreases their susceptibility to
obligate parasitic fungi. Reduced light often brings about increases susceptibility to virus
infection.
 Scorching and sun scalding are two diseases caused by too much light along
with high temperatures.

Diseases caused by adverse meteorological condition

 Strong winds and heavy rains can cause various disorders.

 Lightning injury is quite common on trees which appear after a
lightning strike as black, burned poles.

B. Air Pollutants

Any factor mediated by the atmosphere that causes an unwanted effect (Wood, 1970).
● Produced from factories, smelting and refining plants, automobile
exhaust and from other man-related activities.
● Produce in nature such as the ozone from lightning discharges and
ashes from volcanic eruptions.
Air pollutants often inhibit plant growth over an extended period of time without
definite symptoms. Some pollutants cause acute diseases with recognizable symptoms
if the pollutants are present nutrient sufficiently high concentration. Acute damage is a
function of the concentration times the period of exposure.

An air pollutant is produced at a source, is transported in the atmosphere, and

causes a deleterious effect in plants.

Common Air Pollutants

Ethylene

● common in large cities where motor exhausts emit gas.

● Essential in plant hormone if present in the proper concentration at the right
time but can cause premature senescence, etiolation, stunting, flower drop,
sepal necrosis, leaf malformation and other symptoms if present in high
concentration and/or wrong stage of plant development.

Nitrogen Oxides

● the main sources are internal combustion engines and furnaces, and they
produce by the combustion of coal, gasoline, natural gas and fuel oil.
● Symptoms: ▪ acute injury
▪ Bleaching and bronzing of plants
▪ Formation of defined, irregular brown or white lesions along
leaf margins and between veins
Peroxycacyl nitrates (PANs) ▪ Common constituents of the smog of large
cities.
▪ Produces the bronzing, silvering and glazing on the lower
leaf surfaces, typical of the silver leaf diseases.

Particulates

▪ include lime and cement dusts, ash and soot.

▪ its sources are burning fields or trash, cement factories,

lime kiln operations and the combustion of fuel oil and coal.
▪ they causes necrotic lesion where they alight on leaf
surfaces.
▪ Controlled by the use of electrostatic precipitation at the
source.
 C. Disease caused by mineral deficiencies

Different plants vary in their mineral requirements but they generally require
relatively larger amounts of the macro elements (N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg) and smaller
amounts of the microelements (Fe, Mn, S, Cu, Mo, Cl). The typical symptoms of
nutrient or mineral deficiencies are indicated below.

1. Nitrogen deficiency – chlorotic leaves, dwarfing, premature leaf fall, poor seed
and fruit production.
2. Phosphorus deficiency – subnormal roots, leaves are erect, small, necrotic;
cereal leaves take on reddish or purplish tints.
3. Potassium deficiency – tips of leaves become chlorotic often starting with older
leaves); tips and margins appear scorched. The leaves may develop bronzing
and marginal scorching, finally turning reddish brown and dying.
4. Magnesium deficiency - chlorosis amy first appears on the older leaves; necrotic
lesion
5. Iron Deficiency – general chlorosis. Mottling and die-back of twigs.
6. Manganese deficiency – chlorosis and scattered necrpotic spots on young
leaves, dwarfing and premature death of plants.
7. Sulfur deficiency - yellowing of leaves and die-back.
8. Boron deficiency – poor growth, young growing parts often become yellowish and
the terminal shoots die.
9. copper deficiency – die-back of leaf tips, wilting, stunting, distortion of certain
plant parts as in die-back .
10. Zinc deficiency – mottled chlorosis followed by necrosis and eventual defoliation,
die-back of twigs of fruits trees, and abnormal shortening of growing parts.
11. Calcium deficiency - leaf mesophyll tissue, stems and flower stalks frequently
collapse and the growing points may be killed resulting in die-back; roots are
poorly developed.
12. Molybdenum deficiency – leaf blades do not develop leaving the midrib bare.

D. Diseases caused by excesses of nutrient elements

Excessively high levels of certain elements affect the solubility and availability of
other elements.

1. High calcium level reduces the availability of manganese and iron.

2. Too much nitrogen causes a too luxuriant vegetative growth.
3. Excess boron causes necrosis and dwarfing.
4. Excess copper results in stunting or even death of plant.
5. Sodium toxicity causes dwarfing of plants.
6. Excess chloride causes burning of leaf margins and tips, bronzing and
premature defoliation.

E. Diseases caused by improper agricultural practices.

1. Unfavorable soil pH
2. Improper use of pesticides
3. Lack of or excess soil moisture

F. Diseases caused by naturally occurring toxic elements

Juglone is a compound which is formed by black walnut and is toxic to other plants
such as potato, tomato and apples.
1. New peach trees cannot be successfully established in an
area where peaches had been grown for several years possibly because
 the amygdalin produced by peach roots is broken down to highly toxic
hydrogen cyanide and benzaldehyde.
2. Toxic levels of hydrogen sulfide may be formed in the
presence of ferrous ion in flooded rice fields under anaerobic conditions,
causing a disease of rice.

PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES

The parasitic agents that cause infectious diseases of plants are grouped
according to different organisms/entities, which cause them. These are viruses, viroids,
bacteria, mollicutes, fungi, nematodes, parasitic flowering plants, insects, protozoa and
a few other minor parasites.

PLANT VIRUS AND VIROIDS

A.1. Virus

General characteristics:

o Obligate parasites that are ultramicroscopic composed of a nucleic acid

(either RNA or DNA) core surrounded by a protein coat.
o Some have an outer membrane
o Have various shapes.
Spherical

Bacilliform
Cylindrical
Bullet-shaped
Elongate rod-shaped or flexible filaments

 Bacteriophages are viruses that attack bacteria.

Characteristics:

The viruses are placed in a Kingdom of their own, the Kingdom Viruses. The
kingdom is divided into the RNA viruses and DNA viruses depending on the nucleic acid
component. Each group is further subdivided according to the number of RNA or DNA
strands (either one or two), either positive or negative sense, either isometric or non-
isometric. The monopartive viruses have their genome all in one particle whereas
multipartive viruses have their genome divided among 2-4 particles. Classification also
considers the number and arrangement of protein subunits, the size of the virus, the
symmetry of the helix of helical viruses and other biological, chemical and physical
characteristics.

Identification of Viruses

The precise identification of specific plant viruses necessitates their extraction

from the host and subsequent purification. The infectivity of the purified virus is tested
usually with the use of an indicator host that will exhibit characteristic local lesion. A
study of virus morphology is carried out with an electron microscope to determine its
size and shape. Serological test are used to determine the relationship among viruses.
Serological techniques such as the enzyme linked immunosorbent assay or ELISA
and fluorescent antibody microscopy have been helpful in virus identification.

Examination of young infected tissues for cell inclusion bodies under a

microscope and observation of purified virus particles in the electron microscope are
also useful in identification of viruses.

Symptoms Caused by Viruses:

 Symptoms brought about by virus infections include the following;

 Mosaic – as in tobacco mosaic

 Ring spot – as in papaya ring spot (circular pattern of yellow around a
green center)
 Witches’ broom – Excessive branching
 Vein clearing
 Color breaking
 Stunting
 Chlorosis
 Leaf curling

Transmission and Spread of the Viruses

Viruses maybe transmitted by mechanical means, by grafting, by nematodes, by

certain soil-borne fungi, by insects, by mites, through infected vegetative planting
materials. Viruses require wounds to be able to enter to the host and are thus called
wound pathogens or wound parasites.

Insects’ transmission of viruses is the major means of virus spread in the field.
Aphids, leafhopper, planthopper, thrips, whiteflies, mealy bugs, earwigs, beetles,
grasshopper, and mites may transmit virus.

Aphids’ transmission of viruses used to be characterized by the following;

1. Non-persistent – If the insects transmit the virus within seconds or minutes after
acquisition and then loses the ability to transmit it.
2. Persistent – If the insect is able to transmit the virus only after a period has
elapsed after acquisition and the vector remains capable of transmission for
many days.
a. Stylet-borne – adopted for viruses that adhere to and are borne on the stylet
of an insect that feeds on an infected plant.

b. Circulative- for viruses that are swallowed by an insect passed

through the blood and are returned to the salivary glands before they can be
transmitted by the insect.

Control of Virus diseases

1. Prevention through quarantine and certification is the key in controlling virus

diseases
2. Use virus-free seed and planting materials.
3. Cross protection

A.2. Viroids

General Characteristics

1. Stable entities of low molecular weight RNA that can infect plant cells.
2. Smaller than viruses and lack protein sheath
3. Closely associated with the nuclei, especially the chromatin, of cells that they
infect.
4. Divert plant metabolism to produce more viroids.
5. They spread by vegetative propagation

Symptoms Caused by Viroids

 1. Cadang-cadang of coconut – yellowing of leaves
2. Stunting – as in chrysanthemum stunt disease
3. Rolling and twisting of leaves – as in potato spindle tuber
4. Mottling and chlorosis – as in chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle
5. Vertical breaking of the bark – as in citrus exocortis

Control of Disease Caused by Viroids

1. Prevention is the best means of dealing with diseases caused by viroids.

BACTERIA

Prokaryotic and one celled organisms that multiply through cell division as
frequently as every 10-15 minutes. Like fungi, bacteria lack green pigments and cannot
produce their own food. There are man kinds of bacteria that can feed on higher plants
and produced a diseases condition.

Bacteria cannot enter directly into the plants. Most of them gain entry through
wounds or natural openings found on the surface of the plants. Once inside, the
bacteria multiply rapidly, break down the plant tissue and usually move throughout the
plant.

Animals, insects, driving rain, irrigation water, and wind-blown dust rapidly
spread bacteria. Unlike fungal spores, high temperature, strong sunlight, and antibiotic
substances easily kill bacteria.

Most disease causing bacteria could survive in seeds, plant debris, garden tools
and soil.

Bacteria affect plant in various ways and their symptoms maybe expressed in the
form of soft rot, blight, leaf spot or galls.

Bacteria may be spherical (cocci), rod-shaped (basilli), or spiral-shaped (spirilla).

They may occur as single cells, in couples, in chains, or in clusters.

1. Lophotrichous – when two or more flagella are located at one end of

bacterial cell.
2. Amphitrichous – when one or more flagella are at each end.
3. Monotrichous – when a single flagellum is attached at one end.
4. Peritrichous – when flagella are scattered all over the cell surface.

Most plant pathogenic bacteria are rod-shaped, aerobic, flagellated, Gram-

negative, and non-spore forming. There are some exceptions such as: (a).
Streptomyces spp. Which are filamentous like a mold but their biochemical and
physiological properties are like bacteria; (b) the genus Corynebacterium (cause of
canker in tomato) is Gram-positive; (c) the anaerobic and spore-forming Clostridia which
were implicated in bacterial soft rot of potato.
1. Genera and Species of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria

There used to be only five major genera of plant pathogenic bacteria. Currently,
there are 29 known genera of plant pathogenic bacteria as shown in the list below
(Natural, 2000).

Acetobacter Pectobacterium

Acidovorax Pseudomonas

Agrobacterium Ralstonia

Arthrobacter Rathayibacter

Bacillus Rhizobacter

Brenneria Rhodococcus

Burkholderia Sphingonomas (Rhizomonas)

Clavibacter Serratia

Clostridium Spiroplasma

Corynebacterium Streptomyces

Curtobacterium Xanthomonas

Enterobacter Xylella

Erwinia Xylophilus

Gluconobacter

Nocardia

2. Symptoms Caused by Bacteria

1. Leaf Spot
- Bacteria colonize the subtomatal cavities and parenchyma cells of leaves
causing localized lesions.
- Ex. Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria – leaf spot of tomato and
pepper
Pseudomonas syringae pv. mori – leaf spot of mulberry

2. Soft Rot
- The causal bacteria produce hydrolytica enzymes that degrade the middle
lamellae and cell walls of the host. A soft, slimy, watery decay results.
- Ex. Pectobacterium carotovorum pv carotovorum – bacterial soft rot of
vegestable

3. Blight
- A rapid growth and advance of the causal bacteria through leaves and
stems cause a general necrosis or blight.
- Ex. Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci – cause tobacco wildfire
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachiae – bacterial blight of
anthurium

4. Gall
- Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia of meristematic and parencymatous tissues
result in the formation of galls.
- Ex. Agrobacterium tumefaciens – crown gall of roses.
 5. Canker
- Phloem and parenchyma tissues become sunken, dry up anf die.
- Ex. Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri – citrus canker

6. Wilting
- Vascular disorders involving mainly the xylem vessels result in wilting as
the bacteria multiply and block the normal flow of water.
- Ex. Ralstonia solanacearum – wilt of solanaceous and non-solanaceous
plants.
Pantonea stewartii subsp. stewartii - bacterial wilt of corn

Other symptoms such as scab and chlorosis may also appear in plants infected
by bacteria. A bacterial pathogen may cause one or more symptoms in the host.

Control of Bacterial Diseases of Plants

a. Cultural Practices
a.1. Sanitation to reduce inoculum levels

a.2. Crop Rotation for bacterial pathogen that do not have a wide host range

a.3. Proper watering and drainage to inhibit infection and disease spread

b. Seed treatment by soaking in a weak acid solution or in sodium hypochlorite

eliminates surface pathogens.

PLANT PATHOGENIC MOLLICUTES

1. General characteristics of Plant Pathogenic Mollicutes

a. Similar to bacteria but do not have cell wall

b. Have a unit of plasma membrane that is 9-12 mm thick
c. May cause disease in plants in arthropods, and various other animals
including man.
d. The common symptoms caused by these pathogens are yellows,
virescene, stunting, phyllody and production of axilliary shoots and
adventitious roots.

2. Transmission of Mollicutes
a. Transmitted by insect vector (aphids, plant hopper, psyllids)
b. Transmitted mechanically by budding and grafting.

3. Diseased Caused by Mollicutes

a. Lethal yellowing of coconut trees
b. Citrus stubborn disease
c. Corn stunt
4. Management of Diseases Caused by Mollicutes
a. Use resistant cultivars or hybrids if available.
b. Control management for the insect vector
c. Use mollicutes-free planting materials
d. Use sanitation measures
d.1. cutting

d.2. burning diseased plant