Where do they meet?

Xiamen University, 26/10/2012

Christiane Nord, Prof. em. of Hochschule Magdeburg-
Stendal, Germany / Prof. extr. of UOFS Bloemfontein,
South Africa
Text typologies: what is their aim?
 Guide the translator in pre-translational text analysis
& help identify text-type related translation problems
(e.g., Newmark , other linguistic approaches)
 Provide criteria for the selection of translation strategy
and methodology (e.g., St. Jerome: Holy Scriptures vs.
profane texts)
 Establish a correlation between text type and
translation method (Katharina Reiss)

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Katharina Reiss (1971)
 In her seminal book The Possibilities & Limitations of Translation
Quality Assessment (Engl. Translation 2000, German original:
Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Übersetzungskritik, 1971), Katharina
Reiss first proposed a prescriptive translation-oriented text typology
based on the Organon Model of Language Functions developed by the
German psychologist Karl Bühler (Theory of Language. 1934).
 The classification includes the following text types:
 Texts in which the language function is predominantly
representational,
 Texts in which the language function is predominantly expressive,
 Texts in which the language function is predominantly appellative,
 Texts whose realization requires additional audiovisual means.

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Katharina Reiss (1971/2000) (1):
Equivalence as the rule
 In general, the translator aims at establishing equivalence between source and target
texts. This means:
 In the translation of an informative text (e.g, news texts, business correspondence,
instructions for use, official documents, technical texts, scholarly articles), the translator
must give a correct and complete representation of the text's content and should be
guided, in terms of stylistic choices, by the dominant norms of the target language and
culture.
 In the translation of an expressive text (= literary genres such as novels, short stories and
poetry), the translator must strive to produce an "analogy" of stylistic effect, allowing the
target reader to experience the same impression of the relationship between form and
content as the reader of the original. Here, stylistic choices in translation are naturally
guided by those made in the source text.
 In the translation of an appellative or operative text (e.g. advertisements, political
propaganda, satirical prose), the translator should be guided by the overall aim of
provoking the same reaction in the audience: for example to purchase the relevant
product or vote for a particular candidate. In this case, the translator may even change
the content and stylistic features of the original if they do not serve the intended
purpose.

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Katharina Reiss (2): Adequacy as
the exception
 There are two exceptions from the general purpose of achieving
equivalence between source and target text (type):
 When the target text is intended to achieve a purpose or function other
than that of the original (e.g., adaptations of prose texts for the stage,
translating Shakespeare's plays for the language class), functionality
(i.e. adequacy to the intended function) takes precedence over
equivalence.
 When the target text addresses an audience which is different from the
intended readership of the original (e.g., translating Gulliver’s Travels
for children, purifications motivated by religious, ideological, ethical
reasons), reader-orientation takes precedence over equivalence.

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 Skopos theory: Adequacy as the rule
(Vermeer 1978 and Reiss/Vermeer 1984)
 Vermeer 1978: A Framework for a General Theory of Translating and Interpreting (“Ein Rahmen für
eine allgemeine Translationstheorie”), article published in the journal Lebende Sprachen
 Reiss/Vermeer 1984: Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie (Toward a General Theory of
Translational Action, Manchester: St Jerome, forthcom. 2013)
 Skopos rule: The purpose of the target text determines the translation
method.
 Rule of intratextual coherence: In order to be acceptable for the target
audience, the target text must be coherent with the situation in which they
receive it.
 Rule of intertextual coherence: There must be a relationship between the
source and the target text, which is specified in each case according to the
translation brief. This relationship may vary between extreme fidelity to the
linguistic features of the source text and a formal or functional similarity or
analogy between the two texts.
 Reiss's text typology is integrated into the framework as a "specific theory",
where equivalence of text type is required by the translation skopos. =
equivalence as the exception
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Adequacy vs Equivalence
 Within the framework of Skopos Theorie, adequacy refers to
the qualities of a target text with regard to the translation brief:
the translation should be 'adequate to' the requirements of the
brief. It is a dynamic concept related to the process of
translational action and referring to the 'goal-oriented selection
of signs that are considered appropriate for the communicative
purpose defined in the translation assignment'.
 Equivalence, on the other hand, is a static, result-oriented
concept describing a relationship of 'equal communicative value'
between two texts or, on lower ranks, between words, phrases,
sentences, syntactic structures and so on. (Reiss 1983:1989)

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Basic concepts of Skopos theory
 Skopos = what the translator is aiming at in the
translation process (dynamic concept)
 Function = what the text means to a particular reader
in a particular moment of reception
 Intention = what the author or sender wants to achieve
 A text is an offer of information. A translation is a
target-language-and-culture offer of information
about a source-language-and-culture offer of
information. ( post-colonialism: negotiating
meaning)
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Culture and Culture-Specificity 1
 Culture is whatever one has to know, master or feel in
order to judge whether or not a particular form of
behaviour shown by members of a community in their
various roles conforms to general expectations, and in
order to behave in this community in accordance with
general expectations unless one is prepared to bear the
consequences of unaccepted behaviour.
 (Heinz GÖHRING (1978)‚ Interkulturelle Kommunikation: Die
Überwindung der Trennung von Fremdsprachen- und
Landeskundeunterricht durch einen integrierten
Fremdverhaltensunterricht‘, in Matthias Hartig (ed) Soziolinguistik,
Psycholinguistik. Kongreßberichte der 8. Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft
für Angewandte Linguistik, vol. 4, Stuttgart: Hochschulverlag, 9-14;
transl. C.N.).
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Culture and Culture-Specificity 2
 A culture is the entire setting of norms and conventions an
individual as a member of his society must know in order to be
'like everybody' – or to be able to be different from everybody.
(VERMEER, Hans J. (1987) What does it mean to translate?, Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics
13(2): 25-33).

 A culture-specific behaviour is one that is found to exist in a

particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being
compared. This does not mean that it exists only in that
particular culture. It does not mean either that all members of the
culture use this form of behaviour at any moment where it may be
appropriate. Culture-specific behaviouremes are "prototypical"
behaviour patterns.
(cf. Nord 1993, 20ff., transl. C.N.)

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Let's imagine a situation…

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 Rich points between cultures (M. Agar)
Culture A Culture B

CULTURE BARRIER
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Translation Brief
 According to Skopos Theory, the roles of initiator (or commissioner, client),
translator, source-text producer and target-text addressee are crucial for the
choice of translation methods and strategies.
 What the skopos states is that one must translate, consciously and
consistently, in accordance with some principle respecting the target text. The
theory does not state what the principle is: this must be decided separately in
each specific case. (Vermeer 1989)
 The basis of this decision is the actual translation situation, which can be
identified by the following questions: Who translates for whom when, where,
through which medium (orally, in written form) and for which purpose?
 The situation for which a translation is needed is described or defined
(explicitly or implicitly) by the translation brief.
 The translation brief does not tell the translator how to go about their
translating job. These decisions depend entirely on the translator’s
competence and responsibility.

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 Functional Typology of Translations
(Nord 1988 and later)
 Texts are intended for more than one function. There may be text
segments or even utterances aiming at different functions.
 Therefore, it does not make sense to establish text types on the basis of
predominant source-text functions. Instead, we suggest a functional
typology of translations related to the intended functions of the target
text.
 In a functional framework, translation units are elements of the source
text intended to fulfill a particular communicative function.
 Functional translation units are classified on the basis of Bühler's three
functions (referential, expressive, appellative) + Jakobson's phatic
function. (= 4-Function-Model)
 In pre-translational text analysis, the translator identifies functional
translation units and decides whether a unit can be reproduced as it is or
has to be adapted to the target situation defined in the translation brief.
 This procedure leads to a functional typology of translations that makes a
distinction between documentary and instrumental translation and their
respective subtypes.
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Function plus loyalty (Nord)
 In skopos theory, a source text may allow ANY translation
purpose, depending on the brief. ⇒The end justifies the
means (Reiss/Vermeer 1984)
 In the application of skopos theory to translator training
and practice, the acceptability of translation purposes is
limited by the translator's responsibility with regard to
her/his partners in the cooperative activity of translation
(principle of loyalty). (Nord 1989)
 Loyalty is an interpersonal category, whereas “faithfulness”
or “fidelity” refers to a relationship between two texts.

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The Four-Function Model
Function point of functionality working on account
reference of...
phatic sender-receiver shared conventions of phatic communication
relationship between sender and receiver [or clear
situational indicators of phatic function]
referential object shared knowledge about object + textual
information [+ situational indicators
between sender and receiver]
expressive sender shared value system and perspective between
sender and receiver or explicit expressivity
(verbal or nonverbal)
appellative receiver shared experience, sensitivity, world
knowledge, cultural knowledge, emotions,
values etc. between sender and receiver
Xiamen, 26/10/29012 C. Nord: Text Types and Skopos 16
Functions across cultures
works in target if not, the translator has two
Function culture if… options:
make ST
change the ST
PHATIC , − there are function work
function into a
for target
REFEREN- equal or meta-function
audience
TIAL, similar by commenting
on or explaining
EXPRES- conditions
SC behaviour in
SIVE, in both a paratext (e.g. in
by replacing SC
APPELLA- source and function markers
footnote, glossary
with TC function
TIVE target or other)
markers
FUNCTION culture

Xiamen, 26/10/29012 C. Nord: Text Types and Skopos 17

Functional translation typology (Nord)
INTERCULTURAL TEXT TRANSFER
Function The TT is a target-language The TT is an instrument for
of transla- documentation of a communication in the target
tion communicative interaction culture produced by processing
process realized in the source culture the information offer of the
source text
transla- DOCUMENTARY INSTRUMENTAL
tion type TRANSLATION TRANSLATION
Transla- inter- lite- philo- exoti- equi- hetero- homolo-
tion form linear ral logical cizing function function gous
. .

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 Interlineal (word-for-word) translation
Brief: Please give me a word-for-word translation of Wang Wei's poem into English.

Farewell (by Wang Wei)

Hill at mutual escort stop

Day dusk shut wood door
Spring grass next year green
Prince offspring return not return

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Literal translation
Brief: Please, translate Wang Wei's poem literally into English.

Farewell

We bid each other farewell beside the hill,

As day meets dusk, I close the wooden gate.
Next year, in spring, there will be green grass again,
But will my honoured friend return?

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 Philological translation
Brief: Please, translate this novel explaining all the culture references in footnotes.

 Hsi-feng rose to signify obedience. Taking the list she

read through it and marked The Resurrection1 and The
Rhapsody2. Handing it back she observed, "When
they've finished this Double Promotion3 there'll be just
time enough for these two."
 A scene from The Peony Pavilion, by the Ming playwright Tang Hsien-tsu.
1

 2 A scene from The Palace of Eternal Youth, by the Ching playwright Hung Sheng.
 3 A popular opera chosen for its suspicious title.

(Tsao Hsueh-Chin and Kao Hgo: A Dream of Red Mansions, vol. 1, chapter 11; transl. Yang
Hsien-Yi + Gladys Yang)

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 Exoticising translation
Brief: Please, translate this novel into English. Reduce cultural explanations to the
minimum. No footnotes permitted.

 Xi-feng politely rose to thank her, and taking the playbill

from You-she, scanned it through and picked out two of
the items listed: one a scene from The Return of the Soul
and the other 'Gui-nian Plays His Guitar' from The Palace
of Eternal Youth. 'If they do these two after they have
finished singing this scene from Faithful Bi-lian,' she said,
handing the playbill back to You-shi, 'I think that will be
just about enough for the day.'
 Cao Xueqin: The Story of the Stone, vol. 1, chapt. 11. Trans.
David Hawkes. (Penguin Classics)

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Equifunctional translations

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Heterofunctional translation
“Liebe geht durch den  “L‘amour passe par
Magen.” Dieser Spruch l‘estomac,” affirme un
findet in München seine proverbe allemand, qui
besondere Bestätigung… se trouve à Munich
amplement confirmé…
“The way to people‘s
 [literally: "Love passes
hearts is through their
through the stomach,"
stomachs,” it is said, and says a German proverb,
this proverb is perhaps which is well confirmed
particularly true in in Munich…]
Munich...

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Homologous translation
Brief: The German translation should give an impression of the poetic qualities
(including rhymes) of Wang Wei's poem.

Abschied

In den Bergen haben wir uns getrennt.

Spät am Tage schließ ich die Reisigtür.
Frühlingsgräser grünen auch nächstes
Jahr.
Hochverehrter, bist du dann wieder
hier?

From: Michael von Poser,

Chinesische Gedichte der
klassischen Zeit
Xiamen, 26/10/29012 C. Nord: Text Types and Skopos 25
Conclusions
 From a text-typological viewpoint, the type of the source-text
determines the translation method, and the result will be a target text
representing the same type (= equivalence of text type).
 From a skopos-theoretical perspective, it is the translation purpose that
determines the translation method. Therefore, a text typology does not
make sense unless the translation purpose requires functional text
equivalence.
 If the functions of the source text are not generally relevant for the
functions of the target text, a classification of functional translation
types makes more sense than a classification of (functional) text types.
 Translation types are the result of different translation strategies or
methods chosen in accordance with the translation skopos, as specified
in the translation brief.

Xiamen, 26/10/29012 C. Nord: Text Types and Skopos 26

 Thank you
for your
attention!

谢
谢！

Xiamen, 26/10/29012 C. Nord: Text Types and Skopos 27