Fundamentals of Bridge Design 

(Ceng 5131)

Lecture 4 Loads and  
Load Factors

Instructor Ato Tibebu H. Birhane

(tibebegnaw@yahoo.com)
Batch 5thh year Civil (Regular)
( )

Academic term Autumn (2004 E.C.)
 Loads and Load Factors

Loads
Permanent loads
Transient loads
Transient loads
Load Factors & Combinations for:
Strength limit state
Service limit State
Fatigue limit state
Extreme limit State
 Loads
The total factored force effect shall be taken 
The total factored force effect shall be taken
as[A3.4.1]:
Q  i i Qi
where:
i= load modifier
i = load factors 
Qi = force effects from specified loads
 Permanent Loads
Permanent Loads
Dead Loads: dead load of structural 
Dead Loads: dead load of structural
components and nonstructural attachments 
(DC) dead load of wearing surface and
(DC), dead load of wearing surface and 
utilities (DW)
Earth Pressure: vertical pressure from dead
Earth Pressure: vertical pressure from dead 
load of earth fill (EV), horizontal earth 
pressure load (EH) earth surcharge loads (ES)
pressure load (EH), earth surcharge loads (ES) 
& down drag (DD)
 Transient Loads
Transient Loads
 Moving loads : Vehicular live load (LL), Vehicular dynamic 
load allowance (IM), Pedestrian live loads (PL), Vehicular 
breaking force (VB), Vehicular centrifugal force (CE), 
Vehicular collusion force (CT) & Live load surcharge (LS)
 Water Loads: Water load and stream pressure (WA)
 Wind Loads: Wind on live load (WL), wind load on structure 
(WS)
 Earthquake (EQ)
 Forces due to superimposed deformations  : Temperature 
gradients (TG), Uniform temperature (TU), Settlement (SE) ,
gradients (TG), Uniform temperature (TU), Settlement (SE) , 
Shrinkage (SH) & Creep (CR)
 Friction (FR) 
 Vessel collision force (CV)
Vessel collision force (CV)
 Dead Loads [A 3.5.1]
Dead load include the weight of all components of the structure,
appurtenances and utilities attached thereto, earth cover,
wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening

The gravitation constant,      
The gravitation constant
g = 9.8006 m/sec2
 The density  of reinforced 
concrete is generally taken
concrete  is generally  taken  
as 72 kg/m3 greater  than  
the density of  plain concrete
 Dead Loads [E3.6]
Dead Loads [E3.6] 
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force Effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
The gravitation 
Cast Iron 7200 72
constant,   g = 
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6 9.81 m/sec2
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3 Force effect = 
unit weight
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steell 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
 PEDESTRIAN LOADS
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be 
) shall be
applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and 
considered simultaneously with the vehicular 
design live load
Where sidewalks are intended to be used by 
maintenance and/or other incidental vehicles, 
at least one movable axle load of 70 kN (w/o 
d
dynamic load allowance)  acting together with 
i l d ll ) i h ih
the pedestrian load shall be applied
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Traffic lane
Traffic lane
Design lane (width = 3.6 m)

Number of design leans [E 3.8, A 3.6.1.1.1] : 
b fd i l [ 38 36 ]
 Clear roadway width 
N L  integral part of  
 3 .6 

If the traffic lanes are less than 3.6m wide, the 
If the traffic lanes are less than 3 6m wide the
width of the design lane shall be taken as the 
width of the traffic lane
width of the traffic lane.
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Design Vehicular load:
Design Vehicular load: 
Notional, designated as HL‐93
shall consist of a combination of the:
shall consist of a combination of the:
1. design truck or design tandem, and
2 design lane load 
2. design lane load
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
HL 93 design truck
HL‐93 design truck
 Axle loads
Front axle: P/4
F t l P/4
Middle axle: P
Rare axle: P
 Wheel load : P/2
 Weight of the truck
2.25P
=2.25P
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Design Tandem
Design Tandem
Consist of a pair of 110 kN axles spaced  at 1.2 m 
apart.
apart
The transverse spacing of wheels =1.8 m.
Design lane load (UDL = 3.1kN/m
Design lane load (UDL = 3 1kN/m2)
Uniformly distributed over a 3.0‐m width in the 
transverse direction
transverse direction.
Equivalent to a uniformly distributed line load of 
9 3 kN/m in the longitudinal direction
9.3 kN/m, in the longitudinal direction. 
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Live Load for deflection: for deflection control, 
Live Load for deflection: for deflection control
live load deflection should be evaluated from
The design truck alone, or
The design truck alone or
25 % of the design truck taken together with the 
design lane load
design lane load
Fatigue load
Design Truck, but with a constant spacing of 9.0 m 
D i T k b t ith t t i f90
between the 145 kN axles. 
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Multiple Presence of Live Load [E3.8, and 
Multiple Presence of Live Load [E3 8 and
A3.6.1.1.1]
The extreme live load force effect shall be
The extreme live load force effect shall be 
determined by considering each possible 
combination of number of loaded lanes
combination of number of loaded lanes 
multiplied by multiple presence factors, m.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple
p Presence Factors [[m]] 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
 Vehicular Live Load (LL)
Vehicular Live Load (LL)
The multiple presence factors were developed 
The multiple presence factors were developed
based on an ADTT of 5000 trucks in one direction
If 100  ADTT 
 If 100  ADTT  1000;  95 %
1000; 95 % of the specified force 
of the specified force
effect shall be used; and
 If ADTT < 100; 90 %
If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect 
of the specified force effect
shall be used.
 This adjustment is based on the reduced 
This adjustment is based on the reduced
probability of attaining the design event during a 
75‐year
75 year design life with reduced truck volume
design life with reduced truck volume
 Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance (IM)
Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance (IM

Applied for design tandem and design truck 
Applied for design tandem and design truck
loads only, not for design lane loads

Components Limit States IM

D k joints
Deck j i t All limit
li it state
t t 75%
Fatigue and fracture
All other  limit state 15 %
components All other limit state 33 %
 Vehicular Centrifugal Force (CF)
Vehicular Centrifugal Force (CF)
 Centrifugal force, CF:
 4v 2 
CF  LL 
 3 gR 
where: v = highway design speed (m/s) 
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2) 
R radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)
LL = weight of design truck or design tandem
 Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a distance 
1 8 m above the roadway surface.
1.8 m above the road a s rface
 Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force
 Vehicular Braking Force (BF)
 The braking force, BF
 v2 
BF  W  
 2 ga 
where a = the length of uniform deceleration [m]
w = weight of vehicle
 Only the design truck or tandem are to be considered
because other vehicles,, represented
p byy the design
g lane
load, are expected to brake out of phase.
 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle
weights of the design truck or tandem per lane placed
in all design lanes with traffic headed in the same
direction.
 Braking forces act horizontally at the level of the
roadway surface in either longitudinal direction
 Temperature
The extreme daily temperature range
The extreme daily temperature range varies 
varies
between 20c and 40c, but is close to 30C 
for most places in Ethiopia
for most places in Ethiopia.
Steel or  Concrete Wood
Aluminum
l
‐5o to 50oC 5o to 35oC 0o to 35oC
 Earth Pressure
Earth Pressure
Horizontal Earth Pressure (HE)
Horizontal Earth Pressure (HE)
Earth Surcharge (ES)
 i
Live Load Surcharge (LS)
dS h ( S)
Downdrag (DD)

H
HE = ksH

ES = sH
Un‐retained soil
Retained soil
 Horizontal Earth Pressure (HE)
Horizontal Earth Pressure (HE)

Using simplified linear pressure distribution, the lateral 
earth pressure at z distance from free surface:
p ( z )  k h s z
 Live Load Surcharge (LS)
heq p

The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load 
p
surcharge shall be estimated as:

 p  k h s heq
 Live Load Surcharge (LS)
Live Load Surcharge (LS)
Equivalent height of soil, h
Equivalent height of soil, heq for different wall heights 
for different wall heights
due to vehicular loading

Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)

1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760
9000 610
 Water Loads (WA)
Water Loads (WA)
Water pressure on substructure due to water
flowing at an angle, , to the longitudinal axis of
the pier
 Water Loads (WA)
Water Loads (WA)
Equivalent uniformly distributed longitudinal 
Equivalent uniformly distributed longitudinal
water pressure:
4
p  5.14 *10 C D v 2

where:
p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)
CD = drag coefficient for piers
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the 
design flood
 Water Loads (WA)
( )
Type CD
Semicircular‐nosed pier 0.7
Square‐ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 14
1.4
Wedged‐nosed pier with nose angle < 90o 0.8
 Water Loads (WA)
Water Loads (WA)
Uniformly distributed lateral water pressure:
Uniformly distributed lateral water pressure:
4
PL  5.14 *10 C L v 2

Where: 
h
PL = lateral pressure (MPa)
CL = lateral drag coefficient 

 (degree) 0 1 10 20 >30
CL 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0
 Wind load
Wind load
Wind load on live load (WL)
Wind load on live load (WL)
Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by 
an interruptible moving force of 1 5 kN/m acting
an interruptible, moving force of 1.5 kN/m acting 
normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and 
shall be transmitted to the structure.
This is based on a long row of randomly 
sequenced passenger cars, commercial vans, and 
trucks exposed to 25 m/s design wind speed.
 Wind load
Wind load
Wind load on Structure(WS)
Wind load on Structure(WS)
 For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 
50m length the wind load on structures shall be
50m length the wind load on structures shall be 
neglected
Earthquake Forces (EQ)
Earthquake Forces (EQ)
Seismic Hazard 
Se s c a a d
map of Ethiopia
Seismic source: 
active fault of 
East African Rift 
Valley
 Earthquake Forces (EQ)
Earthquake Forces (EQ)
EBCS zone Acceleration Coefficient
 Peak ground Acceleration 
ea g ou d cce e at o
1 A  0.03 coefficient:
2 0.03 < A  0.05 ag
A[  0 ] 
3 0.05 < A  0.07 g
4 0.07 < A  0.10 Spectral Acceleration:
1.2 AS
Csm [ sd ]  2/3
 2.5 A
Tm

Lateral seismic force:
EQ  csm w
 Combinations: Strength LS
g
Limit State Conditions
STRENGTH I For normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.
STRENGTH II For the bridge used by ERA-specified permit vehicles, without wind.
STRENGTH III For the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h (25 m/s) .
STRENGTH IV For a bridge subjected to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.
ratios
STRENGTH V For normal vehicular use of a bridge with wind of 90 km/h velocity
 Combinations: Service LS
Limit State Conditions
SERVICE I For normal operational use of the bridge with a 25 m/s wind
(deflection and crack control in RC structures)
SERVICE II To control yielding of steel structures and slip critical connections due to
vehicular live load.
SERVICE III To control tension in prestressed concrete structures with the objective of
crack control.
 Combinations: Extreme event LS
Combinations: Extreme event LS
Limit State Conditions
EXTREME EVENT I For bridges subjected to Earthquakes.
EXTREME EVENT II For bridges subjected to Impact (collision)
 Combinations: Fatigue LS
Combinations: Fatigue LS
To control fatigue and fracture under
repetitive gravitational vehicular live load
Combination: 0.75
0 75 (LL + IM + CE)
 Permanent Load Factors, p

Example for  strength I LS 
Favorable  condition:      0.9DC + 0.65DW + 0(LL+IM)
Unfavorable condition:  1.25DC + 1.5DW + 1.75(LL+IM)