Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Unit 1 : Overview of Substations

What is a substation and why it is needed?

A substation is the intermediate means between high voltage transmission or distribution and
end user including connecting generators, transmission or distribution lines, and loads to each
other, and generally stepping higher voltages down to lower voltages to meet specific
customer requirements. For example we cannot use electricity directly form 11 KV power
line or 33 KV power line. In order to use energy from these lines we would have to get power
through substation from these lines. Therefore it is required to install a substation there. Also
if we want to transmit electrical energy over long distance, then it is also required to install a
substation to get high voltage for transmission. Also a substation is required for the control of
energy i.e. changing frequency, converting from ac into dc or inverting from dc into ac, for
switching of different feeders and transmission lines etc. Substation can be as simple as one
pole mounted transformer near our homes and villages or factory and as complex as several
power transformers, auxiliary transformers, CTs, PTs, circuit breakers, isolators, bus-bars,
LPS, LT panel , HT panel , PFI plant , AVS , IVS , ATS , HT cable , LT cable, MDB board ,
SDB board , IPS , & others small & heavy electrical equipments all in one yard. Yet both
you can call substations.

Elements of a substation
A: Primary power lines' side B: Secondary power lines' side
1. Primary power lines
2. Ground wire
3. Overhead lines
4. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
5. Disconnect switch
6. Circuit breaker
7. Current transformer
8. Lightning arrester
9. Main transformer
10. Control building
11. Security fence
12. Secondary power lines

To conclude, substation is an integral part of a power system. The continuity of electric

energy supply system is solely depending on substation. So, enough care should be taken
when designing and set upping a sub-station in a suitable place. Some points are as
follows-
The substation must have the chance of easy operation and maintenance.
The place must be proper for setup a substation. It must be setup near the centre of load.
The substation must have enough safety apparatus or safety setup. There must be enough
chance for running the maintenance and clearing process. Also there should be setup for fire

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

protection.
The system must be reliable. When designing protected gears and other instruments must
be included. The construction process also maintained properly for reliable operation.
The capital cost must be as low as possible.

Types of substation-
1. Transmission substation
2. Distribution substation
3. Collector substation
4. Converter substations
5. Switching station
1. Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines.The simplest case
is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. Transmission substations can range
from simple to complex. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow
lines to be- connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station
may have transformers to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage
control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAR
compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow
between two adjacent power systems. The largest transmission substations can cover a large
area with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers. Today, transmission-level voltages
are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV,
are usually considered sub-transmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with
light loads. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different
designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.

2. Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the
distribution system of an area. The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two
transmission or sub transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or
whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution substation
typically operates at medium voltage levels, between 2.4 kV-33 kV. The feeders run along
streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at
or near the customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations
also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations
are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of several
miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. The
downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. A distribution
substation is a combination of switching, controlling, and voltage step-down equipment
arranged to reduce sub-transmission voltage to primary distribution voltage for residential,
farm, commercial, and industrial loads.

Distribution substation is generally comprised of the following major components:

Supply Line
Transformers
Bus-bars
Switchgear
Out-coming feeders
Switching apparatus
Switches
Fuses
Circuit breakers
Surge voltage protection
Grounding

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

3. Converter substations
Electrical machines or equipments operated on DC voltages from home to industrial
applications. A converter station converts electricity between Alternating Current (AC) and
Direct Current
for sending electricity. Converter substations may be associated with High Voltage DC
(HVDC) converter plants, traction current, or interconnected non-synchronous networks.
These stations contain power electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else
convert from alternating to direct current or the reverse. Direct current or HVDC (high
voltage direct current) links are used for exchanges between countries exclusively on a
transmission network level. In DC power transmission lines, converter substations are used to
convert a three-phase current to a direct current (rectification) at the sending end of the line
and to achieve a reverse conversion (inversion) at the receiving end of the line. Converter
stations are located at the terminals of a DC transmission line. Sometimes converter stations
are located at a generation power plant or at transmission substations. Two unsynchronized
AC transmission systems can be connected together with converter stations. Converter
stations are also found in most substations for converting the emergency battery back-up
system to AC power for use in an emergency.
Several different levels of project costs have been incurred for a HVDC system with a
power transfer capacity around 200kV to 600 MW. Different types of converter station used
for DC end.
HVDC converter station
Traction substation
Rotary converter or synchronous converter
Static converter i.e. Thyristor, Rectifier, Inverter station etc.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

4. Collector substation
To build a wind farm, a solar farm or hydroelectric plants need a collector substation
to tie all the generators and connect them to the power grid. It looks like a distribution
substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines or solar
cells up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system
operates around 35 kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission
voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it
is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector
substation can also contain an HVDC converter station. Collector substations also exist where
multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of comparable output power are in proximity.
The collector system is comprised of many components. Transformer, high voltage
conductors (underground or overhead), sensor (current, voltage, thermal and magnetic),
Lightning protection, grounding system, circuit breakers and switches, monitoring system
etc.

5. Switching station
A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single
voltage level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing
circuits in case of failure. A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these
are commonly located directly adjacent to or nearby a power station. In this case the
generators from the power station supply their power into the yard onto the Generator Bus on
one side of the yard, and the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder Bus on the
other side of the yard.
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the
connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the
system. Unplanned switching events are caused by a fault in a transmission line or any other
component, for example:
a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc,
a tower is blown down by high wind.
The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulty portion of the system in the
shortest possible time. De-energizing faulty equipment protects it from further damage, and
isolating a fault helps keep the rest of the electrical grid operating with stability.

Classification of substation
The substations can be classified in several ways including the following:

1. Classification based on voltage levels

A.C. Substation : HV (between 33 KV and 66 kV),
EHV (132 kV and 400 kV),
UHV (above 400 kV),
MV/ distribution substation/public substation (2kV to 33kV),
LV/private substation (220V and 440V),
HVDC Substation.
2. Classification based on construction features
Outdoor substation It is under open sky (rated voltage
beyond 66kV).
Indoor substation This is inside a building (rated
voltage beyond 11kV).
Mining Substation Needs special design consideration because of extra
precaution for safety needed in the operation of electric supply.
Mobile Substation Temporary requirement.
Pole Substation This is an outdoor substation with equipment installed
overhead on H- pole or 4-pole structure.
3. Classification based on configuration
AIS Conventional Air insulated outdoor substation (up to 800 kV)
GIS SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
Composite This types of substations having combination of the above
two
4. Classification based on application
Step Up Substation Associated with generating station as the
generating voltage is low.
Primary Grid Substation Created at suitable load centre along

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primary transmission lines. (Step down 66kV from 220 kV)

Secondary Substation Along secondary transmission line (step down to
11 kV).
Distribution Substation Created where the transmission line voltage is
step down to supply voltage. Bulk supply and
industrial substation Similar to distribution
sub-station but created separately for each
consumer. 11kV delivered to distribution
substation
5. Classification based on services
Power-factor Substation They improve the power-factor of the system
by using synchronous condensers.
Frequency Substation Those substations which
change supply frequency
Industrial Substation Those substations which supply
power to industries

Selection of site:
Selection of site for construction of a Grid Substation is the first and important activity.
This needs meticulous planning, fore-sight, skillful observation and handling so that the
selected site is technically, environmentally, economically and socially optimal and is the
best suited to the requirements.
The main points to be considered in the selection of site for construction of a Grid
Substation are given below.
The site should be:
a) As near the load centre as possible.
b) Far away from obstructions, to permit easy and safe approach/termination of high
voltage overhead transmission lines.
c) Sufficient land area.
d) Necessary clearances for electrical safety.
e) Access to maintain large apparatus such as transformers.
f) The site must have room for expansion due to load growth or planned
transmission additions.
g) Environmental effects ( drainage, noise and road traffic effects.
h) Grounding must be taking into account to protect passers-by during a short-
circuit in the transmission system.
i) The substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be
served.
1. Security of supply
In an ideal situation all circuits and substation equipment would be duplicated such that
following a fault or during maintenance a connection remains available. This would involve

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very high cost. Methods have therefore been adopted to achieve a compromise between
complete security of supply and capital investment. A measure of circuit duplication is
adopted whilst recognizing that duplication may itself reduce the security of supply by, for
example, providing additional leakage paths to earth.

2. Extendibility
The design should allow for future extendibility. Adding bays of switchgear to a
substation is normally possible and care must be taken to minimize the out- ages and outage
durations for construction and commissioning. Where future extension is likely to involve
major changes (such as from a single to double busbar arrangement) then it is best to install
the final arrangement at the outset because of the disruption involved. When minor changes
such as the addition of overhead line or cable feeder bays are required then busbar

outage disruption. The use of gas insulated switchgear (GIS) tends to lock the user into the
r for any future exten- sion work. In comparison
an open terminal switchyard arrangement allows the user a choice of switchgear for future
extension work.

3. Maintainability
The design must take into account the electricity supply company system plan- ning and
operations procedures together with knowledge of reliability and maintenance requirements
for the proposed substation equipment. The need for circuit breaker disconnector bypass
facilities may therefore be obviated by an understanding of the relative short maintenance
periods for modern switchgear. Portable earthing points and earthing switch/interlock
requirements will also need careful consideration. In a similar way the layout must allow easy
access for winching gear, mobile cranes or other lifting devices if maintenance down- times
are to be kept to a minimum. Similarly standard minimum clearances must be maintained for
safe working access to equipment adjacent to operational live switchgear circuits or
switchgear bays, bearing in mind that some safety authorities now resist the use of ladder
working and require access from mobile elevated working platforms or scaffolding.
4. Operational flexibility
The physical layout of individual circuits and groups of circuits must permit the required
power flow control. In a two transformer substation operation of either or both transformers
on one infeed together with the facility to take out of serv- ice and restore to service either
transformer without loss of supply would be a normal design consideration. In general a
multiple busbar arrangement will provide greater flexibility than a ring busbar.

5. Protection arrangements
The design must allow for the protection of each system element by provision of suitable
CT locations to ensure overlapping of protection zones. The number of circuit breakers that
require to be tripped following a fault, the auto-reclose arrangements, the type of protection
and extent and type of mechanical or electrical interlocking must be considered.

6. Short circuit limitations

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

In order to keep fault levels down parallel connections (transformers or power sources
feeding the substation) should be avoided. Multi-busbar arrangements with sectioning
facilities allow the system to be split or connected through a fault limiting reactor. It is also
possible to split system using circuit breakers in a mesh or ring type substation layout
although this requires careful planning and operational procedures.

7. Land area
The cost of purchasing a plot of land in a densely populated area is considerable.
Therefore there is a trend towards compact substation design. This is made possible by the
use of indoor gas insulated switchgear (GIS) substation designs or by using such
configurations as the transformer-feeder substation layout. In addition compact design
reduces civil work activities (site preparation, building costs, requirements for concrete cable
trenches, surfacing and access roads).
Long multicore control cable runs and switchyard earth grid requirements are also
reduced. The reduction in site work by using compact layouts and in particular by using
modular elements results in an overall shorter substation project design and construction
duration to the advantage of the client.

8. Cost
A satisfactory cost comparison between different substation layout designs is extremely
difficult because of the differences in performance and maintainability. It is preferable to
base a decision for a particular layout on technical grounds and then to determine the most
economical means of achieving these technical requirements.
Busbar span lengths of about 50 m tend to give an economical design. However, the
gantry structures involved have a high environmental impact and the current trend is for low
profile substations. Tubular busbars tend to offer cost advantages over tensioned conductor
for busbar currents in excess of 3000 A. Taking into account some of the factors mentioned
and the
consider that a 400 kV GIS substation may produce overall savings when compared to a
conventional open terminal arrangement, although this varies greatly dependent on site and
territory and the reduced bay centres can result in clearance difficulties where there are
incoming overhead lines.

The use of circuit breakers with CTs in the appropriate bushings, available up to 275 kV,
saves the use of separate post-CTs, with their associated plant, structural, civil and space
costs, and may result in overall economy compared to the use of initially cheaper breakers
without this facility.

CONDUCTORS
Conduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors,
plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and Conductive polymers.

Copper has a high conductivity. Annealed copper is the international standard to which all
other electrical conductors are compared. The main grade of copper used for electrical

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applications, such as building wire, motor windings, cables and bus bars, is electrolytic-tough
pitch (ETP) copper.

If high conductivity copper must be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere,

then oxygen-free high conductivity copper may be used. Because of its ease of connection by
soldering or clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.

Silver is more 'conductive' than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases.
However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate
skin effect losses at high frequencies.

Aluminum wire, which has 61% of the conductivity of copper, has been used in building
wiring for its lower cost. By weight, aluminum has higher conductivity than copper, but it has
properties that cause problems when used for building wiring. It can form a resistive oxide
within connections that makes wiring terminals heat. Aluminum can "creep", slowly deforming
under load, eventually causing device connections to loosen, and also has a different
coefficient of thermal expansion compared to materials used for connections. This accelerates
the loosening of connections. These effects can be avoided by using wiring devices approved for
use with aluminum.

Aluminum wires used for low voltage distribution, such as buried cables and service
drops, require use of compatible connectors and installation methods to prevent heating at joints.
Aluminum is also the most common metal used in high-voltage transmission lines, in
combination with steel as structural reinforcement.

TYPES OF CONDUCTORS:
There is no unique process by which all transmission and/or distribution lines are
designed. It is clear, however, that all major cost components of line design depend upon the
conductor electrical and mechanical parameters.

There are four major types of overhead conductors used for electrical transmission and
distribution.

AAC - All Aluminum Conductor

AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor

ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Aluminum-Alloy Reinforced

In India, ACSR and AAAC conductors are commonly used for transmission of
power on overhead lines for transmission and distribution system. Conductors constitutes
about 30% to 40% of total cost of overhead EHV transmission lines and type of conductors
plays an important role in quantum of power flow, Transmission & Distribution (T&D)
losses, height & design of towers, span length, and hence cost of the transmission line.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

The various combinations and modifications of these conductor types provide a wide
variety of possible conductor designs.

AAC - All Aluminum Conductor, sometimes referred to as ASC, Aluminum Stranded

Conductor, is made up of one or more strands of Alloy Aluminum in the hard drawn temper.
Aluminum Alloy, previously known as EC grade or electrical conductor grade aluminum, has a
minimum conductivity. Because of its relatively poor strength- to-weight ratio, AAC has had
limited use in transmission lines and rural distribution because of the long spans utilized.
However, AAC has seen extensive use in urban areas where spans are usually short but high
conductivity is required. The excellent corrosion resistance of aluminum has made AAC a
conductor of choice in coastal areas.

Fig. AAC Conductor

ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced, a standard of the electrical utility
industry since the early 1900's, consists of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by one or
more layers of strands of aluminum. Historically, the amount of steel used to obtain higher strength
soon increased to a substantial portion of the cross-section of the ACSR, but more recently, as
conductors have become larger, the trend has been to less steel content. To meet varying
requirements, ACSR is available in a wide range of steel content - from 7% by weight for the
36/1 stranding to 40% for the 30/7 stranding.
The inner-core wires of ACSR may be of zinc coated (galvanized) steel, available in
standard weight Class A coating or heavier coatings of Class B or Class C. Class B coatings are
about twice the thickness of Class A, and Class C coatings about three times as thick as Class A.
The inner cores may also be of aluminum coated (aluminized) steel or aluminum clad steel. The
latter produces a conductor designated as ACSR/AW in which the aluminum cladding comprises
25% of the area of the wire, with a minimum coating thickness of 10% of the overall radius. The
reinforcing wires may be in a central core or distributed throughout the cable. Galvanized or
aluminized coats are thin, and are applied to reduce corrosion of the steel wires.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Fig. ACSR Conductor

AAAC - A high strength Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon Alloy Cable was developed to
replace the high strength ACSR conductors. Originally called AAAC (All Alloy Aluminium
Conductor), this alloy conductor offers excellent electrical characteristics excellent sag-tension
characteristics and superior corrosion resistance to that of ACSR.

Aluminum alloy conductors also exhibit substantially better electrical loss characteristics than
their equivalent single layer ACSR constructions. However, the thermal coefficient of expansion
is greater than that of ACSR. As with AAC conductors, the maximum short circuit temperature of
these conductors must be kept below 340°C to prevent dangerous conductor annealing.
As compared to ACSR, AAAC's ligher weight, comparable strength and current carrying
capacity, lower electrical losses and superior corrosion resistance have given this conductor wide
acceptance as a distribution conductor. It has found limited use, however, as a transmission
conductor.

Fig. AAAC Conductor

ACAR - (Aluminum Conductor-Aluminum Alloy Reinforced) - ACAR combines AAC and AAAC
aluminum alloy strands to provide a transmission conductor with an excellent balance of

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

electrical and mechanical properties. This conductor consists of one or more layers of aluminum
strands helically wrapped over one or more aluminum alloy wires. The core may consist of one or
more strands. ACAR is a composite aluminum-aluminum alloy conductor which is designed for
each application to optimize properties. Inverse ACAR conductors are also available with the
harder aluminum alloy wires being on the outer surface of the conductor and the aluminum
making up the heart of the conductor.

Fig. ACAR Conductor

AACSR - (Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced) - is an ACSR with the aluminum wires
replaced by aluminum alloy wires. The high tensile strength of the wires combined with the high
strength of steel provides an exceptionally high strength conductor with good conductivity. AACSR
conductors have approximately 40% to 60% more strength than comparable standard ACSR
conductors of equivalent stranding, with only an 8- 10% decrease in conductivity. AACSR is
available with all core types specified for use with standard ACSR.
SSAC - (Steel Supported Aluminum Cable) - SSAC conductor was designed for use as a
replacement conductor in upgrading existing transmission and distribution lines with minimum
capital outlay. The premise of design is higher conductor operating temperature without
detrimental annealing of the aluminum in standard ACSR causing a loss of strength in the
aluminum. SSAC conductor is an aluminum-steel composite conductor resembling standard
ACSR in appearance, stranding and overall diameter. This is the extent of their similarities
however. SSAC uses fully annealed aluminum strands conductivity rather than the traditional hard
drawn aluminum used in standard ACSR. The steel core may be made of conventional or
extra high strength steel core wire. Compared to an equal size ACSR, SSAC has a lower
resistance, lower breaking strength, lower creep elongation and lower elastic modulus. SSAC can
be operated at temperatures as high as 250°C without loss of strength and can be strung at higher
unloaded percentage tensions because of its good self damping characteristics.
Even though SSAC has better conductivity, a higher operating temperature and improved
damping characteristics when compared to conventional ACSR, it has a lower breaking
strength, typically yielding greater initial and final sags. It is, however, a good conductor to
consider for line upgrades if the calculated present worth of electrical losses shows a savings
over line conversion cost.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Expanded ACSR - This conductor is designed to be used where large diameter single
conductors are required to reduce the electrical stress gradient at the surface of the conductor to
provide corona-free operation. Expanded ACSR is used when a single conductor rather than a
conductor bundle is used at EHV voltage levels. Expanded ACSR is specially fabricated to
have a larger outside diameter than could be achieved using the circular mil area of aluminum
required. Expansion is achieved by the use of oversized wires widely spaced in successive wire
layers near the core. Expansion has also been achieved by the use of extruded metal shapes and
various rope, paper or jute fillers. Expanded conductors can offer improved sag characteristics as
well as efficient design. Because of the precise fabrication techniques required to manufacture
expanded conductors and a history of installation problems, these conductors have not been
widely used.
Single Line Diagram
Any complex power system even though they are three phase circuits, can be represented by a
single line diagram, showing various electrical components of power system and their
interconnection. In single line representation of substation the electrical components such as power
transformers, incoming and outgoing lines, bus-bars, switching and protecting equipments, are
represented by standard symbols and their interconnections between them are shown by lines.
Single line diagrams are useful in planning a substation layout.
Some of the standard symbols used to represent substation components are given in Table below.
Sl Electrical components Symbols
No
1 AC Generator

2 Bus Bar

3 Power transformer -Two

winding

4 Three winding transformer

5 Current Transformer (CT)

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

6 Voltage transformer or
Potential transformer (PT)

7 Circuit Breaker (CB)

8 Circuit breaker with isolator

9 Isolator or Group Operating

Switch(GOS)

10 Lighting Arrestor (LA)

Or

11 Earth Switch (ES)

13 Wave or Line trap

EARTHING
Provision of adequate earthing in a substation and switching stations are very
important for the safety of operating personnel as well a electrical devices do not rise above
tolerable thresholds and that the earth connection is rugged to dissipate the fault to the earth.
The importance of an effective, durable and a dependable earth for ensuring safety from
electrical hazards does not require to be elaborated upon more. By earthing, connecting the
electrical equipment to the general mass of the earth, this has a very low resistance.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

4.1 PURPOSE OF SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM

The object of an earthing system in a substation is to provide under and around the
substation a surface that shall be at a uniform potential and near zero or absolute earth
potential as possible. The provision of such a surface of uniform potential under and around
the substation ensure that no human being in the substation subject in shock of injury on the
occurrence of a short circuit or development of other abnormal conditions in the equipment
installed in the yard.
The primary requirements of a good earthing system in a substation are:
a. It is stabilize circuit potentials with respect to ground and limit the overall potential
rise.
b. It is protect life and property from over voltage.
c. It is provide low impedance path to fault currents to ensure prompt and consistent
operation of protective devices during ground faults.
d. It is keep the maximum voltage gradient along the surface inside and around the
substation within safe limits during ground fault.
4.2 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE RESISTANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM
Large power station : 0.5 ohms.
Major sub-station : 1.0 ohms.
Small sub-station : 2.0 ohms.
In all other cases : 8.0 ohms.
The earth continuity inside an installation : 1.0 ohms.

Remote Touch Voltage: The potential difference between a connected conductor (e.g. a
metallic sheath or pipe) and earth at a remote point when the object is earthed both in the
substation and also at the remote end.
Step Voltage: Potential differences are established on the surface of the soil whilst fault
current is flowing. Step Voltage in a particular direction is defined as the potential difference
between two points a metre apart. Step potentials can be reduced by using potential grading
electrodes or installing electrodes at a greater depth.
Transfer Potential: A potential rise of an earthing system caused by a current flowing to
earth, transferred by means of a connected conductor (e.g. a metallic sheath or pipe), which
enters an area, with little or no potential rise relative to reference earth, and which is not
connected to earth in that area. This results in a potential difference occurring between the
conductor and its surroundings at the remote position.
Touch Voltage: The potential difference between any item of metalwork and the soil around
it (creating a hand-to-feet voltage difference) during the time that fault current flows. Touch
voltages are calculated assuming that the feet of the person are 1m away from the metalwork
being touched. Touch voltages are normally reduced by using potential grading electrodes
such as buried copper tape or meshes intended to equalise potentials around equipment.
Ground potential rise (GPR): The maximum electrical potential that a substation grounding
grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote
earth. This voltage, GPR, is equal to the maximum grid current times the grid resistance.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Mesh voltage (Em): The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.

Metal-to-metal touch voltage (Emm): The difference in potential between metallic objects
or structures within the substation site that may be bridged by direct hand-to-hand or hand-to-
feet contact.
Transferred voltage (Etfrd): The voltage which is transferred into or out of the substation
from or to a remote point external to the substation site. It is a particular case of step voltage
The diagram in Figure 1 shows the phenomena referred above.

In order to minimize to acceptable values of the currents through the human body, to ensure
electrical safety for people working within or near the installation, and also to limit any eventual
electrical interference with third-party equipment, AIS must be provided with an earthing (or
grounding) system, to which all metallic non-live parts of the installation must be connected, such
as metallic structures, earthing switches, surge arresters, enclosures of switchboards and motors,
transformers rails and metallic fences.

Since earthing has an influence on the levels of power system over voltages and fault current, and
the definition of protection systems, earthing system must be designed to ensure that there is
proper operation of the protective devices such as protective relaying and surge arresters.

Design and construction of earthing system must assure that system performs for the expected life
of the installation and it must therefore take into account future additions and the maximum fault
current for the ultimate configuration.

Earthing system is made of a mesh of buried bare copper cable, with additional earth rods, and
shall be calculated, being recommended to use IEEE Std. 80-2000.

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

Important formulas for designing a Substation Grid Earthing System

The cross section of the buried cable should calculated in accordance with the value of the phase-
to-earth short circuit current, but it is common to use the three phase short-circuit current for this
purpose.

For this calculation the following formula must be used

According to the referred IEEE Standard maximum tolerable step and touch potential and
maximum tolerable current through the human body (Ihb) and the resistance of the earth grid (Rg)
are calculated by the formulas:

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Electric Substation Practices Notes Unit 1: Overview of Substations

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