Professional Documents
Culture Documents
sociology-II Project, Compilaton Final
sociology-II Project, Compilaton Final
UNIVERSITY, BHOPAL
Certificate……………………………………………………………………………………….
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………
Review of Literature
Statement of Problem
Objectives
Chapter-III: Religion and its impact on the Indian society with reference to the Indian
Constitution……………………………………………………………………………………..
Chapter-IV: Different Religions across India and how they affect the conduct of
citizens…………………………………………………………………………………………
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………
Bibiliography……………………………………………………………………………………
Date: -
This paper has been made possible by the unconditional support of any people. We would
like to acknowledge and extend our heartfelt gratitude to Asst. Prof. (Dr.) Bir Pal Singh for
guiding us throughout the development of this paper into a coherent whole by providing
helpful insights and sharing his brilliant expertise. We would also like to thank the officials of
Gyan Mandir, NLIU for helping us to find the appropriate research material for this study.
We are deeply indebted to our parents, seniors and friends for all the moral support and
encouragement.
All Researchers.
This book provides its readers with concise explanation of the concepts of various
sociological theories of religion
Religion and its certain important theories of origin given by main sociologists have
been explained in a brief and easily understandable manner, making it convenient and
comprehensible to analyse the same.
Religion has taken such a shape in the contemporary world that other than binding the
people in a framework that keeps them aware of their own being, it now also wields
such portentous influence that it has seeped into the way people think, react and
consequently come to conclusions. This project aims to study the developments that
made Religion so inextricable from law making.
It can openly be admitted that in defining religion, most of the Indian thinkers follow the
definition given by the western thinkers. Some of the famous and major definitions of
religion are as follows:
1
Joseph Gaer: What the Great Religions Believe, Dodd, Mead & Co, New York,
1963, pg.16
2
Albert Nambiaparampil (Ed.): Religions and Man- World Conference of Religions,
Chavara Cultural Centre, Cochln, 1981, p.131
3
Fundamentals of Sociology,2006, Sarat C. Joshi
"...a set of symbolic forms and acts that relate man to the ultimate conditions of his
existence.” is a definition as given by Robert Bellah.
Some also define religion negatively. For example, according to Karl Marx,” Religion is the
sigh of the oppressed creature... a protest against real suffering... it is the opium of the
people... the illusory sun which revolves around man for as long as he does not evolve around
himself."
4
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1912
5
Primitive Culture, 1871
6
Anatomy of the Sacred
The subject of religion has been the domain of a special branch of the sociological discipline
since the 1960s.
There are diverse hypotheses with regards to the starting point of the idea of religion. All of
them contain some truth elements. However, it can't be surely said that when and how
religious thoughts rose in man. It is likewise surely can't be said that what is the beginning of
the thoughts of religion. All these are because there is no consensus among the masterminds
of this field as to the origin of religion. In any case, there are individuals who solidly trust
that religious thoughts are instinctual in man. No different creatures with the exception of
man bear this instinctual characteristic. Man can be recognized from different creatures due
to: reason and religion. Man has reason while different creatures don't and that is the reason
men are called “rational animals”. Correspondingly, men are religious while different
creatures are most certainly not. If these theories can help us trace the origin and development
of religion from its beginnings to its present forms, we can understand the importance of
religion in human life.
(i) Animism
Animism means the belief in spirits. It refers to a given form of religion in which man finds
the presence of spirit in every object that surrounds him. This is said to be the principal
hypothesis on the origin of religions and is in view of the investigation of the psyche and
behaviour of the early man. It was developed by Edward Burnett Tylor in his book,
‘Primitive Culture’ and he is, thus, said to be the founder of the human sciences of Religion.
According to Tylor, religion began when individuals endeavoured to comprehend conditions
and occasions that couldn't be clarified by every day experiences. Primitive Man had various
experiences especially related with death, dreaming and daze. In his dreams, he imagined that
his body stayed in one place and his self-meandered about and did different things. Likewise,
Primitive man thought that after death, soul converts into spirits who either help or harm
human beings and other creatures, and in order to keep these spirits happy, man started
offering prayers and sacrifices. He couldn’t distinguish between living and non-living and
believed that life and soul must be attached to every object. Thus, he started worshipping
rocks, trees, streams, etc. everything around him and extended the notion of soul and spirit to
all of them. Therefore, Tylor argued that Animism originated to satisfy man’s thirst to find
out the reason of death, dreams and vision. It is a simple type of religion and that they had
some unmistakable thought regarding the spirit as an immaterial soul, which could exist even
after the crumbling of the body. This is undoubtedly key to any religion of modem times and
along these lines, animism could be considered as a type of religion.
7
Conrad Phillip Kottak, op.cit., p.414
(iii) Naturism
It means the belief that forces of nature have supernatural powers. It was strongly advocated
by a great Sanskrit scholar, Max Muller. He said that the earliest form of religion must have
been the worship of objects of nature.
At the very beginning of the human race on earth, people were completely unaware of the
various events that took place around them in nature. They were curious to know the events,
however, and therefore applied their own efforts. They had to deal with the various natural
disasters such as storms, floods, lightning, dangerous animals, famine, etc. And they couldn't
surmount these situations. As a result, they had to imagine an invisible power, which they
depended on for help, strength and relief. They began to believe in some power inherent in
the sun, thunder, tension, etc. Fear and curiosity are therefore the main factors responsible for
the emergence of religious tendencies in ancient people. They also believed that this unseen
and invisible power would be helpful in their birth, sorrow, old age and finally in obtaining
salvation. They sometimes conceived God as their object of love. There are different forms
such as, father, friend, lover, beloved, master through which they tried to attain relation with
God. Thus, in order to meet their ignorance and to get strength and courage to face natural
calamities, men time and again depended on an imaginary existence, the result of which is
named “God” in religion.
Sociological theories of religion help us to analyse the relationship between society and
religion and give us insights into the role that religion plays in people's lives. Sociological
approach is mainly influenced by three sociological theorists Marx, Durkheim and Weber.
(i) Emile Durkheim
Durkheim set out to complete two things, build up the way that religion was not
supernaturally or powerfully enlivened and was in truth a result of society, and he looked to
recognize the regular things that religion set an accentuation upon, and additionally what
impacts those religious convictions (the result of public activity) had on the lives of all inside
a general public.
From the above viewpoint, religion could be comprehended and translated as instrumental to
uncover human issues and furthermore to discover solutions from the sociological point of
view. The Sociologists perceive that religion is vital to each culture and they look to see how
religious convictions and practices direct human social orders. Sociologists concur that
religion is an important social institution that must be comprehended in the setting of the
society. As indicated by them religion advances social attachment by uniting members of a
society through shared images, qualities and standards.
Present day sociologists have been trying logical endeavors to comprehend and clarify the
non-logical social marvel that comprise of convictions and practices. In their endeavors to do
as such, they have established the frameworks of some social hypotheses of religion. The
practical hypothesis of religion is essentially a sociological hypothesis which has been
produced by scholars, for example, William Robertson Smith, Emile Durkheim, A.R.
Radcliffe-Brown, B. Malinowski, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, and their adherents.
The essential presumption of the functionalist way to deal with religion is that religion is all
around found since it has a fundamental capacity in keeping up the social framework all in
all. The principle social prerequisite that religion is esteemed to satisfy has been "the need of
ideological and nostalgic union, or solidarity. The unity and solidarity of the community is
further increased by the rituals that are enacted on religious occasions. These rituals also have
14
Max Weber, The Protestant Ethnic and The Spirit of Capitalism
His book The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human instinct (1902)is
considered by numerous individuals to be the exemplary work in the field, not just on the
grounds that it was one of the primary investigations on religious experience by a
psychologist, yet in addition due to his approach. This book gave an early catalyst to the
psychology of religion. As indicated by him there is plausibility of both a healthy and sick
type of religion. He thinks that there is something in human consciousness different from
particular sensations. He differentiated between institutional religion and personal religion.
Freud's critique of religion is well known to academic community. In his writings, he tries to
explain how we are influenced by the past events and by things outside our conscious mind.
According to Freud, people experience conflicts between what they desire to do (represented
by our id) and the social control over our desires (represented by the Superego). These
conflicts are resolved, to a greater or lesser degree, by the Ego. It is the guilt feeling of the
people who cannot accept their desires and hatred that lead them to postulate and to fear a
god. According to Freud, the faith in God and religion need not always be wrong. If at all it is
illusory, all illusions need not always be false. He thinks that religious doctrines can be
illusions, because there is no proof for them and that they seem to contradict our scientific
knowledge. Further, it is felt that their authenticity cannot be proved. He called them illusions
because he believed that they were the fruits of human wishes rather than of rational inquiry.
The desire for security and companionship is fulfilled through religion. He considered
religious practices as neurotic. He saw religious ritual as something similar to the obsessional
neurotic of patients (who did things for no apparent reason). Freud often describes the
religious beliefs and practices as expressions of illusions and neurosis. Freud's views on
religion seem to have considerably influenced our society.
All these theories point to the fact that man is by nature religious. This religious nature seeks
to fulfill itself in peaceful and proper relations. If we see religion as a relationship with one
another, with others and with the Divine, it becomes even more true.
As much as religion is deeply ingrained into the Indian society governing the
most rudimentary day to day activities of people’s life, the fact that
‘Secularism’ is one of the philosophies of the Indian Constitution seems
15
Bahai faith is a religion that fuses the fundamental teachings of all other religions. The three core principles of
this faith are: the Unity of God, the Unity of Religion and the Unity of humanity.
16
Indian Society and Culture, by XYZ, page 75
Without recognizing any particular religion as the state religion, the Indian
constitution respects all the religions practiced in the country. In a country that
is home to multifarious faith and beliefs, it is unarguably prudent to adopt the
principles of secularism. The secular objective of the state was formally
inserted in the Indian Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act,
1976.
The constitution of India grants freedom of Religion to all its citizens in the
form of Article 25, Part III. Article 25 reads,
(1) Subject to public order, morality and health and to the other provisions of
this Part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right
freely to profess, practice and propagate religion.
(2) Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any existing law or
prevent the State from making any law -
(b) providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu
religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus
Article 26 reads,
(a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;
(b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
(c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and
17
Introduction to the Constitution of India, 22nd Edition, by Durga Das Basu
Besides the constitutional provisions, the Indian State also recognizes and
abstains from any kind of intrusion into the religious customs and practices by
having different set of personal laws for the different prominent religions. For
example, the Hindu Marriage Act 1955 and Muslim Personal Laws. Over a
18
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/77961/9/09_chapter%2004.pdf Last visited: 21/11/18
19
Supra 2
In an American case (vide Davis v. Benson, 133 U.S. 333 at 342), it has been
said “that the term ‘religion’ has reference to one’s views of his relation to his
Creator and to the obligations they impose of reverence for His Being and
character and of obedience to His will. It is often confounded with cult us of
form or worship of a particular sect, but is distinguishable from the latter.” 21
However, this definition is not what our constitution makers would have
subscribed to. For religion is not necessarily always theistic. Important
religions of India like Buddhism and Jainism do not believe in the existence of
God.
The Indian Constitution does not define the term ‘Religion’ per se. There are
no rigid boundaries defining religious practices in India. However, the
judiciary in deciding cases may stumble upon circumstances where it becomes
an imperative to delineate what practices amount to religious practices and are
therefore protected under the constitution. In such cases, they usually take help
of scriptures to ascertain the validity of a practice in questions. Many a time it
happens that most of the decisions taken by the courts are so cautiously
decided in order not to hurt the religious sentiments of the hoi polloi that they
are almost on the brink of defeating other rights and principles of natural
justices. Such is the power that religion wields in India.
20
Section 125 of the CrPC talks about order for maintenance of wives, children and parents.
21
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/77961/9/09_chapter%2004.pdf, last visited: 21/11/18
Indian religions and cultures are diverse and have always influenced the way people live in
this part of the world. The major religions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam
(largest minority religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism,
Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith. According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India
practices Hinduism and 14.2% adheres to Islam, while the remaining 6% adheres to other
religions.
India is a land where people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony
is seen in the celebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by
all the religions of India. Whether it's the gathering of the faithful, bowing in prayer in the
courtyard of a mosque, or the gathering of lamps that light up houses at Diwali, the good
cheer of Christmas or the brotherhood of Baisakhi, the religions of India are celebrations of
shared emotion that bring people together. People from the different religions and cultures of
India, unite in a common chord of brotherhood and amity in this fascinating and diverse
land.22
India is a religiously pluralistic and multi-ethnic democracy – the largest in the world.
Islam is the fastest growing religion in India. Growth rate of Muslims has been
consistently higher than the growth rate of Hindus, even since the census data
of independent India has been available. Despite the fact that Muslims form only
constitute 12 per cent of the total population of India, the influence of Islam on Indian
society is very strong.
While there are legal protections for religious groups and minorities, Indians still
generally experience “high” levels of government restrictions on religion, according
to an annual Pew Research Center study. There are legal restrictions on religious
22
https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-religions/
Religion has been a very dominant influence in marriage, choice of marital partner and
cohabitation. The project looks at various religions in India and their influence on the
behaviour and conduct of citizens.
Sikhism, Jainism and the Parsi faith with its influence on sexuality and marriage are
reviewed. As per Sikh ideals, a woman is considered to be the other half of a man and the one
who leads him to the doors of liberation. In accordance with his other teachings, Guru Nanak
had also condemned various cultural practices, which were derogatory to the status of women
in the society, such as Sati, Dowry System. Historically, many Sikh women have fulfilled
their moral responsibilities, sense of duty and have also served at various important and
respectable positions in the army as well as in the society. Not only this, the Sikhs have also
historically treated the women captured in battles with respect, considering them as their own
sisters. Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living
beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul
toward divine consciousness and liberation. Jainism is based on three general principles
called the three Ratnas (jewels). They are viz. Right faith, right knowledge and right
action. Householders are encouraged to practice five cardinal principles which are non-
violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possessiveness with their current
practical limitations, while monks and nuns have to observe them very strictly. Unlike the
Hindus who look upon marriage as a sacrament, Jains treat the institution as a contractIn
Parsi community, there is a belief that God revealed to Zarthustra, the prophet, that not only
is a marriage a righteous act, but it is also a commitment which makes even the earth rejoice.
Parsis believe that one has to be born a Parsi to be considered a Parsi. In fact, the more
orthodox members of the community are against inter-caste marriage. As per Sikh ideals, a
woman is considered to be the other half of a man and the one who leads him to the doors of
liberation. In accordance with his other teachings, Guru Nanak had also condemned various
cultural practices, which were derogatory to the status of women in the society, such as Sati,
Dowry System. Historically, many Sikh women have fulfilled their moral responsibilities,
sense of duty and have also served at various important and respectable positions in the army
23
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/06/29/5-facts-about-religion-in-india/
Christians are expected to reflect on the teachings of Jesus Christ, such as virtue, kindness,
forgiveness, refining the mind, good health, unshakable faith in God and Jesus and only use
any kind of force as a last resort defense.
The project also looks at the influences Islam has had on marriage and sexuality and ends
with a feminist perspective on women and sexual attitudes towards women. slam defines a
dress code for both men and women. For a woman the dress code is a way of protecting her
modesty and privacy-the face and hand being the only uncovered part of her body. Sura
24:31, which says, “And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private
parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears there of and to
draw their head covers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their
(maharim).” These rules of purdah are relaxed in presence of her husband, son, father, father-
in-law, brother, brother’s son, sister’s son, other women and small children. A man is
expected to keep the portion between his navel to knee covered. Woman has been awarded
the liberty to work beyond the confines of her home as long as she does so with modesty, i.e.,
it doesn’t transgress the bounds of purdah. She must also prioritize her role as a wife and
daughter and not neglect her primary duties. Her earnings are her personal asset and she need
not contribute towards the expenses of the household. Marriage in Islam is endogamous, i.e.,
marriage to a non-Muslim or a non-believer is considered void. Furthermore, if a Muslim
spouse converts to another religion after marriage the marriage is again void.25
The relationship between religion and morality has long been hotly debated, since it is a deep
and emotive topic. The confident pronouncements of public commentators belie the
bewildering theoretical and methodological complexity of the issues. We may not see any
direct relationship between religion and morality. First, to the extent that the terms “religion”
and “morality” are largely arbitrary and do not refer to coherent natural structure, efforts to
establish connections between religion and morality, conceived as monolithic entities, are
destined to be facile or circular (or both). Second, under the pluralistic approach we advocate,
which fractionates both religion and morality and distinguishes cognition from culture, the
relationship between religion and morality expands into a matrix of separate relationships
between fractionated elements. Thus, some aspects of “religion” may promote some aspects
24
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705692/
25
ibid
Highly religious Indians are happier and more involved with family but are no more likely to
exercise, recycle or make socially conscious consumer choices. A new Pew Research Center
study of the way’s religion influences the daily lives of Indians finds that people who are
highly religious are more engaged with their extended families, more likely to volunteer,
more involved in their communities and generally happier with the way things are going in
their lives. For example, a major proportion of highly religious Indians – defined as those
who say they pray every day and attend religious services each week – gather with extended
family at least once or twice a month.
26
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4345965/
What does it mean by secularism? Is it just limited to have ‘tolerance’ towards religions or
has a much deeper aspect? Is India secular? It’s been more than 71 years and 68 years 10
months to be exact since India officially became a republic. Our preamble states that: -
So, it can be said that at least our constitution to the very least bestows a secular character on
the nation. But the real question is that is it deeply imbibed in all or at least in the perceived
basic sense by the very people who constituted the constitution in the first place? Well to
answer this, we must look upon the very character of the Indian society and the various
attributes influencing its perspective.
India is a land of diverse cultures, traditions, not to mention the dynamic social scenery is
sprinkled with an extremely complex concoction of different religions and their conflicting
ideologies, which interestingly have managed to exist ‘harmoniously’ through the centuries
and still manages to exist. These religions have their personal laws, governing the social
interactions of their believers, the believers in whose psyche these laws have been deeply
rooted and have been imbibed as a part of their character.
The laws burdened with maintaining the essential character of the identity of India as a
secular state have provided with limited freedom to the boards or the institutions charged
with maintaining the personal laws and taking actions as long as their laws do not conflict the
law of the land. But what happens when they do come in conflict with each other? What takes
preference, the believes of the people who give this nation, its very identity or the laws which
govern the people? Normally we would say justice should prevail and laws must be adhered
to, if not followed would lead to a state of total anarchy. Moreover, a more educated view
might be the laws are made by the lawmakers, who are elected by the people of the nation
hence, as they represent the people, they represent the general consciousness so; the laws they
make are also in the interest of the people. Maintaining this view is not so easy in a nation
The conflict between the personal laws and Lex loci is sure to arise. Well it must be
appreciated that the constituent assembly achieved to bring in a constitution with an inherent
secular character in a country with not so inherently secular character though with the grace
of many of its ancient and medieval rulers the country has during many eras have got a taste
of it.
Even though there was a conflict between the members of the constituent assembly on the
idea of having a nation without a state religion, the government formed by the Indian
National Congress for a very long time followed on the principles of secularism. But the
1980s were a completely different era; the then Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi launched
the operation blue star to drive the pro Khalistan movement leader and religious figure Jarnail
Singh Bhinderwale and defiling the sanctity of the Akal taqt , the seat of reverence for the
Sikh community , this violent blow left a deep scar in the memory of the Sikh community ,
the repercussion of which led to the demise of Indira Gandhi herself with her own
bodyguards ,both of them Sikh gunning her down which in turn propelled the worst ever
genocide of the Sikh community and the Hindu community tearing both the communities
apart. Later, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India overruled a Muslim Personal Law of
providing alimony by the Husband to his estranged ex-wife which angered the Islamic
community and was observed as a violation of its character, in order to placate the situation;
Rajiv Gandhi overturned the decision angering the Hindu community making them believe
that the government is leaving the dominant group vulnerable. Interesting such incidents have
very effectively propelled the youth to destroy the cultural heritage of the nation, on 6 th
December 1992, the heritage structure of Babri Masjid built in the 16 th century under the
order of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, mosque carried the name of the first Mughal
emperor Babur. The action was over unconfirmed alleged historical evidences that the
construction was done on destroying a Hindu Temple dedicated to Lord Rama in a political
rally which turned violent. This incident echoed internationally with the divide between
Islamic and the Hindu communities deepening further. In the aftermath, around 2000 people
from both sides died with the Pakistani Islamic community destroying countless Hindu
Temples as revenge further straining the political ties of both the nations.
Most religions are inherently patriarchal and practice exclusion, and Hinduism, the
predominant religion in India, is no exception. Inequality in other forms persist as well:
discrimination on the basis of gender under religion, the existence of personal laws that vary
with each religion, and the replacement of education provided by schools with religious
education. For instance,27, Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists are governed by Hindu code bills
like the Hindu Marriage Act and Hindu Succession Act; Muslims are covered by the Muslim
Personal Law; and Christians follow the Christian Personal Law. As such, members of
different religious communities have different guidelines for marriage, divorce, adoption, and
a number of other aspects of life. In an effort to maintain religious equality, the protection of
individual freedoms has been neglected.
27
Hyeon-Jae Seo, Equal but not separate:India’s Secular Dilemma,hir.harvard.edu/article/?a=14574 last visited
on November 25,2018.
There was a time in Indian history when religion provided, regulated, and fully controlled the
legal and judicial system of the country. Today the situation is the other way around. In the
secular India of 21st century, it is the law of the land that determines the purview of religion
in the society, and it is the judiciary that ascertains what the laws relating to the scope of
religion will say, mean, and require.
However even today, religious values and traditions continue to have leverage on Indian
society. This religious facet remains duly illustrated in the Constitution and the quickly
growing body of national laws. It has also remained inside the ambit of judicial activism
generally witnessed in India.
The practice and interpretation of secularism in India have from the very beginning been, and
remain, sensitive to and reconciled with the ground realities. This sensitivity and
reconciliation make India’s religion-state relations both idiosyncratic and fascinating. A
study of India’s specific models of secularism and religious liberty reveals an appreciable
balance of religious and secular interests.
Judicial decisions of the higher courts in religious cases of various nature and kinds generally
reflect an attitude of objectivity and impartiality. There have been some aberrations, few and
far between, at times pointing to the continued existence of committed judges or
those influenced by particular religio-political ideologies. Such aberrations can of course be,
and have often been, freely criticized by conscientious objectors and legal critics
1. Joseph Gaer: What the Great Religions Believe, Dodd, Mead & Co, New York,
1963, pg.16
2. Albert Nambiaparampil (Ed.): Religions and Man- World Conference of Religions,
Chavara Cultural Centre, Cochln, 1981, p.131