Introduction to Agriculture

Refers to the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals

It is difficult to fit all types of agriculture into an all-inclusive category but the following
table identifies some of the classifications you are likely to come across:

Term: Definition:

Based on scale and

intensity of
production High input and yields for given area of land. There is maximisation of
land use. Farms are small but have high inputs of labour, capital and
Intensive machinery. Examples include market gardening, horticulture and
irrigation farming.
Low inputs and yields for given area of land. It uses large farms and low
inputs of capital and labour per unit area of land.eg wheat production
Extensive
in the Canadian prairies and extensive cattle ranching in Matabeleland
south.

Classification Crops are cultivated and animals reared to be sold. its advantages is
according to the that it ensures food supply, brings foreign currency to the country,
purpose of the improves the diet of people, creates employment, earns the country
product the much needed foreign currency through exports, encourages
industrial growth through the supply of raw materials, develops
infrastructure and services and also allows for the diffusion of skills to
Commercial small scale farmers, however it has the following disadvantages, it
takes up more land at the expense of the poor, it exploits labour by
underpaying workers, it sometimes provides poor housing and
sanitation for the workers. Examples of such agric include ranching,
mixed crop farming, arable crop farming, plantation agriculture, dairy
farming and irrigation agriculture.

Subsistence
Cultivating crops or rearing animals for consumption by the farmer
and his family. The aim of subsistence farming is to cultivate crops
or rear animals for consumption by the farmer and his family.
Typically the farmer will have a small piece of land on which he

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 and his family will work. It uses family labour, cheap agricultural
equipment, does not require any foreign currency, It is
characterised by the use of simple techniques, family labour and a
poor standard of living. It is sustainable. Any surplus crops could
be sold at a local market or stored for future use in times of poor
harvest. Lack of land, capital and technology prevent
improvements in yield. Low input and low output lead to low
incomes. It is typical of agriculture in less economically developed
countries.
Arable The cultivating of crops.
Pastoral The rearing of animals.
Mixed A combination of arable and pastoral.

Agricultural systems

Shifting cultivation

It is characterised by the use of simple techniques, family labour and a poor standard of
living. It is sustainable.

Agribusiness

Agribusiness uses modern technologies to increase crop yields. Farmers produce cash
crops for food or as a raw material in manufacturing.

Farms are generally very large with high capital investment. This means that farms can
benefit from economies of scale.

1.
2. Very often the investment required for agribusiness comes from trans-national
(multi-national) corporations. Profit is of paramount importance often at the
expense of social and environmental concerns.

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 3. For example: Unilever invest heavily in the developed and developing world. In the
developing world it employs in excess of 120 000 people.
4. These people are employed on the plantations and factories for low wages. The
plantations provide the company with the raw materials it needs for worldwide
consumption. These include tea (Tanzania and Kenya), rubber (Zaire), coffee
(Kenya) and palm oil (Colombia and Thailand).
5. The factories manufacture products such as Flora, Dove soap and Persil.
6. Agri-businesses are also a feature of agriculture in the developed world.

7.
8. Collectives
9. Collectives refer to the situation where a farm is run by several people or whole
communities who share in the management, work and profits. The farms are
usually government owned but the collective is given a permanent lease.
10. These are a feature of agriculture in communist states such as China and North
Korea.
11. In China, for example, the communist government removed land from private
owner-ship and set up numerous 'communes'. These hierarchical systems were
given production targets to meet that had been set by the government. They also
provide food for the people and small-scale industry.
12. Later developments encouraged individual farmers to take responsibility for
meeting targets. Once they had met their target they could sell surplus on the open
market. This encouraged farmers to increase their productivity and went a long way
towards easing rural poverty.

Factors that affect the distribution of agriculture

You will need to be able to discuss factors that affect the global distribution of agricultural
systems. The reasons are outlined below:

Physical

Climate

Climatic factors include...

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1. Temperature:

Most plants cannot grow if the temperature falls below 6°C or the soil is frozen for five
consecutive months. As a consequence many areas are unsuitable for crop cultivation.

2. The growing season:

The number of days between the last frost of the spring and the first of the autumn.
Different crops require different lengths of growing season. Cotton needs 200 days so could
not survive in a British climate. Cereal crops are grown in the South-east of Britain as this is
the area most likely to meet the necessary growing season. The shorter the required
growing season the further north that crop can be grown. Oats can be found in Northern
parts of the UK because they have a very short growing season.

3. Altitude:

This affects temperature so it also affects farming. In the Alps for example you will find dairy
farming in valley bottoms and coniferous forestry further up.

When temperatures are consistently high with sufficient precipitation high yield crops such
as rise can be grown. These have the added advantage of producing up to three crops a
year.

4. Rainfall:

Water is obviously a key factor in plant growth. The greater the average temperature the
greater the amount of water required for plant growth. Seasonal variation is important as
different crops require water at different times. Coffee for example must have a period of
drought before and during harvest whilst maize would benefit from heavy rain in the same
period. A farmer is therefore looking for rainfall reliability so that he can select the most
appropriate crop for the area.

Rice is the principal crop in the tropics because it requires substantial quantities of water, is
a very high yield crop and has good nutritional value. With the addition of consistently high
temperatures it can also produce two or three crops a year.

In the Mediterranean crop growth is affected by the summer drought despite high annual
rainfall. The rainfall is very high in winter months but infiltration rates are comparatively
low. In summer temperatures are very high, encouraging high rates of evapo-transpiration
and consequently very dry soil and a low water table. There is a soil moisture deficit. These
conditions are not conducive to plant growth.

5. Wind:

Wind can have a destructive effect on crops. At its most severe a hurricane can physically
destroy thousands of acres of farmland. Less severe but also harmful are the winds that dry
soils so reducing moisture and increasing the potential for soil erosion.

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Soil

Soil type will influence crop cultivation because different crops prefer different soils.

Clay soils with their high water retention are well suited to rice whilst sandy soils with good
drainage are good for root vegetables.

Soil type can be influenced through the input of lime, clay or fertilizer but this can only make
limited differences.

Slope

The angle of slope will affect the type, depth and moisture content of soil.

It will also affect the rate of soil erosion. Some of the most unique farming landscapes of
Bali are a consequence of having to cultivate steep slopes that are prone to soil erosion.
Here terraces are cut in to steep slopes to retain the soil that otherwise would be easily
removed due by the heavy rains. The need to cultivate such steep slopes is a consequence
of population pressure and very small farms due generations of sub-dividing amongst sons.

The degree to which a farm can be mechanised is influenced by slope. Many vineyards in
Germany are still harvested by hand at great cost because of the steep slopes. This is
despite the fact that Germany is one of the richest countries in the world with capital to
take advantage of the latest technology.

Human

Land tenure

In the developed world a large percentage of farmers are owner-occupiers. Consequently

they have a large incentive to become more efficient and improve land and buildings. The
extent of their investment and success will depend on the market place and political
systems.

In the developing world farmers are less likely to be owner-occupiers. Instead they will
probably be tenants or landless labourers.

In Brazil, the majority of land is owned by a small minority. As a consequence many of the
farmers are 'landless' and sell their labour to the large plantation owners.

Tenants can operate under two systems:

 A cash tenant will pay a fixed rent or percentage of profits to the landowner. This
can lead to over cultivation especially if the rent or profit share is excessive. A long-
term lease provides the farmer with more incentive to invest in the farm.
 A crop sharing agreement can be reached where the farmer gives a significant
percentage of his harvest to the landowner. These arrangements are likely to be
skewed in favour of the landowner so the farmer remains poor.

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The most likely outcome for both of these tenancy systems is that the landowner will
benefit form the hard work of the farmer who is likely to remain poor.

In communist countries the collective system is more common. Communities are set up with
state owned farms. The community must then manage and work the farm to achieve state
targets of production.

Farmers who do not have security of tenure are less likely to invest in future improvements.

Market

For any commercial farm to succeed there must be demand. If the demand for a crop drops
then profits will fall. That crop will then be replaced by a more profitable one.

Conditions in the market place can be a consequence of numerous factors:

1. Changes in society - the move towards vegetarianism or panic about beef.

2. Health reasons - increased demand for olive oil or panic about beef.
3. Health scares - the BSE crisis or panic about beef.
4. Religion - Jews do not eat pork.
5. Marketing - campaigns promoting products such as new breakfast cereals.

Transport

Transport is an important factor in determining location of farm types. If a product is bulky

such as potatoes then it should be grown close to the market place to cut down on
transport costs. If the good is perishable then again it should be grown close to the market
place.

The effects of transport have been greatly reduced in the developed world because of
innovations such as refrigerated lorries. It is still an important factor in many parts of the
developing world.

The transportation available and the transport network will have a large influence on the
distribution of agricultural systems. Many subsistence farms could not sell surpluses even if
they had them because of the costs involved in transporting the surplus to the market place.

Capital

In the developed world there is a well-established system of supportive banks, private

investors and government subsidies. This means that agriculture is likely to be capital
intensive and highly mechanised. Cereal growing and dairy farming are good examples.In
the developing world the systems of capital support are less developed. In addition farmers
have little capital of their own. Borrowing is difficult (especially with the small farms typical
of many subsistence farmers) and incurs high interest rates. Therefore the farm will be very
labour intensive.If a farmer has little capital reserve then certain types of farming are not an
option.Whilst his crop is maturing the farmer will have no income, if the crop takes several
years to mature then he needs substantial financial backing to cover costs of production

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(e.g. labour) and basic living costs like mortgage and food. Tree crops take several years to
mature so the farmer will have to wait a long time for return on his investment. If he does
not have a capital reserve then this is not an option.

Technology

New technology is always increasing efficiency and yields but technology costs money.
Therefore the gap between the developed and developing world is growing.

The one exception is the green revolution.

The term ‘Green Revolution’ is a general one that is applied to successful agricultural
experiments in many developing countries. The green revolution was the result of an
intensive plant-breeding programme in Mexico. It resulted in very high yield crops. Wheat
varieties from Mexico and rice varieties from the Philippines literally doubled world food
output.

The green revolution spread throughout much of the developing world and these new high
yield crops - particularly rice became a common feature of agriculture. They did increase the
need for irrigation and agro-chemicals that were too costly for small farmers and larger
farmers with more financial backing gained the most benefit from these crops. Although
there were improvements in quality of life for the poorer farmer.As the rice produced such
high yields farmer could dedicate more land to other crops that could be sold for cash. India
is one of the countries where it was most successful.

Case study

The green revolution in India

 The world's worst recorded food disaster occurred in 1943 in British-ruled India.
Known as the Bengal Famine, an estimated 4 million people died of hunger that year
in eastern India (which included today's Bangladesh).
 Initially, this catastrophe was attributed to an acute shortfall in food production in
the area. However, Indian economist Amartya Sen (recipient of the Nobel Prize for
Economics, 1998) has established that while food shortage was a contributor to the
problem, a more potent factor was the result of hysteria related to World War II,
which made food supply a low priority for the British rulers.
 When the British left India in 1947, India continued to be haunted by memories of
the Bengal Famine. It was therefore natural that food security was one of the main
items on free India's agenda. This awareness led, on one hand, to the Green
Revolution in India and, on the other, legislative measures to ensure that
businessmen would never again be able to hoard food for reasons of profit.
 The Green Revolution, spreading over the period from1967/68 to 1977/78, changed
India’s status from a food-deficient country to one of the world's leading agricultural
nations.
 Until 1967 the government largely concentrated on expanding the farming areas.
But the population was growing at a much faster rate than food production. This

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 called for an immediate and drastic action to increase yield. The action came in the
form of the Green Revolution.

 There were three basic elements in the method of the Green

Revolution

Continuing expansion of farming areas

Double-cropping in the existing farmland
Using seeds with improved genetics.

 The area of land under cultivation was being increased from 1947 itself. But this was
not enough to meet the rising demand. Though other methods were required, the
expansion of cultivable land also had to continue. So, the Green Revolution
continued with this quantitative expansion of farmlands.
 Double cropping was a primary feature of the Green Revolution. Instead of one crop
season per year, the decision was made to have two crop seasons per year. The one-
season-per-year practice was based on the fact that there is only one rainy season
annually. Water for the second phase now came from huge irrigation projects. Dams
were built and other simple irrigation techniques were also adopted.
 Using seeds with superior genetics was the scientific aspect of the Green Revolution.
The Indian Council for Agricultural Research (which was established by the British in
1929) was reorganized in 1965 and then again in 1973. It developed new strains of
high yield variety seeds, mainly wheat and rice and also millet and corn.
 The Green Revolution was a technology package comprising material components of
improved high yielding varieties of two staple cereals (rice and wheat), irrigation or
controlled water supply and improved moisture utilization, fertilizers, and pesticides,
and associated management skills.

Benefits

 Thanks to the new seeds, tens of millions of extra tonnes of grain a year are being
harvested.

The Green Revolution resulted in a record grain output of 131 million

tonnes in 1978/79. This established India as one of the world's biggest agricultural
producers. Yield per unit of farmland improved by more than 30% between1947 (when
India gained political independence) and 1979. The crop area under high yielding varieties of
wheat and rice grew considerably during the Green Revolution.

 The Green Revolution also created plenty of jobs not only for agricultural workers
but also industrial workers by the creation of related facilities such as factories and
hydroelectric power stations.

Shortcomings

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  In spite of this, India's agricultural output sometimes falls short of demand even
today. India has failed to extend the concept of high yield value seeds to all crops or
all regions.
 In terms of crops, it remains largely confined to food grains only, not to all kinds of
agricultural produce.

 In regional terms, only the states of Punjab and Haryana

showed the best results of the Green Revolution. The eastern plains of the River
Ganges in West Bengal also showed reasonably good results. But results were less
impressive in other parts of India.
 The Green Revolution has created some problems mainly to adverse impacts on the
environment.
 The increasing use of agrochemical-based pest and weed control in some crops has
affected the surrounding environment as well as human health.
 Increase in the area under irrigation has led to rise in the salinity of the land.
Although high yielding varieties had their plus points, it has led to significant genetic
erosion.

Government

Government policies will have a direct or indirect effect on the prevalent agricultural
system. The communist governments encourage collectives as already seen whilst farming
in Europe is indirectly manipulated by the agricultural policies of the European Union.

Case studies

1. Common agricultural policy: the common agricultural policy was a response to food
shortages during and after world war two. In 1957 it was decided that several European
countries would all follow a common agricultural policy.

The aims of that policy were to:

 Increase productivity and ensure a regular food supply

 Improve farmers standard of living
 Stabilize market prices at a level beneficial to farmers and reasonable for consumers
 Sustain rural communities
 Assure regular food supply
 Protect the EU from cheap food imports

Original solutions

 There were several policies designed to fulfil these aims. Amongst these were the
price support policies. A price support policy aimed to guarantee a price to the
farmer for a particular product and discourage competition from farmers outside the
participant countries. If farmers couldn’t get a good price then CAP bought off them
to store food for poor years. A lower guaranteed price was set for home grown

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 products. If the market price fell below this then the European Commission would
buy produce at the guaranteed price
 Tariffs – import taxes on foreign food so that home products are cheaper. A high
price was set for any imports - this would be maintained by heavily taxing imported
produce.
 Subsidies – Encourage people to improve the quality of their land e.g. removal of
hedges, drain marshes etc. However the policy was too successful by the 1970s and
should have been changed. Put simple the EC said, "we'll give you so much per tonne
for this crop. If you can sell it for more then do so if you can't then we'll buy it. Also
you won't get any competition from outside the EC because we'll put a big import
tax on their stuff so it is really expensive."
 This gave farmers a great incentive to grow crops. So much so that they were soon
producing far more than was needed. So as a result of political policy the Europe had
extremely efficient agricultural systems that were actually typified by over
production.
Problems:
 Europe was now self-sufficient but was overproducing. This caused huge surpluses –
In 1990 the EC had food surpluses in milk, wheat, sugar, barley, rye, butter, beef,
cheese, vegetables, chicken, pork, eggs, wine, margarine and potatoes.
By the 1990s CAP was taking 60% of the total EU budget.
 The USA complained that the EU was unfair and protectionist which could have led
to a trade war. There was also a change in public opinion away from mass
production due to food scares such as salmonella & BSE.
 There was also evidence that farmers would claim subsidies fraudulently e.g. Corsica
where exaggerated the number of pigs
Changes in the 1990s
 Changes were made to control spending and stop overproduction. There were a
number of new aims after changes were made in 1992:
1. Increase EU agricultural competitiveness – Quality not quantity.
2. Stabilise markets & reduce surpluses.
3. Ensure a fair standard of living for farmers – income support
4. Maintain rural jobs & reduce migration to towns
 5. Protect the environment with set-aside.
 The changes made include: -

Set aside: as a response to surpluses caused by the EC's price support system, farmers could
receive substantial income for 'setting aside' land. Many British farmers received money to
do nothing with their land in an attempt to reduce surpluses. This was also seen as a way of
allowing the land to recover following many years of very intensive use.

Diversification grants –
Money paid to use the land for other things:
1. Trees – Christmas trees grow quickly
Oak – doesn’t need to be profitable.
2. Caravan park for the winter.
3. Pick your own Fruit
4. Garden centres – contracted to grow plants

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5. Motorbike scrambling
6. Fishing.
7. Bed & Breakfast
This is changing the shape of the landscape, particularly on the
rural-urban fringe.A good example of diversification is Bramcote Mains farm near Coventry.
Diversification & set-aside with christmas trees, caravan parking, fishing ponds, landfill,
camping, quad biking, pony trekking, sheep farming & potatoes. Dairy farmers in the Vale of
Evesham have decided to specialise in Pick Your Own and market gardens as it is traditional
for the area.
Milk Quotas –
Only allowed to produce so much food otherwise they are fined. Milk quotas mean that
many farmers have to halve herd so halve income. Therefore many go out of business,
causing resentment towards CAP. Many have to sell up to large farms – mechanisation and
large farms impact on environment. People feel farming controlled by Europe not UK –
Beaurocracy .Also have to stop growing certain types of crops. They are given grants for
what they can grow. They may have to change the type of farm they run but grants are
given for new machinery. May grow for example:
1.Oil seed rape – yellow flower for animal fodder
Causes hay fever
2. Linseed oil – Blue flower which changes the look of the environment.
However, the grants only last a certain period of time so have to change the crop.
This means the farmer has wasted money on improving the land leading to discontent
and anger towards CAP.

Problems
As well as the problems above there are some other major problems:
– most goes to waste. This is pointless, as they can’t sell it
to other countries, as most countries can’t afford to buy it.
Economically unviable farms in rural communities supported to maintain the landscape –
waste of money.
– Can have full yields & set-aside money due to large land &
fertilisers. This leads to a larger gap between core & periphery.

eat to human health – GM Crops, BSE due to the use of antibiotics in livestock.

CAP is now more focused on sustainability –provide support for organic

farming.

Agricultural land use

In 1826, Von Thunen published his work on agricultural land-use. He set out to explain how
and why rural land-use varies. Despite being over 150 years old his work still has relevance
today.

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To simplify the real world he made several assumptions:

1. Economic man: man will be motivated by maximising profit

2. Isolated state: the state is cut off from the rest of the world
3. One urban area: which provides a uniform price
4. Isotropic plain: the land is broad and flat with no features. Soil and climate are the
same across this plain.
5. Transport: only one type and cost increases with distance from the market

He based his work on the concept of locational rent. Locational rent is the money a farmer
gains for growing his crops on any particular piece of land. Today we would call it profit. It
can be calculated as follows :

Locational rent = Revenue from selling crop - (Costs of production + costs of transport)

From this we can work out the profits for each piece of land.

For example:

If we assume that Wheat is selling at $100 per tonne.

It costs $20 per tonne to grow it (labour and fertiliser).

It costs $2 per mile per tonne to transport.

Farm A is 0 miles from the market

L.R. per tonne = 100-(20+0)

L.R.= $80.

Farm B is 15 miles from the market

L.R. per tonne = 100-(20+30)

L.R. = $50.

Farm C is 30 miles from the market

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LR per tonne = 100-(20+60)

L.R. = $20

If we now plot these figures on a graph:

We can see that locational rent decreases with distance from the market place. This is
because transport costs increase. Different crops would have different market prices, costs
of production and costs of transportation. So, if we look at potatoes that have a higher
market price but also higher costs of transportation:

Market price - $120 per tonne

Costs of production - $25 per tonne

Costs of transportation $3 per tonne per mile

Then we would get a different locational rent graph...

Farm: Locational rent:

A - 0 miles from market 125- (25 + 0)= $100
B - 15 miles from market 125- (25 + 45)= $55
C - 30 miles from market 125- (25+ 90)= $10

This would produce the following graph:

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If we then put these two graphs together then we get this...

From this we can identify how and why land-use will vary as we move out of the urban area.
Farm A and B would grow potatoes as these command the highest locational rent (profit).

Farm C however would grow wheat because the cost of transporting the produce to the
market place means potatoes would no longer make the most money.

If in this imaginary land you were to walk from the market place out into the countryside
you would first see nothing but potatoes then nothing but wheat. Obviously the real world
is far more complex. Von Thunen developed these basic principles to come up with a
pattern of land-use. Which produced concentric rings around the market.

Evaluation of Von Thunen's work

Von Thunen over simplifies the real world and his model is often criticised for having little
modern day relevance. The main weaknesses of his model relate to the basic assumptions.
Each of these can be dismissed:

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 1. Economic man: man is actually motivated by a wide range of factors. For example
many would reach a certain income level and then enjoy increased leisure time.
Some will work harder or more efficiently then others.
2. Isolated state: the state is not cut off from the world.
3. One urban area: maybe true in cases of urban primacy but this is the exception not
the rule.
4. Isotropic plain: the physical landscape is not feature less. Physical features in fact
have a great influence on farming as we have already seen.
5. Transport: today the transport revolution means food can be transported further
than ever before. Refrigerated milk lorries for example mean milk no longer needs to
be produced next to the market place. The EU food-mountains show that perishable
produce can be stored for a long time!

 In addition Von Thunen failed to take into account innovation, new technology or
government action. The influence of which has already been discussed.

Von Thunen does however have some relevance to land-use distribution in certain areas.

 In the hill farms of southern Italy for example crop intensification does decrease with
distance from the market place. This is because the transport routes are poorly
developed and the villages almost act as isolated states.
 Alternatively in Uruguay farming intensity decreases as you move away from the
primate city.
 Von Thunen provides us with an explanation of land-use. His work is now over 150
years old so has inevitable faults but if this is appreciated he still provides us with a
land-use pattern for comparisons and a starting point for explanations.

Types of agricultural systems

Shifting cultivation ( Describe the main characteristics of shifting cultivation 12)

 In shifting cultivation land is cleared and cultivation is practised for the first few
years and once the yields decrease then the land is abandoned for a new one.
 This type of agricultural system is characterised by small pieces of land cleared by
slash and burn method.
 Large trees are pollarded, and then the trees are stacked in piles to dry and then
burnt. Simple tools are used such as digging sticks, hoes and axes.

Advantages

 Uses simple tools

 There is inter cropping which reduces the risk of total destruction of crops by pests
and also provides the farmer with a balanced diet and also ensures food security.
 The pieces of land are usually small and this reduces the risk of soil erosion. Less
effort is needed as there is virtually no need for weeding during the first year; this
gives the farmer more time to augment food supplies trough fishing and hunting.
 The burning process also makes potash available through the ashes.

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However shifting cultivation has the following disadvantages.

 It wastes human resources because farmers are not engaged in any economic
activity for the greater part of the year.
 It produces less food per unit area making famine and malnutrition a common
feature.
 It also causes soil erosion when the land is abandoned. Burning also destroys humus.
 Causes an increase in carbon dioxide which enhances the greenhouse effect
resulting in global warming
 The smoke produced during burning has a net effect of causing the hazy atmosphere
especially during the hot season.
 The system is also wasteful as many nitrogenous compounds are removed through
burning.

For some of these reasons people are now moving away from this type of agriculture.

 The other reasons include the rapid rise in population has since reduced the size of
the land available for this type of system.
 People are now being educated by government so they are now able to maintain the
soils fertile through the use of manure and fertilisers.
 Urbanisation has seen more people producing crops for sale thereby turning into
semi commercial farmers.
 Many governments are now discouraging this type of farming.

In Africa this type of agriculture is practised in Northern Zambia where it is called

Chitemene. It is also called slush and burn in the Amazonian forests of Brazil.

Bush fallowing

 This is another type of subsistence agriculture which involves the rotation of

cultivated land without necessarily changing the homes.
 The land is left fallow for about 5 years the advantages and disadvantages are more
or less the same as those of shifting cultivation.

Nomadic pastoralism

This refers to the traditional herding of livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys
following pastures without maintaining a permanent home. It is practiced by people known
as Nomads in areas of low rainfall such as the arid and semi arid regions of Africa such as
west Africa. In Africa pastoral nomadism is practised by the Masai of East Africa and the
Fulani of West Africa.

Way of life of the nomads

 They follow traditional routes following the rain belt.

 Their whole life depends on the livestock

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  They are very brave people who can scare dangerous wild animals such as lions using
their bare hands and sticks
 They usually travel light so that when they breakm camp they quickly move on.
 Men rear cattle while women grow crops.
 They are war like and they usually clash with sedentary commercial farmers over
grazing Land.

Problems of the nomads

 They spread diseases as they travel with their livestock

 They keep large herds of animals and this usually in overgrazing and soil erosion and
desertification.
 They destroy vegetation as they cut down trees to use the leaves as pasture when
pastures run out.
 They also contribute towards drought
 They also cause conflicts with settled farmers.

In recent years this type of farming is generally fading out because of the following reasons.

 Governments have encouraged permanent settlements to make it easy for the

provision of services and the development of infrastructure.
 In West Africa the Fulani have been sedentarised and organised into cooperatives
with a central well and About 20 homesteads around the well.
 Each homestead if allowed about 15 herds of cattle.
 Permanent homes are built and each farmer is given a plot to cultivate crops.
 In counties such as Kenya nomads have been commercialised here the quality of the
cattle is improved and the government provides services such as dipping and
vaccines
 This measure can only succeed if the nomads are educated and trained and this is
being done on Kenya.
 In already damaged areas rehabilitation programmes such as reforestation,
regressing and building of dams is being done and encouraged.

Case study- the Fulani of West Africa. Pages 105-106( Dynamics of o level geography)

Sedentary peasant farming

This refers to a more settled type of farming with people having permanent homes and
farming the same fields throughout year after year. This the most common type of farming
in Africa.

 The peasant farmers practice mixed farming as they rear animals and grow crops.
 In countries like Zimbabwe one or more cash crops can be grown so that the farmer
sells the crop for cash.
 However production is largely for family consumption.
 In recent years agricultural extension workers have been deployed to educate the
peasants on better agricultural methods.

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  Tillage units have been supplied tom increase draught power.
 Seed handouts have been distributed to boost agricultural output.
 Land redistribution has also been carried out to ensure that many peasants have the
land.

Problems faced by sedentary peasant farmers in Zimbabwe

These include physical and socioeconomic problems

The physical problems include

 Poor and heavily leached soils caused mainly by over cultivation and the fact that
the farmers cannot afford to by fertilisers to maintain fertility.( make fertilisers
available and also resettle people)
 Cultivation of marginal land due to rapid population growth which comes with a
higher demand for food.( practice effective family planning programmes to
contain the exponential growth of population)
 Low and unreliable rainfall in most parts of Africa reduces productivity.( harness
water through the construction of dams for irrigation purposes)
 Pests such as the army worm, locusts, ticks and tsetse flies also reduce
productivity. ( Use chemicals to control pests and also practice crop rotation)
 Diseases such as foot and mouth and anthrax also reduce animal productivity.(
vaccinate the animals and control their movement avoiding the mixing of cattle
with the wild buffalo)

Economic problems include

 Shortage of capital to buy inputs- make inputs available at reasonable prices and
also provide handouts especially after a period of drought.
 Lack of knowledge and skills of modern farming and the use of traditional poor
farming methods. E.g. stream bank cultivation, slope wise cultivation- extension
workers are in place to try and teach the farmers on more modern and efficient
farming methods.
 Population pressure caused by rapid population growth results in land fragmentation
which makes the use of machinery difficult and also reduces the overall output of
the individual farmer. Put in place sound population planning policies to limit rapid
population growth, and also to resettle people
 Communal land tenure makes it difficult for the farmers to receive loans from banks
as they lack collateral. This type of tenure also makes it difficult for any
improvements to be done as no one in particular owns the land. Give the communal
farmers security of tenure through long term lease agreements
 Lack of draught power in the form of cattle and donkeys also lowers productivity.-
provision of tillage units
 Poor infrastructure such as roads, storage facilities and marketing facilities reduces
the will of the farmer to farm for sale.-improve infrastructure and establish collecting
depots in the communal areas.

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  Poor producer prices and high cost of inputs and transport also dampen the spirit of
many sedentary farmers causing a general unwillingness to produce for sale.
Announce reasonable producer prices well before the planting season

The nature of subsistence farming is changing over the past year because of a number of
reasons.

 Colonialism brought with it new ideas from the west

 Education and training
 Transfer of technology
 Government intervention
 Discovery of new agricultural techniques such as the use of hybrid seeds and HYVs
 The development of irrigation facilities
 The implementation of the land redistribution programme
 Establishment of cooperative farming

Plantation agriculture ( Discuss the characteristics of plantation agriculture with reference

to examples 12), advantages and disadvantages of plantation agriculture 15)

This is the large scale production of one crop on a large piece of land called an estate for a
long period of time. The crop can be perennial or annual.

Characteristics of plantation agriculture

 They are owned by transnational companies or by government which can raise the
large capital needed to start and run the estate.
 There is specialisation of production with specialists and research centres on the
estate.
 Each estate is self- contained and efficiently run with factories, workers houses
schools, clinics and recreational facilities on the estate.
 Production is market oriented, the market being domestic or foreign.
 There is production of both food crops and industrial raw materials.
 They are usually attached to out growers.
 They have monocultural tendencies
 They employ a large number of people raising the standards of their lives in the
process (examples to include hippo valley and triangle estate)

Advantages of plantation agriculture

 They produce food for the local industry.

 They create employment for a large number of people.EG trangle estate employs
more than 8000 people.
 They lead to industrial growth by providing raw materials for the industries.
 They produce cheap goods which can be afforded by the local people.
 They develop infrastructure.
 They provide services to their workers and the surrounding community.

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  They also to a certain extent provide education and training.
 They provide revenue for the government.
 They lead to the creation of towns in less developed areas.
 They also develop remote areas, providing power, roads and dams.
 They bring foreign currency into the country.
Disadvantages
 Their monoculture tendencies result in rapid removal of nutrients from the
soil resulting in exhaustion of the soil.
 Large sums of money are repatriated to the mother country since most are
foreign owned.
 They occupy large tracks of land while the indigenous people are landless.
 They indulge in local politics and at times may sabotage the economy.
 Extensive clearing of the land may have negative effects on the environment.
 In some areas there is exploitation of workers as workers earn very little and
also workers live in squalid conditions.
 They can sometimes rapidly plunder the land and then leave for other
countries leaving the land exhausted.

Case study

Hippo valley estate-

Size -111 455 ha

Ownership- Anglo American Corporation

Products –sugar cane, bananas, oranges and beef

Markets- home and abroad

Employment- 6500 permanent and 4000 contact during the period of cutting sugar cane.

Industrial growth- afdis factory for spirits and a sugar mill

Research and training- a sugar cane research station next to its fence.

Infrastructural development-Hippo Valley High School, Chiredzi general hospital, banks,

country clubs, beer halls, thermal power station, rail and roads. State of the art irrigation
equipment

Irrigation farming

This refers to the artificial application of water to crops in order to grow crops when the
prevailing climatic and weather conditions cannot sustain crop growth.

Reasons for practising irrigation agric-( these are advantages)

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  Increase food production
 Produce crops throughout the year
 Deal with the problem of moisture stress
 Bring marginal land into effective use
 Generate more employment
 Produce more industrial raw materials
 Raise the standards of living of the employed
 Improve the national economy
 Harness and utilise water that might have been lost through run off.

Problems

 Salinisation of the soil

 Irrigation water contains toxic chemicals derived from fertilisers and pesticides
which can contaminate drinking water sources
 Dams constructed for irrigation water can increase incidences os biharzia
 Rapid siltation of dams
 It is expensive to set up

Mixed commercial farming

The rearing of animals and the cultivation of crops on one farm.

Characteristics

 Several products are produced in different seasons

 Livestock production complements crop production, with animals feeding on crop
residues while their dung contributes towards inceasing humus and fertility of the
soil.
 It is highly mechanised with tractors combine harvestotrs, boom sprayers and silage
cutters.
 Skilled man power and management results in high outputs per unit area.
 It is capital intensive and the money is used to buy machinery, vaccines , fertilisers,
seeds, extra feeds for livestock, herbicides and to pay workers.
 The money is also used to construct buildings sheds and storage facilities
 Mixed farms practice crop rotation

Advantages

 Diversified production ensures that the farmer gets a steady income all year round.
This include food crops, industrial crops, and beverages, poultry, piggery,
aquaculture plus a herd of cattle for beef and for dairy products.
 It ensures that a farmer is not affected by fluctuations of prices on the market since
the farmer produces several products.
 High outputs due to the complementary nature of raising animals and food crops.

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  There is maintenance of the ecosystem to some extent due to the rearing of animals
and the cultivation of crops on the same farm.

Case studies- gletwyn farm

Location- outskirts of Harare along enterprise road

Size -1200 ha-of which 320 arable and 880 used for pasture.

Region- 2- has enough rainfall for crop production; red sandy loams are suitable for maize,
potatoes and soya beans. The area is near a large market which is Harare.

Inputs-1 manager, 1 mechanic. 30 workers,6 tractors, 3 lorries and 4 trucks

Seeds, fertilisers, lime, cattle, vaccines, labour

Processes-cultivation, planting, potato lifting, marketing crops, dipping, selling seed maize
harvesting, cattle fattening.

Outputs-maize, soya beans, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and seed maize.

Commercial ranching

This refers to the rearing of cattle on a large scale with the sole aim of selling them for a
profit.

Characteristics

 The farm covers large areas which are divided into paddocks
 Rotational grazing is practiced
 Large amounts of capital are needed to purchase the land, fence, drilling of
boreholes, irrigating fodder crops, paying workers and veterinary services for the
animals, purchase concentrate for fattening.
 Owned and operated by rich individuals or by parastatals .e.g. CSC. Lemco and union
carbide Mat south.
 There is extensive use of land characterised by low input per unit area of land.
 Artificial insemination can be practised to produce breeds with desirable
characteristics.
 No computers used
 Animal left to roam around looking for pastures
 Less capital required once initial capital has been used.
 Ranches scientifically managed
 Animals are vaccinated and dipped regularly
 Diseased animals are slaughtered or treated; quarantining is also done followed by
treatment.
 Cross breeding is done to suit conditions

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Advantages

 Earns the country valuable foreign currency as there is high demand for our beef in
the EU.
 It makes meat products available for local anfd foreign markets
 It leads to the sprouting of by-product industries such as glue manufacturing
companies and shoe making such as Bata.
 Makes use of semi- arid land which is otherwise not suitable for agriculture.
 Rotational grazing is sustainable.
 Allows for integration with game ranching especially in the drier parts of the country
e. g. In Mwenezi.

Problems –

 Frequent droughts- drill bore holes and construct dams.pen feed the animals.
 Pests and diseases-buy pesticides, dip the animals and avoid mixing the cattle with
the buffalo, quarantine and vaccinate , kill the affected.Cross breed with other breeds
which are disease resistance

Market gardening

The intensive growing of vegetables, fruits and flowers for sale.

Characteristics

 Land is under cultivation all year round

 Perishables which require special attention and precise harvesting are grown.
 It is capital intensive- for purchasing irrigation equipment, hybrid seedlings,
fertilisers agrochemicals , paying of workers,
 Construction of green houses, artificial incubators and automatic milkers
 It is labour intensive- picking of flowers and sorting them, nursing seedlings
 It employs qualified personnel who in turn ensure proper management and
expertise so as to survive the market completion.

Advantages

 It produces products in demand on the local market and abroad

 It brings in a lot of foreign currency
 Provides employment to university graduates.
 Encourages the growth of fertiliser and pesticides industries.

Disadvantages

 Can incur huge losses in the event of a natural or human triggered hazard. Crops can
be destroyed by frost, floods, hailstorms and strong winds.

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  Fluctuations ofn the market can reduce the farmer’s income.

Factors favouring intensive agriculture in MEDCs

 Large urban population has to be fed

 Farmers weel educated with all modern skills
 Strong commitment and support from government
 Fertile soils
 Mild, maritime climate favours the growth of pastures
 There is a large ready market in Europe
 Good transport links

Case study- honeydew farm

 Location- 14 km from Harare’s city centre into Greendale

 Size – 50 acres
 Crops gown- 30 different types including cabbages, tomatoes, onions, cucumbers,
garlic, carrots, cauliflower, beetroot, turnips, germ squash, fennel, lattice to name a
few.
 130 workers- less machinery because the farm is labour intensive.
 Crops are grown throughout the year
 Crop rotation is practiced.
 Compost manure is also used in addition to the use of fertilisers.
 Drainage dicthes are constructed to improve the poor drainage of the soils.
 Inter cropping is continuous and it ensures that there is a reduction in the incidences
of pests and diseases.
 The most serious pests are aphids, caterpillars and red spider mites to name a few.
 Leaf blight is the most common fungal disease.

Infrastructure

 7boreholes
 5 green houses
 Three main irrigation systems- overhead, microjet and T-tap drip system.
 The boreholes pump lage quantities of water needed at the farm e. g. Over 21000
liters per hour.
 The microjet system is used in green houses.

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 COMMERCIAL DAIRY FARMING
It is an intensive type of livestock farming for the purpose of producing milk and
related products.
 The system is capital intensive.
 It requires animal sheds and storage facilities for winter fodder.
 Common breeds are jersey brown to yellowish suited to hot humid
conditions ( produces milk with a high butter fat content)
 , Friesland – large animal with a large udder back and white in colour, can
tolerate hot dry regions, it is economical (preferred by most farmers as it has
a high milk production) and also supplies meat
 Guernsey- golden yellow to red with white marks second to jersey in milk fat.
 Requires temperate climates
 Milk is processed into cream, butter, cheese, condensed milk and powdered
milk
 Can be practiced on small areas.
 Requires veterinary services
 Automatic milkers vaccination
 Feeding towers
 Milking
 High out put per unit area.

In less economically developed countries transport plays a major role in the distribution of
dairy farms

 Dairy farms decrease with distance from the urban

 Where there are good road networks the farms can be some distance from the
market.

Agriculture in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe was once the bread basket of southern Africa producing most of the food crops
but it has since changed due to a number of factors.

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Zimbabwe can be divide into 6 agro ecological regions looking at annual rainfall and annual
temperature variations

Region1

 This region lies in the east of the country.

 It is characterized by rainfall of more than 1 000 mm/year (most of which falls
throughout the year),
 low temperatures,
 high altitude and
 steep slopes.
 The country's timber production is located in this region.
 The plantations are owned mainly by the State through the Forestry Commission and
by multinationals.
 There are several small owner-operated plantations and sawmills.
 it is ideally suitable for intensive diversified agriculture and livestock production,
 mainly dairy farming.
 Common crops are tropical crops such as coffee and tea,
 deciduous fruits, such as bananas and apples,
 and horticultural crops, such as potatoes, peas and other vegetables.
 Flowers, such as protease (Proteaceae spp.), are grown for export.

NARRAL REGION 2

 This region is located in the middle of the north of the country.

 The rainfall ranges from 750 to 1 000 mm/year.

26
  It is fairly reliable, falling from November to March/April.
 Because of the reliable rainfall and generally good soils, NR II is suitable for intensive
cropping and livestock production.
 It accounts for 75-80 percent of the area planted to crops in Zimbabwe.
 The cropping systems are based on flue-cured tobacco, maize, cotton, wheat,
soybeans, sorghum, groundnuts, seed maize and burley tobacco grown under dry
land production as well as with supplementary irrigation in the wet months.
 Irrigated crops include wheat and barley grown in the colder and drier months
(May-September).
 NR II is suitable for intensive livestock production based on pastures and pen-
fattening utilizing crop residues and grain.
 The main livestock production systems include beef, dairy, pig and poultry.
 Prior to 2000, the region was dominated by the large-scale farming subsector
characterized by highly mechanized farms of 1 000-2 000 ha under freehold title and
owner-operated.
 Following the agrarian and land reform programmes initiated in 1999/2000, a large
proportion of the farms were subdivided into smaller units and allocated to new
farmers under the A1 and A2 small-scale farming system.

NATURAL REGION III

 NR III is located mainly in the mid-altitude areas of the country.

 It is characterized by annual rainfall of 500-750 mm, mid-season dry spells and high
temperatures.
 Production systems are based on drought-tolerant crops and semi-intensive livestock
farming based on fodder crops.
 The predominant farming system is smallholder agriculture.
 Large-scale farming accounts for 15 percent of the arable land production,
 most of the land being used for extensive beef ranching (Roth, 1990).
 Smallholder agriculture in the communal farming areas is under relatively intensive
cropping systems.
 The main crops are maize (the staple food grain) and cotton (a major cash crop).
 NR III is suitable for the production of groundnuts and sunflowers as cash crops.

Natural Region IV

 NR IV is located in the low-lying areas in the north and south of the country.
 The characteristics of the region are: annual rainfall of 450-650 mm,
 severe dry spells during the rainy season, and frequent seasonal droughts.
 Although NR IV is considered unsuitable for dry land cropping, smallholder farmers
grow drought-tolerant varieties of maize, sorghum, pearl millet (mhunga) and finger
millet (rapoko).
 NR IV is ideally suitable for cattle production under extensive production systems
and for wildlife production.

Natural Region V

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  NR V covers the lowland areas below 900 m above sea level in both the north and
south of the country.
 The rainfall is less than 650 mm/year and highly erratic.
 Although NR V receives reasonable rainfall in the northern part of Zimbabwe along
the Zambezi River, its uneven topography and poor soils make it unsuitable for crop
production.
 Generally, NR V is suitable for extensive cattle production and game-ranching.
 Although both NR IV and NR V are too dry for crop production, households on the
communal lands in these regions grow grain crops (maize and millet) for their food
security and some cash crops such as cotton.
 Crop yields are extremely low and the risk of crop failure is high in one out of three
years (Rukuni and Eicher, 1994).
 Cattle and goat production are major sources of cash income.

NATURAL REGION 6

This is a more recent demarcation which does not appear on the map

 The area around the Tuli circle

 Consists of barren soils
 Unsuitable for arable farming
 Used mainly for wild life

Communal peasant farming in Zimbabwe

The chacteristics are those listed under sedentary farming

 In Zimbabwe communal farming is under semi-subsistence farming

 Farmers grow food crops ( millet,sorghum, rapoko, ground nuts and round nuts) and
cash crops ( cotton, paprika, maize and sunflowers)
 Land holdings are small 2-6 ha per family
 The system is labour intensive ( usually from family members
 Domestic animals such as cows, donkeys are used as draught power.
 Capital is from employed family members
 Production is limited because of the shortage of capital
 Most peasant farmers lack knowledge of new farming techniques ( AREX officers
help)
 Soil fertility is maintained by crop rotation and some animal manure is also added to
the fields.
 Some farmers are now increasingly using fertilisers and hybrid seeds.

Reasons why production of food is low in the communal areas of Zimbabwe

 Poor management
 Use of traditional methods of farming
 Low levels of technology and low level of skills

28
  Shortage of land suitable for farming
 Rapid population growth which exceeds food output
 Growing cash crops instead of food crops
 Land tenure system
 Low investment in farming
 Inheritance laws which lead to land fragmentation
 Lack of capital to buy inputs
 Poor soils due to over cultivation
 Lack of machinery
 Political interference
 Frequent droughts
 Pests and diseases
 Shortage of labour due to rapid rural to urban migration by the economically active.

Ways of increasing out put

 Educating farmers on modern farming methods.

 Land consolidation for better profitable farming.
 Land reclamation to increase area under crops.
 Use of artificial fertilisers.
 Use of hybrid seeds.
 Government assistance through issuing loans.
 Resettlement of people on fertile land.
 Use of green houses in winter and irrigation such that production is all year round.
 Changing the communal ownership to private ownership.
 Use of agro chemicals for pests.
 Use of HYVs.
 Use of green revolution technologies.
 Input schemes and technical assistance.
 Adequate research and extension services especially on rainfall, soils and type of
crop to be grown.
 Use of genetically modified varieties of seeds.
 Switch from cash crops to food crops.
 Heifer project to increase draught power.

The role of information technology in agriculture

 Computers – these can be used in irrigation to detect when plants need water and
the water is supplied automatically.
 Use of computerised machines in the milking of dairy cows.
 Use of computers for the incubation of eggs, this serves time and labour.
 Storage of agricultural data base on computers which can quickly be retrieved and
used when needed
 Office automation improves communication with farmers in the same line of
production. E. g telephone, fax.
 Easy and fast transactions with consumers and suppliers.

29
  Status of orders and consumers kept on real time.
 Management information systems, help generate information to assist farmers in
decision making.

Land reform in Zimbabwe

Land reform in Zimbabwe is an attempt by governments to correct a colonial imbalance by

equitably redistributing land to the landless Zimbabwean rather than a situation whereby 1
% of the population ( whites) occupy more than 70 % of the land.

It can be divided into 2 phases

 Phase 1-1982-1997
 Phase 2000 0mwards.

Aims of the land reform programme

 Rectify the colonial land take over

 Utilise land lying idle and increase food production in the process.
 Equitably redistribute the land to the majority blacks
 Relieve pressure on overcrowded communal lands
 Give land to the landless
 Improve the living standards of the poor.
 Give land to people displaced during the war of liberation.
 Create jobs on farms owned by individuals and co-operatives.
 Provide a token of appreciation to those who fought during the liberation struggle.
 To facilitate profitable farming by the peasants.

Phase I

1980s

 It began soon after independence in 1980 through an act of parliament which was
drawn in the spirit of the Lancaster house agreement i.e. willing seller, willing buyer.
This could not be changed for 10 years.
 The government only acquired 40 % of the required 8 million hectares of land to
resettle about 162000 families.
 The government only managed to resettle 71 000 families.

1992

 Another act of parliament was enacted to remove the willing seller willing buyer
close and to limit the size of the farm and to introduce a land tax which was
never implemented.
 The aim was to speed up the land reform programme.

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  The act empowered govt to compulsorily buy the land for redistribution however
land owners could challenge the decision by government in court.
 In the 1990s 2.47 million acres were acquired and this benefited only less than 20
000 families
 The land acquired during this phase was of poor quality according to the Human
Rights Watch
 1997 the government conducted a land identification exercise where it published
a list of 1471 farms it intended to acquire compulsorily.
 The costs were to be paid by the British government
 The then secretary of state for the labour government rejected the responsibility
of paying for the land if it were acquired.
 In 1998 the Zim government published a policy frame work on land reform and
resettlement programme phase 2

Phase 2

 LRRP II
 The policy frame work envisaged the compulsory purchase of over 50 000 square
kilometres from the 112 000 owned by white commercial farmers, public
corporations, churches, MNCs in the next 5 years between 1998-2003
 Broken down it meant that the government was going to compulsorily buy 10 000
square kilometres of land each year.
 In 1998 September the government of Zimbabwe held a donor conference on Harare
on the LRRPII to inform the donor community and involve them in the exercise.
 48 countries attended and endorsed unanimously the programme

1999

 The commercial farmers union offered 15 000 square kilometres of land for sale
 The constitution was amended so that acquisition of land was to be done
compulsorily without compensation.
 The draft constitution was put to a referendum where it was rejected
 A few days later war veterans decided to march on white owned farms biting drums
singing and dancing
 As marching continued they began seizing the land violently and when the violence
ended they had seized 110 000 square kilometres of land.

2004

 The minister for lands , land reform and resettlement John Nkomo declared that all
land would soon become state land
 Farm land deeds would be replaced by 99 year leases and wild life conservancies
would be limited to 25 years.
 Farmers resettled under A1 and A2 Models

2006

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  Newly resettled farmers fail to secure loans because of lack of collateral
 Minister of agriculture was considering legislation which would compel commercial
banks to issue loans to the newly resettled farmers.
 Failure oif which the operating licence would be withdrawn.

T he land reform in Zimbabwe was a strong tool gfor the 200, 2008 and 2013 presidential
elections which saw Zanu Pf winning resoundingly according to the reports puplished by the
ZANU PF spokes person.

Results of the land reform programme

 Many thousands of people resettled

 Living standards raised
 People given the right to own land
 Crop production per family increased for those who were resettled.
 Some equity in the ownership of the land established
 Commercial farmers abandon their operations
 Inexperienced new farmers led to a reduction in the overall production of food crops
hence the country experienced food shortages from 2008 -2009
 Movement of animal across ecological regions saw the spread of animal diseases
such as foot and mouth and anthrax.
 Lack of technical knowhow saw a general decrease in the national herd.
 Poor quality livestock produced
 However this has since improved due to increased grazing land and new innovative
ideas

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Changes in agriculture

Organic farming

Many of today's farm systems are a direct consequence of farming practices originating
hundreds of years ago. There have been numerous changes in other areas. One significant
change in recent years has been the movement to organic farming.

We can define organic farming, as:

"Farming that does not use industrially produced chemicals as pesticide, herbicide, fertiliser.
Nor does it use drugs to increase the size / yield of its livestock."

Organic farming has increased for two reasons:

 It has been led by farmers with smallholdings who feel a deep commitment to the
environment.
 It is also consumer led as people are concerned about the chemical content and
safety of many foods. The BSE crisis has furthered the demand for organically grown
food.

Yields are lower and costs greater but people are prepared to pay more for organically
produced food.

33
Many people believe that organic farming is a return to more traditional farming method.
This does seem to be the case for many practices.

For example, there has been a return to crop rotation and fallow periods and manure and
crop residues are being used instead of chemical fertilisers. A greater diversity of crops is
grown - often in the same field so that if a pest does strike it will not affect the whole crop.

All of this has clear benefits for the environment and is an example of increased
sustainability in agriculture.

There are however some concerns. Converting a farm to be officially organic is a lengthy and
very expensive process. It can take five years for a farm to be recognised as organic. In the
meantime the farmer is paying extra costs for a lower yield with no extra revenue.

Impact of agriculture on the physical environment

Loss of natural habitat

Farming can lead to the loss of natural habitats. One of the most significant natural habitats
for the UK's flora and fauna is the hedgerow. However thousands of miles of hedgerow have
been removed and the rest is still under threat.

The total amount of hedgerow removed or damaged is 6 x the circumference of the globe.
This is destroying natural habitats and changing the very nature and look of our rural
landscape.

Increased mechanisation in agriculture encourages farmers to increase the size of their

fields. This they do by removing hedgerows. The UK has lost over 25% of its hedgerows in
the last fifty years. The USA is also concerned about the effect of hedgerow loss that is
removing the habitat for several butterfly species - the monarch being one example.

In Ireland the importance of hedgerows is now recognised and farmers receive

compensation for preserving them.

The following table outlines the arguments for and against hedgerows:

For hedgerow preservation: Against hedgerow preservation:

They are a unique and balanced ecosystem. They
They can provide homes for pests and
may harbour pests but they also harbour the
weeds which damage crops.
predator of that pest.
They are a hindrance to the large
They contain a vast array of wildlife including
machinery that makes farming efficient
many endangered species and they increase bio-
and reduces food prices to the
diversity.
consumer.
Evidence to suggest that they act as a natural They need to be maintained which is

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barrier to the spread of disease. They also act as costly.
wind breaks that protect crops and reduce soil
erosion.
They were planted by farmers in the first
They are a part of our rural heritage.
place so are not traditional.

Farmers to increase the available land and reduce the potential disease from stagnant water
have drained ponds. This removes another habitat for birds, fish, insects and plants.

The soil itself is an ecosystem and inappropriate farming techniques can lead to soil erosion.
Overgrazing, over cultivation and deforestation all damage the soil making it more prone to
the effect of erosion. This can be made worse if hedgerow has been removed.

The hedgerow acts as a natural windbreak and the roots help hold the soil together. In East
Anglia where much of the hedgerow has been removed soil loss through erosion is twice the
global average.

Water will also wash away soil. In some instances this is a consequence of poor farming
techniques. If the soil has a low organic content then runoff is increased - as there is less to
soak up the moisture. Run-off over the surface leads to erosion especially if the soil is poorly
bonded.

Farmers often have to plough up and down slopes so creating channels that increase run-off
and erosion.

In the developing world the pressure growing populations and foreign debt repayments has
seen the removal of natural vegetation cover to make way for cash cropping. This removes
precious habitats and can increase soil erosion - as happened in the Brazilian rainforest.

Whilst in other areas (e.g. Bali) subsistence farmers have to farm very steep slopes because
of the population pressures. Whilst terracing reduces erosion Indonesia is still facing major
problems.

Use of chemicals

As farmers attempt to increase yields so they can increase their use of fertiliser, pesticides
or slurry. Each of these can have potentially damaging effects on the environment.

Eutrophication

Fertiliser and slurry are used to increase the nitrogen content of the soil so encouraging
healthy plant growth. If too much is used then it can be leached into underground water
supplies and rivers. This is called eutrophication. It then encourages algal and plant growth
in the river or lake.

This algae and other autotrophs ( brainy name for plants) multiply rapidly then die off as
oxygen is used up. Bacteria then multiply as the plants decompose.

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These bacteria use up any remaining oxygen and produce toxic bi-products. The lack of
oxygen and increased toxicity kill fish life. This can encourage even more harmful bacteria.

Pesticides are another problem. Without pesticide crop yields would be drastically reduced
but many objectors claim pesticides are harmful to humans.

Indeed in the developing world there are countless examples of pesticide poisoning. In the
UK the "Mammal Society" claim there are 24 species in danger of extinction as a
consequence of pesticide use.

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