CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Sources of water and their accessibility

Drinking water is a basic requirement for life and a determinant of

standard of living. Up to 70% of theEarth's surface is covered by water
which is eithersurface or ground water(UNESCO, 2008). Surface water is
water in rivers, lakesor fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally
replenished by precipitation and lost through discharge to the oceans,
evaporation, evapo-transpiration and sub-surface seepage. Sub-surface
water or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and
rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water
table(World Bank, 2011).

Water resources are very useful in various sectors such as;

agricultural, industrial, household and recreational activities. Virtually all of
these human uses require fresh water.97.5% of all water on Earth is salty
leaving only 2.5% as fresh water(UNDP, 2003).Slightly, over two thirds of
this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh
water is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present
above ground or in the air (Gray&Alde, 2007). Fresh water is a renewable
resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing.
Water demand already exceeds supplyin many parts of the world (Chartres
&Varma, 2010) and as the world populationcontinues to rise, demand of
water also rises.

Only the humid tropical zones in central and West Africa have
abundant water. According to Sharma et al.,(1996), eight countries were
suffering from water stress or scarcity in 1990; this situation has become
worse as a consequence of rapid population growth, expanding
urbanization, and increased economic development. By 2000, about 300
million Africans were living in a water-scarce environmentand by 2025;the
number of countries experiencing water stress will rise to 18 affecting 600
million people (World Bank 2011).

The rapid urban population growth is characterized by poor

sanitation, environmentally related infections, as well as psychological and
social illnesses (Molden, 2008). The development rate is also slower since
some activities are based on water for high output, but due to the shortage
of water supply, the output is low. Sanitation improvement usually results in
reduced cases of water related diseases and this is only possible if the
water supply rate is checked(Kaluli etal.,2009).

2.2. Causes of Erratic Water Supply and Water Shortage

Erraticwater supply has various causes, most of which are capable of

being remedied or alleviated. Water use has been growing at more than
twice the rate of population increase in the last century, and, an increasing
number of regionsare chronically short of water (European Commission,
2007).In future, most of world’s population will be experiencing water
stress;situation will be and is catalyzed by rapidly growing urban areas
which place heavy pressure on neighbouring water resources (Hoektra&
Chapagain, 2007).Irrigated agriculture, which represents the bulk of the
demand for water in most countries, is also usually the first sector affected
by erratic supply and this result in a decreased capacity to maintain per
capita food production while meeting water needs for domestic, industrial
and environmental purposes ((IPCC, 2001). In order to sustain their needs,
most countries need to focus on the efficient use of all water sources
(groundwater, surface water and rainfall) and on water allocation strategies
that maximize the economic and social returns to limited water resources,
and at the same time enhance the water productivity of all sectors(IPCC,
2001).The leading cause of water crisis is mismanagement by government
officials. In the World Water Vision Report which asserts that the water
crisis faced today in many 12countries is not about having too little water to
satisfy human needs, but, is a crisis of managing water so badly that
billions of people and the environment suffer badly (Karanja, 2008).

An expanding population (high population growth rate) has over-

stretched the available fresh water resources leading to water scarcity
which translates to low water supply. In reference to Urban Water
Solutions, 30 years ago there was a third of water available to people but in
another 30 years it will be down to a third of current levels. The population
is rising and the catchment area for water is declining. Kenya has now just
1.7% of forest, far below the 10% recommended for any country(Birongo&
Lee, 2005).

Environmental degradation and climate change has further weighed

on the water shortage problem as they contaminate water resources and
reduce the natural storage of water (Kandji, 2006). Due to prolonged dry
spells, the rate of evaporation is high and this has led to drying of water
tables, reducing the level and amounts of water available for use.
Environmental degradation due to deforestation, sand harvesting, erosion
due to human related activities has led to drying of catchment areas
leading tolow amounts of water available (IPCC, 2001)

2.3. Environmental Factors Leading to Erratic water Supply

Environmental factors leading to erratic water supply are caused by

demand side factors like over extraction and pollution as they are
interdependent. These lead to increased depletion and deteriorations in
water quantity and quality. This has greatly led to reduced amounts of
water available for consumption (Diwakar&Nagaraj, 2002). Major
environmental factors causing inadequate drinking water supply include
non availability of constant water sources and high dependency on
groundwater. Groundwater has been experiencing wide fluctuations and
cyclically declining in many countries due to geographical and geological
conditions, rainfall fluctuations and low recharge rate (GoI, 2002). Depletion
of groundwater (a supply factor), as over extraction (a demand factor) also
contributes significantly to this depletion. The rapid and accelerated
withdrawal of groundwater to meet competing demands from agriculture,
industry and other sectors has led to decline in the groundwater table(GoK,
2004).

Lack of frequent precipitation during the rainy seasons has caused

water shortages during the following dry season, even though during the
dry seasonrainfall is normal or above normal. Thishas largely resulted to
over dependence onground water translating to over extraction of
underground water (Rajamarthanda, 1998).