Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Research Paper

Tradition of use on medicinal species in Valfurva (Sondrio, Italy)

Lisa Dei Cas a,b, Francesca Pugni c, Gelsomina Fico a,b,c,n
a
Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy
b
Orto Botanico “G.E. Ghirardi”, Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Religione 25, 25088 Toscolano Maderno,
Brescia, Italy
c
Rete degli Orti Botanici della Lombardia; Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: In the past Alpine populations were isolated from comforts of industrial
Received 20 August 2014 and technological development present in large cities and, therefore, they were obliged to find in nature
Received in revised form a source of sustenance and care. Traditional use of plant is a wealth of local knowledge that is likely to be
20 December 2014
lost. This work, carried out during 2012, aims to collect, analyze and process information on the species
Accepted 24 December 2014
Available online 21 January 2015
used for medicinal, veterinary, cosmetic, domestic, ritual and religious purposes by the inhabitants of
Valfurva, in the Province of Sondrio (Italy). Furthermore it is a means for the preservation of local
Keywords: traditions regarding such uses and increases the ethnobotanical data from Northern Italy, till now poorly
Ethnobotany documented.
Medicinal plants
Methods: Our survey was conducted by semi-structered interviews. We interviewed 92 people, aged
North Italy
from 23 to 97 y.o., born or resident in Valfurva. All information collected and concerning their use of
Alpine area
Indigenous traditional knowledge plants, were analyzed using ethnobotanical indices such as Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Relative
Importance (RI) and Factor Informant Consensus (FIC).
Results: Our study stated that people living in Valfurva use 126 species belonging to 48 families. Findings
revealed that the most cited species is Achillea moschata Wulfen, with values of RFC and RI equal to 1.00
and 1.12 respectively. Furthermore, 95 species were collected in the wild and 31 were cultivated. The
most commonly used part plants were leaves, flowers, fruits, roots and complete aerial parts. The most
frequent preparation methods were infusion, decoction and poultice. Among the recorded species, 91 of
them are used for medicinal purposes, 72 for cooking, 19 for veterinary purposes, 10 for animal feed, 12
for cosmetic practices, 7 for religious or ritual purposes and 45 for domestic and various uses. The validity
of the species use emerged in our survey is confirmed by scientific literature and research conducted on
the same topics.
Conclusions: This study increases ethnobotanical data coming from Italian Alps, whose regions have been
so far hardly investigated. Our study confirms the interest in species already mentioned in previous
surveys and placings. It also provides evidences which could be usefully exploited by new investigations
aimed at knowing the active metabolites found responsible for plants use in traditional medicine.
& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction activities by the younger generation, and changes of rhythms and

In the Alpine regions several causes are gradually leading to the
loss of local traditions, handed down mostly orally, including those
linked to so-called “family pharmacy”. Among them, the exodus of
the Alpine populations, the development of tourism-related activ-
ities, with the consequent abandonment of the ancient farming
n
Corresponding author at: Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università
degli Studi di Milano, Via Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy.
Tel.: þ 39 2 50319375; fax: þ39 2 51314573.
E-mail addresses: lisa.deicas@studenti.unimi.it (L. Dei Cas),
francescapugni@yahoo.it (F. Pugni), gelsomina.fico@unimi.it (G. Fico).
lifestyle habits. In northern Italy and especially in the Alps the
ethnobotanical research has been neglected: only a few works,
mostly developed over the past five years, document ethnobota-
nical studies of the Italian Alpine regions (Coassini Lokar and
Poldini, 1988; Grabherr, 2009; Pieroni and Giusti, 2009; Vitalini
et al., 2009, 2013). The alpine environment is a rich source of plant
biodiversity and cultural biodiversity in general; the aim of this
work was to collect, analyze and process data related to species
exploited by the inhabitants of Valfurva, Sondrio (Lombardy, Italy)
for medicinal purposes, as well as for food, cosmetic, veterinary,
domestic, ritual and religious uses, and as a tool for preserving and
promoting local traditions.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.12.054
0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
114 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area
Valfurva is an Italian town of 2703 inhabitants (ISTAT, 2012)
located on the edge of the North-East Province of Sondrio in
Lombardy (north Italy). Its municipality is the second for territorial
extension in Lombardy, with 215 km2. The economy of the valley in
the past was based on frequent trades and traditional craft activities
developed and maintained long-isolated from external influences.
These, from the end of the nineteenth century, were joined by the
first tourist activities related to mountaineering and spa treatments,
practice, the latter, which has now gone lost.
Valfurva's profile is typical of a glacial valley, with wide bottom
and steep sides.
The lithology of the area mainly consists of metamorphic rocks,
crystal clear and markedly schistose, crumbly, crossed by elongated
lenses of ancient marbles. The only exception is the ridge that
dominates the right side in the initial part of the valley, consisting
of calcareous and dolomitic sediments. The valley is clearly defined
by a large chain of mountains arranged in a large semicircle. In
Valfurva, in addition to Valfurva itself, four other secondary valleys
can be distinguished: Zebrù valley, Cedèc valley, Forni valley and
Gavia valley. Many creeks flow tributaries of the river Frodolfo are
present in the area; there are also many glacial excavation lakes.
The climate of Valfurva presents two different situations. The
lower part of the valley is characterized by low rainfall and strong
continentality, whereas the top has a typical alpine climate. Across
the valley, rainfall is still concentrated in the summer.
The different microclimate and lithological aspects of such a
large area cause great differences in the local vegetation. The
limestone cliffs areas are suitable for potential vegetation series
typical of these soils, while large areas mostly occupied by
phyllites are colonized by series which prefer high degree of silica.
Mountain hay meadows are characterized by the presence of
Salvia pratensis L., Heracleum sphondylium L., Bromus erectus Huds.
and Festuca pratensis Huds. During spring they are colored in many
shades given, among others, by Campanula scheuchzeri Vill., Silene
vulgaris (Moench) Garcke and Ranunculus acris L. In Valfurva
xerothermophilic bushes of Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A.Nelson,
Prunus spinosa L. and Berberis vulgaris L. have been found. The
special climatic characteristics of the area foster an unusual
altitudinal extension of the coniferous forests, mainly represented
by Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link and Pinus cembra L. In the initial part of
the dale, it happens to see a sparse forest of Pinus sylvestris L. that
sometimes, in the valley, is replaced by “park formations” of Larix
decidua Mill. Where the limestone outcrops, a very well repre-
sented conifer in the valley is Pinus mugo Turra.
In the undergrowth, depending on the type of terrain and
climate, it is possible to observe in different proportions some
Rhododendron ferrugineum L., Erica carnea L., Arctostaphylos uva-
ursi (L.) Sprengel, Rubus idaeus L., Ribes petraeum Wulf., Juniperus
communis L. and Vaccinium myrtillus L. Beyond the limit of the
forest, gradually appear alpine meadows, dotted, in summer, with
the colors given by local spontaneous flowers such as Gentiana
acaulis L., Soldanella alpina L. and different species of Primula.
Windy areas are dominated by dwarf and twisted shrubberies
such as Loiseleuria and Empetrum; areas which are strongly subject
to winter avalanches have undergone the formation of gullies
which are ruled by the Alnus alnobetula (Ehrh.) K.Koch.
Almost the whole municipal area of Valfurva belongs to the
Stelvio National Park, which carefully regulates the collection of
plant species with laws and disciplines that depend on the
“Regional Law of March 31, 2008 – No. 10” with additional
specifications described in the “Decree No. 7/12 of 15 June 2012”
of the park itself.
2.2. Ethnobotanical methodology
The survey was conducted in Valfurva during 2012 and it was
characterized by the direct presence of the researcher within the
local culture.
As we aimed to investigate the use of plant species in different
traditional use categories, we interviewed local people using semi-
structured interviews. In this way, we reached different goals:
identifying the plants known by locals and how they are used, the
purposes and methods of plants uses and preparation, the verna-
cular name, the place and the period they used to collect each plant.
Before interviewing local people, we conducted a literature
survey on the local flora, mainly on the ground of wide consulta-
tion texts (Massara, 1834; Pignatti, 1982; Dalla Fior, 1985; Ferranti,
2005) and we created a first partial list of plant species accom-
panied by pictures and photographs.
We interviewed 92 people (64 women and 28 men), from 23 to
97 years old (17% under the age of 40, 21% over the age of 80, 5% of
whom were above 90 years old). Most respondents are pensioners
(46%), housewives, hoteliers and restaurateurs, orders, factory
workers and farmers. Most of them (84%) were born, grew up
and live on site; 46% have a primary school education, 22% a
middle school education, 28% received the high school diploma,
while only 4% have a university degree.
Most interviewees were audio-recorded, so that the interviews
were more fluent and their re-elaboration easier. Furthermore, the
recordings document in detail the local language with all its
dialectal inflexions, which are stronger and more marked than
those, “more contaminated”, of the surrounding valleys. Although
the elderly still exclusively speak the furič, the local dialect, the
spoken language in Valfurva is Italian.
In conclusion, for each species, we have set up a photographic
archive and herbarium specimens which are currently stored in
the Department of Biosciences of the University of Milan.
2.3. Ethnobotanical data analysis
We analyzed, evaluated and compared both the collected
information and the local value of the documented plant species
by using three ethnobotanical indices: the Relative Frequency of
Citation (RCF), the Relative Importance (RI) and the Factor Infor-
mant Consensus (FIC).
The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) (Tardío and Pardo-de-
Santayana, 2008) shows the local importance of each species and
it is given by the following formula RFC ¼FC/N, where FC is the
number of informants mentioning the use of the species and N is
the total number of informants participating in the survey.
Regardless of the number of informants citing the species,
Relative Importance (RI) (Albuquerque et al., 2006) describes the
versatility of each species and follows the formula RI ¼NUC þNT,
where NUC is the number of use-categories of a given species
divided by the total number of use-categories of the most versatile
species and NT is the number of types of uses attributed to a given
species divided by the total number of types of uses attributed to
the most important taxon.
The Factor Informant Consensus (FIC) (Trotter and Logan, 1986)
indicates the agreement among the informants (higher when
closer to 1) about the use of plants to treat the diseases of different
organ systems (respiratory, digestive, tegumentary, circulatory,
muscular/skeletal, endocrine, sensory, nervous and urogenital). It
is calculated by the following formula: FIC ¼(nur  nt)/(nur 1),
where nur is the number of used citations in each category and nt
is the number of used taxa.
It was not possible to calculate indices such as Ethnophyto-
nomic Index (EPI) and Ethnobotanicity Index (EI), because they
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134
would require the total number of plant species of the estimated
area: these data have never been recorded in Valfurva.
3. Results and discussions
All the collected data are synthesized in a table (Table 1), that
provides for each plant species the family, the botanical name, the
herbarium voucher sheets, the geographic location and the period
of collection, the vernacular name, the parts of plants used, the
purpose of its use, its preparation and administration, and the RFC
and RI indices.
The study provided information about 126 useful plants belonging
to 48 families and 105 genera. Asteraceae is the dominant botanical
family with the largest number of cited species (19), followed by
Lamiaceae (12), Rosaceae (8) and Apiaceae (6). Achillea moschata
Wulfen is the most cited species, used and quoted by 100% of
respondents, followed by Thymus serpyllum L., Urtica dioica L., Artemisia
genipi Weber ex Stechm. and Arnica montana L., cited by 85%, 80%, 73%
and 71%, respectively. The interviewees cited 6 species, which have
been cultivated until the first half of the twentieth century and which
were widely used in the past for various purposes: Linum usitatissi-
mum L., Avena sativa L., Hordeum vulgare L., Secale cereale L., Triticum
spp. (the most plausible T. monococcum L., T. dicoccum L. and T.
dicoccoides L.) and Zea mays L. Among 126 used species, 95 are
spontaneous, 31 grow in garden or in pots, but only 28 species are
used for therapeutic purposes.
The parts of plants most commonly used for preparations are
the leaves (42%), followed by flowers (24%), the aerial parts (17%),
fruits (15%) and roots, bulbs and tubers (14%). Other parts of plants
cited by locals while interviewing are trunks and twigs (11%),
stalks (7%), seeds and caryopsis (6%), fibers, latex, gels and juices
(6%), buds (4%), resin (2%), pine cones (2%), thallus (2%), stigmas
(0.8%) (Zea mays L.) and barks (0.8%) (Betula pendula Roth.).
Generally, figures refer to the total number of plants mentionated
by the interviewees. Sometimes, more than one part of the same
species is used for traditional purposes, and the same species may
be used for different purposes or with different preparations or
methods.
The most commonly used methods of preparation are infusion
and decoction, both for internal and external administration (oral
use 64%, wraps 22%, washing 11% and inhalations 3%), followed by
macerations (from which liqueurs are derived), syrups and plas-
ters. Some species are also used to prepare salves, ointments and
creams, oils and tinctures, and healthy food (jams, soups and
salads).
3.1. Human medicine
Our survey stated that 91 species are used for therapeutic
purposes. Among them, 32 species (25%) are mentioned as
remedies for respiratory diseases (bronchitis, cough, catarrh,
asthma, sore throat), 31 species (25%) are used to treat digestive
disorders (sluggish digestion, heartburn, bloating, loss of appetite).
29 species (23%) are used to treat urogenital disorders and in
particular as remedies for diuresis, cystitis and similar inflamma-
tions, menstrual pains and to stimulate and facilitate delivery in
pregnant women. 26 plants (21%) are used to treat dermatological
problems (wounds, irritations, burns) and 23 (18%) are used
against nervous system diseases as a tonic, calming and sedative.
Muscular/skeletal diseases are treated with 19 plants (15%),
against rheumatism, arthritis and joint pain; 10 (8%) species are
used to treat cardiovascular disorders and regulate blood pressure
and only 6 species (5%) are used as remedies for sense organ
disorders and eye care.
115
A literature search has been carried out in order to confirm or
refute the traditional use. Only 41 of the 91 used species were
found in previous works that investigate the healing properties
described. Several studies confirm the properties of 40 species:
Achillea millefolium L. digestive (Benedek et al., 2006), anti-
inflammatory (Kumysheva, 2009), antispasmodic (Lemmens-
Gruber, 2006), healing (Jalali et al., 2012), Alchemilla vulgaris L.
healing (Ravi et al., 2007), Allium cepa L. antibiotic (Perez et al.,
2011), diuretic (Adeshina et al., 2011; Grover et al., 2011), Allium
sativum L. antibacterial (Ziarlarimi et al., 2011; Lekshmi et al.,
2012), antihypertensive (Bhandari, 2011), deworming (Sunada
et al., 2011), Allium schoenoprasum L. antiseptic (Ibrahim et al.,
2009), Apium graveolens L. anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic
(Abdel-Moein et al., 2011), Arctium lappa L. diuretic (Tita et al.,
2012), care of skin diseases (Chan et al., 2011), Arctostaphylos uva-
ursi (L.) Spreng. anti-inflammatory (Matsuda et al., 1992), diuretic
(Beaux et al., 1998), Arnica montana L. anti-inflammatory (Macêdo
et al., 2004), Berberis vulgaris L. purifying (Huseini et al., 2012),
Betula pendula Roth diuretic (Peev et al., 2010), Calendula officinalis
L. anti-inflammatory and healing (Singh et al., 2011), Carum carvi L.
digestive (Atapour et al., 2009; Samojlik et al., 2012), Cetraria
islandica (L.) Ach. antimicrobial (Kovac-Besovic et al., 2003),
Chelidonium majus L. keratolytic (Vavreckova et al., 1996), Cheno-
podium album L. anti-asthmatic (Mousavi et al., 2008), deworming
(Abdul et al., 2007), Cichorium intybus L. purifying and hepatopro-
tector (Huseini et al., 2012), Equisetum arvense L. anti-inflamma-
tory, analgesic and antitumor (Asgarpanah and Roohi, 2012),
Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim anti-inflammatory and analgesic
(Pashinskiy et al., 2006), Fraxinus excelsior L. anti-inflammatory
and anti-rheumatic (Ivanovska et al., 1996), Hordeum vulgare L.
laxative (Odes et al., 1986), Hypericum perforatum L. anti-
inflammatory (Meinke et al., 2012), analgesic (Galeotti et al.,
2010), calming and sedative (Crupi et al., 2011), Lavandula angu-
stifolia Mill. calming and sedative (Field et al., 2008), anti-
inflammatory and analgesic (Valiollah et al., 2003), Linum usita-
tissimum L. laxative (Xu et al., 2012), Matricaria chamomilla L.
antiseptic (Mohammad, 2011), calming and sedative (Kesmati
et al., 2009), Melissa officinalis L. sedative and relaxing (Miladi-
Gorji et al., 2011; Ghayour et al., 2012), Ocimum basilicum L.
antispasmodic and relaxing (Boskabady et al., 2005), Pimpinella
anisum L. digestive (Robles-Zepeda et al., 2011), anti-asthmatic
(Haggag et al., 2003), Plantago major L. anti-inflammatory and
disinfectant (Kumysheva, 2009), Primula veris L. sedative (Jager et
al., 2006), Rosa canina L. supplement of vitamin C (Nueleanu et al.,
2008), Salvia officinalis L. anti-inflammatory (Melo et al., 2012),
Sambucus nigra L. antiviral (Krawitz et al., 2011), laxative (Picon et
al., 2010), Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg. purifying
(Huseini et al., 2012), diuretic (Clare et al., 2009), Thymus serpyllum
L. antibacterial (Kavita et al., 2011), Tussilago farfara L. anti-tussive
(Li et al., 2012), Urtica dioica L. diuretic (Tahri et al., 2000),
Vaccinium myrtillus L. improvement of the circulation (Persson
et al., 2009), Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. anti-inflammatory (Wang
et al., 2005), Verbascum thapsus L. anti-inflammatory (Mehdi-
nezhad et al., 2012). The only refutation is related to Daucus carota
L. (in the tradition used as anti-asthmatic) whose phytochemicals
components are investigated, in different works (Al-Qaoud et al.,
2006; Bircher et al., 1994; Ricci et al., 2005), for their potential
allergenicity in susceptible patients.
We have not been able to find, instead, scientific evidence
about the healing properties of Achillea moschata Wulfen (diges-
tive, hemostatic and healing, analgesic), Artemisia genipi Weber ex
Stechm. and Artemisia umbelliformis Lam. (digestive), Juniperus
communis L. (anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and analgesic in parti-
colar for urogenital problems), Malva neglecta Wallr. and Malva
sylvestris L. (emollient, decongestant and anti-inflammatory), Pinus
mugo Turra (expectorant), Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link. (expectorant),
116 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1
Species used in Valfurva with whole description of their use.
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 117

Table 1 (continued )
118 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 119

Table 1 (continued )
120 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 121

Table 1 (continued )
122 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 123

Table 1 (continued )
124 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 125

Table 1 (continued )
126 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )
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Table 1 (continued )
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Table 1 (continued )
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134 129

Table 1 (continued )
130 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134

Table 1 (continued )

Table 2
Factor Informants Consensus (FIC) on the use of plant taxa for physiological apparatuses.

System No. of used citations No. of used taxa FIC

Digestive 357 31 0.92

Musculoskeletal 203 19 0.91
Integumentary 221 26 0.89
Respiratory 294 32 0.89
Circulatory 69 10 0.87
Urogenital 185 29 0.85
Sense organs 33 6 0.84
Nervous 113 23 0.80
TOT. 1475 153

Larix decidua Mill. (healing and disinfectant) very well known and Cyanus segetum Hill (anti-inflammatory), Cynara cardunculus L. subsp.
used by respondents, and also of Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm. scolymus (L.) Hegi (diuretic), Sonchus asper (L.) Hill (keratolytic),
(diuretic and anti-inflammatory), Artemisia absinthium L. (digestive), Brassica oleracea L. var. sabauda (anti-inflammatory and anti-
 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134
rheumatic), Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik (hemostatic), Nas-
turtium officinale R. Br. (healing), Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (sooth-
ing), Beta vulgaris L. (inducer of labor), Euphorbia cyparissias L.
(keratolytic), Gentiana punctata L. (digestive), Mentha spicata L.,
Mentha arvensis L. and Mentha x piperita L. (digestive, antiseptic
and relaxing), Rosmarinus officinalis L. (balsamic, tonic, to lower
pressure), Salvia pratensis L. (digestive, anti-inflammatory,
analgesic), Laurus nobilis L. (digestive and expectorant), Zea mays
L. (diuretic and anti-inflammatory), Oxalis acetosella L. (digestive
and against heartburn), Rumex acetosa L. subsp. acetosa (anti-
inflammatory), Ranunculus acris L. (keratolytic), Prunus spinosa L.
(anti-asthmatic), Rubus idaeus L. (anti-inflammatory and muscle
relaxant), Galium aparine L. (purifying, diuretic, against skin
diseases and glandular inflammation), Euphrasia alpina (L.)
Bubani (anti-inflammatory), Heracleum sphondylium L. (digestive
and aperitif), Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss (against traveling
sickness), Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (energizing), Eriophorum
scheuchzeri Hoppe (hemostatic), Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott
(anti-fatigue), Medicago sativa L. (energizing), Gentiana acaulis L.
(digestive), Ribes rubrum L. (laxative, expectorant), Secale cereale
L. (expectorant), Rheum rhabarbarum L. (depurative), Rumex
alpinus L. (antinflammatory and analgesic), Musci species plurimae
(antinflammatory), Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Schimp.
(analgesic and anti-spasmodic) and Solanum tuberosum L. var.
kennebec (decongestant, anti-inflammatory and expectorant).
3.2. Culinary uses
Our survey points out that 72 species (out of 126) are cited as
being traditionally used for food purposes. Many species are used
as flavorings in first and second courses or in traditional liqueurs;
as an example we can cite Juniperus communis L., Thymus serpyllum
L., Achillea moschata Wulfen and Gentiana punctata L. Many fruit
species are used by locals for cooking preparations, which can be
stored for a long time after packaging, such as jams or traditional
liqueurs. The young seedlings' leaves of species like Urtica dioica L.
and Chenopodium bonus-henricus L. are used to cook first courses,
such as soups, risotto or gnocchi. Many plants, such as species of
the genus Mentha, Primula veris L. and Viola tricolor L., are used for
infusions, teas and drinks with pleasant taste, or added in small
amounts in salads. Traditionally, many spontaneous flower species
are commonly used to fresh salads: Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber
ex F.H.Wigg. (leaves), Calendula officinalis L. (flowers), Sonchus
asper (L.) Hill (leaves), Tragopogon pratensis L. (leaves) and Nas-
turtium officinale R. Br. (leaves).
3.3. Veterinary medicine
The study reveals that 19 are used for livestock care and 10
species as livestock feed. Many plants intended for veterinary use
are administered to treat the same disorders for which they are
recommended for human being. Among them the most frequently
cited species are Achillea moschata Wulfen, Achillea millefolium L.
and Gentiana punctata L. used for digestion, Linum usitatissimum L.,
Malva neglecta Wallr. and Malva sylvestris L. as emollients, espe-
cially before delivery to facilitate its success, and Cetraria islandica
(L.) Ach. to fight colds and bronchitis which often strike even the
cattle.
The survey points out that Secale cereale L. and Malva neglecta
Wallr. are traditionally recommended to stimulate milk production
in dairy cattle. Similarly, Alchemilla vulgaris L. and Achillea
moschata Wulfen, mashed in pasture, are considered useful to
increase milk quality. Some other species appears to be useful for
other treatments: in the past, resin of Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link was
used for bone fractures; Rumex alpinus L., Artemisia absinthium L.,
Matricaria chamomilla L., Thymus serpyllum L. and Malva neglecta
131
Wallr. were used as disinfectant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic.
One interviewee recalled the use of Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A.
Nelson for horses grooming, to keep horses' hair shiny. Finally,
there are two species considered useful to improve the quality of
milk produced by cows: Alchemilla vulgaris L. and Achillea
moschata Wulfen.
3.4. Cosmetic uses
Knowledge about plants uses for cosmetic purposes seems to
derive from a personal interest of the respondents in researching
natural and non-invasive methods for beauty care. 12 cited species
are related to this use to deal with various problems. Allium
ampeloprasum L. is used as a remedy for pimples as well as Betula
pendula Roth, which is also used for treating cellulite. The oil
obtained by Calendula officinalis L. can be the basis for a great soap;
the infusion of Corylus avellana L. is used to fight chapped hands
and likewise the fruit smoothie of Rubus idaeus L. is used for
excessively dry skin treatment. Species belonging to the genus
Mentha, with special reference to Mentha spicata L. and Mentha x
piperita L., are recommended to perfume the breath and refresh
the mouth. Similarly, especially in the past, the leaves of Salvia
officinalis L. and Salvia pratensis L. and the resin derived from Picea
excelsa (Lam.) Link were used for teeth cleaning. Malva neglecta
Wallr. is used to reduce dark circles and signs of fatigue. The
decoction of Urtica dioica L. is a well-known remedy to treat
dandruff, hair loss, scalp parasites, oily and brittle hair.
3.5. Religious and ritual uses
The interviewees rarely referred to religious and ritual customs.
Only the elderly were able to describe them: 6 species seem to be
linked to religious uses. They are all connected to the Corpus
domini procession, one of the main liturgical solemnities of the
Catholic Church. Alnus incana (L.) Moench, Betula pendula Roth,
Rhododendron ferrugineum L. and Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link were
used to beautify the streets along which the procession was
passing, while Trollius europaeus L. and Myosotis alpestris F.B.
Schimdt were brought by children throughout the whole ritual.
Moreover, one species seems to be involved in ritual uses, but
information regarding its use is fragmentary, inaccurate and
mainly resulting from popular belief. It is Artemisia absinthium L.,
used for its aerial parts to reach a state of hallucination, but
methods nor preparations nor administrations have been
described by the respondents.
3.6. Domestic uses
Plants for household and various uses are 38. Some of them,
such as Artemisia absinthium L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill. and
Mentha spicata L., are used to perfume rooms and, as a result of
their strong scent, to ward off flies and other insects. Many species
are used to beautify gardens, flower beds and pots: among them,
the famous Leontopodium nivale subsp. alpinum (Cass.) Greuter and
Rhododendron ferrugineum L. The use of Heracleum sphondylium L.,
Tussilago farfara L. and Rumex alpinus L. is very curious: their large
leaves were used in the past to wrap butter that had to be
transported from the mountain, where it was produced, to the
valley, where it could be sold. Another interesting use concerns
dyeing of fabrics. Berberis vulgaris L. (roots), Linaria vulgaris Mill.
(flowers) and Galium verum L. (flowers) seem to be used for yellow
shades and Galium verum L. (roots) for red nuances. Dryopteris filix-
mas (L.) Schott and Zea mays L. were used for stuffing matresses.
A very important role was played by Linum usitatissimum L., once
cultivated and exploited in all its parts. Stems were worked for
obtaining fiber which, after various stages of processing, was
132 L. Dei Cas et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 163 (2015) 113–134
transformed in clothes and linens. From seeds pressing, people
used to get an oil for lighting lamps. The waste obtained from the
various stages of processing was used to build bags or to isolate
hydraulic systems. Concerning tree species used as firewood or
building material, the survey highlights the ability of villagers to
recognize the qualities of each species and to determine their most
correct purpose. For example, Larix decidua Mill. is a hardwood
great for building roofing, fences and stairs but not to create
furniture nor carving works. These plants' trunks are also con-
sidered as an excellent firewood because they burn without
creating too much smoke. On the contrary, from Picea excelsa
(Lam.) Link only branches are burnt, whereas the rest was used to
create structures that were designed to ensure physical and
mechanical resistance. Plants with softer and more workable
woods, such as Pinus cembra L. and Pinus sylvestris L., are used to
make furniture, flooring and paneling for indoor. In the end, there
are species whose wood was destined for working tools, the best
known are Corylus avellana L. and Betula pendula Roth.
Today some plants, such as Carlina acaulis L. and Physalis alkekengi
L., are dried and used in flower compositions. Digitalis lutea L. and
Aconitum napellus L. were used to defend chicken coops and flocks
poisoning predators as foxes. Then, there are 6 species mentioned as a
source of children's play: Heracleum sphondylium L., Arctium lappa L.,
Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber ex F.H.Wigg., Betula pendula Roth, Rosa
canina L., Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach.
Ethnobotanical indices brought out that Malva neglecta Wallr.,
with a RI of 1.67 for its 21 different uses, is the most important
species for its versatility; despite this, its value of RFC (0.59) places
it only fifteenth in the list of the most frequently cited species.
Urtica dioica L., on the contrary, besides having an excellent RI
(1.64), is one of the species with the greatest number of citations
(third most cited species) with a RFC of 0.80. The most cited
(RFC ¼1) is Achillea moschata Wulfen, that also maintains a good
degree of versatility (RI¼1.12). Observing The information gath-
ered on medical uses highlights that plants are mainly exploited
for caring the digestive and respiratory systems, whereas they are
almost completely ignored for treating the nervous and circulatory
systems and the sense organs. The calculation of FIC allowed us to
observe a high agreement among respondents in relation to all
apparatuses (Table 2).
The literature search, carried out to check traditional data
against experimental data, in order to validate or refute them,
showed that only 41 out of 91 species which are cited as healing
only are considered by scientific studies on their alleged prop-
erty. Among the 50 species that have never been investigated
from a scientific point of view, Achillea moschata Wulfen is
widely cited (RFC ¼1; RI ¼1.12) and is used primarily for diges-
tive purposes, but also as hemostatic, wound healing, analgesic
and expectorant.
Our research increases the amount of ethnobotanical data
coming from northern Italy and especially from Lombardy and
the Alps, which are so far poorly investigated. With reference to
this geographical area, only five studies are reported in the
literature (Coassini Lokar and Poldini, 1988; Grabherr, 2009;
Pieroni and Giusti, 2009; Vitalini et al., 2009, 2013). Our study
investigates a high number of species (126) and it is second only to
Grabherr's work (268) (2009). By comparing our survey with such
studies, we can confirm the phytotherapic importance of Achillea
moschata Wulfen. The importance of this species had already
emerged in the study by Vitalini et al. (2009) in Val San Giacomo
(Sondrio, Lombardy), where this plant stood out for its very high
consensus degree (RFC ¼0.82 and RI ¼1.04). Our research also
confirms the interest in other species mentioned by other works,
such as Artemisia genipi Stechm., Nasturtium officinale R. Br.,
Juniperus communis Thunb. and Larix decidua Mill. Furthermore,
the study points out that some species have never been
investigated or, if they have, only under specific point of views.
For instance, Achillea moschata Wulfen is known and used by 100%
of respondents for digestive purposes, but also as hemostatic,
wound healing, analgesic and expectorant, despite the absence of
any scientific evidence of its healing properties.
4. Conclusions
The ethnobotanical usefulness of our research stems from the
enormous wealth of knowledge that, in any population, were and
are still handed down only orally, risking thus of getting lost
forever. This is why today it is important to elicit and recover this
heritage as an instrument of local, regional, national and suprana-
tional cultural biodiversity enhancement.
The study documented local knowledge on medicinal plants
use in Valfurva (Sondrio, Lombardy, Italy). The wide range of age of
our interviewees allowed to highlight generational differences
about medicinal species use. The results show how close and real
is the risk of progressive loss of local knowledge and traditions,
whose oral transmission from generation to generation is gradu-
ally fading. This work brings out plant species so far hardly or
never investigated by a scientific point of view (i.e. Achillea
moschata) and sets a starting point and basis for further phyto-
chemical investigations on these species and on the potential
therapeutic role of their active substances.
Acknowledgments
We want to thank people of Valfurva for their availability, in
particular the nursing home “Baita Serena” for the meeting held
with residents. Thanks to Valfurva's library and to “Mario Testor-
elli” museum's volunteers for the information provided. A special
thanks to Dr. Federica Gironi, a Stelvio National Park's collaborator,
for the assistance provided to us and to Dr. Sara Vitalini for
suggestions on work's setting up and on the draft.
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