Chapter 1 Metric Spaces

1.1 Metric Space

1.1-1 Definition. A metric space is a pair ( X, d ), where X is a set and d is a

metric on X; that is a function on XX such that for all x, y, z X, we
have:
(M1) d( x, y )  0.
(M2) d( x, y ) = 0 if and only if x = y.
(M3) d( x, y ) = d( y, x ).
(M4) d( x, y )  d( x, z ) + d( z, y ).

Notes: 1) For any nN and any x1, x2, ……., xn X, we have
d(x1, xn )  d(x1, x2 ) + d(x2, x3 ) + ………. + d(xn-1, xn ).
~ ~
2) A subspace (Y, d ) of ( X, d ) is a subset Y of X with d = dY Y ( the
~
restriction of d on YY ), and d is called the metric induced on Y
by d.

Examples
1.1-2 Real line R. ( R, d ) is a metric space; where R is the set of real numbers
and for any x, y  R d( x, y ) = | x – y |.
Proof. Left to the reader
1.1-3 Euclidean plane R2. (R2, d1 ) is a metric space; where for any x = (1 , 2 )
and y = ( 1 ,  2 ) in R2 d1( x, y ) = | 1   1 |  |2   2 | .
Proof. Left to the reader
1.1-4 Sequence space  . Consider the set  of all bounded sequences of
complex numbers. Then (  , d ) is a metric space, where for any x = (i )
and y = ( i ) in  d( x, y ) = sup | i   i | .
iN

Proof. It is easy to check that (M1)-(M3) are satisfied. To check (M4),

note that for every x = (i ) , y = ( i ) and z = ( i ) in  , and for every
iN, we have | i   i |  | i  i | + | i   i |  d( x, z ) + d( z, y ). Take
the supremum of the left hand side over N to get the result
1.1-5 Function space C[a, b]. Let C[a, b] be the set of all real valued
functions that are continuous on J = [a, b]. For any x and y in C[a, b]
define d( x, y ) = max | x(t )  y(t ) | . Then ( C[a, b] , d ) is a metric space.
tJ

Proof. It is easy to check that (M1)-(M3) are satisfied. To check (M4),

note that for every x, y, z  C[a, b], and for every tJ, we have
| x(t) – y(t) |  | x(t) – z(t) | + | z(t) – y(t) |  d( x, z ) + d( z, y ). Take
the maximum of the left hand side over J to get the result

1
1.1-6 Discrete metric space. Suppose that X is a non-empty set. For every x,
 0 if x=y
y  X, define d(x, y) =  . Then ( X, d ) is a metric space.
1 if x  y
Proof. It is easy to check that (M1)-(M3) are satisfied. To check (M4),
let x, y, z  X be arbitrary, then we have two cases:
case 1. x = y, it is trivial that d( x, y )  d( x, z ) + d( z, y ),
case 2. x  y, then d(x, y) = 1. But then either ( z  x and z = y ), ( z  x
and z  y ) or ( z = x and z  y ), we have d(x, z) + d(z, y)  1. This
completes the proof
Exersise 1.1
1. Show that ( Rn, d1 ) and ( Rn, d2 ) are metric spaces; where for any x =
(1 , 2 ,......, n ) and y = ( 1 ,  2 ,......,  n ) in R , d1( x, y ) = | 1 - 1 | + ……..
n

+ | n - n | and d2( x, y ) = max { | 1 - 1 |, ..….. , | n - n | }. Then show that

d2(x, y)  d1(x, y)  n d2(x, y) .
2. . Suppose that that (X1, d1), . . . , (Xn, dn) are metric spaces and suppose that x
= (1 , 2 ,......, n ) and y = ( 1 ,  2 ,......,  n ) be any elements in X1 × ..….. ×Xn.
Show that ρ1, and ρ2 are metrics on the set X1 × ..…. . × Xn, and ρ2(x, y) 
ρ1(x, y)  n ρ2(x, y), where ρ1(x, y) = d1( 1 , 1 ) + …….. + dn ( n , n ),
and ρ2( x, y ) = max { d1( 1 , 1 ), ..….. , dn ( n , n )}.

H. W. 3-5, 7, 8, 10-15. H.W.* 4, 5, 8, 10 + 1, 2 above

1.2 Further Examples of Metric Spaces

1.2-1 Sequence Space s. Let s be the set of all sequences of complex numbers.


Define d( x, y ) =  i 1
|i  i |
2 (1|i  i |)
i
, for any x = (i ) and y = ( i ) in s.
Show that ( s, d ) is a metric space.
Proof. It is easy to check that (M1)-(M3) are satisfied. To check (M4), we use
t
the auxiliary real valued function f defined on R\{-1} by f(t) = . It is easy
1 t
1
to see that f is an increasing function where its derivative f /(t) = is
(1  t ) 2
positive. Now, for every x = (i ) , y = ( i ) and z = ( i ) in s, and for every iN,
we have | i   i |  | i  i | + | i   i | . Then f( | i   i | )  f( | i  i | +
| i   i | | i   i |  |  i   i | | i   i |
| i   i | ). That is,  =
1 | i   i | 1 | i  i |  | i   i | 1 | i  i |  | i   i |
| i   i | | i   i | | i   i |
+  + . Finally multiply both
1 | i  i |  | i   i | 1 | i   i | 1 | i   i |
, then take the sum over i from 1 to ∞ to get d( x, y )  d( x, z ) +
1
sides by 2i
d( z, y ). This completes the proof

2
1.2-2 Space B(A) of bounded functions. Let B(A) be the set of all bounded
functions defined on a set A. Define d( x, y ) = sup | x(t )  y(t ) | , for any x
tA

and y in B(A). Show that (B(A), d ) is a metric space.

Proof. See the proof of example 1.1-4

1 1
1.2-2 Auxiliary inequality. Let p > 1 and define q by p + q = 1. If  and  are
p q
nonnegative numbers, then    p + q . [ p and q are then called conjugate
exponents].
Proof. The inequality is trivial in the case that  = 0 or  = 0. Now let  and 
1 1 pq
be positive. Since p + q = 1, then we have pq = 1, pq = p + q, and
pq – p – q + 1= 1. Hence p( q -1) – ( q – 1) = 1 and ( p – 1 )( q -1) = 1. So that
for real numbers t and u we have that u = t p-1 implies that t = u 1/(p-1) = u (q-1).
Since   is the area of the rectangle in Fig. 1 below [ see th text book ], then
 

t dt   u q 1du =
p 1 p q
by integration we have    p + q 
0 0
p
Notation. well denote the set of all sequences of numbers (i ) such that


| 
i 1
i | p is finite, where p  1.

p
1.2-3 Holder Inequality. Let p and q be as in 1.2-2 above. If (i )  and
  
, then  | i i |  ( |  k | ) ( |  m | ) .
1 1
q p p q q
( i ) 
i 1 k 1 m 1
Proof. The inequality is trivial in the case that (i ) or ( i ) is zero. Now let (i )
~
i
and  i 
~
i
and ( i ) be nonzero. For iN, set i    1 .
| k |q )
1
| k | p )
q
( p (
k 1 k 1
~ ~
~ ~ | i | p | i |q
By auxiliary inequality, | i  i |  p + q . Take the sum over i from
 ~ ~ 1  ~ p 1  ~ q
1 to ∞ of both sides to get,  | i  i | 
i 1
( |  i | ) +
p i 1
( |  i | ) =
q i 1
  
= 1. Hence  | i i |  ( |  k | ) ( |  m | ) 
1 1
1 1 p p q q
p + q
i 1 k 1 m 1

Note. If p = q = 2, we have the Cauchy Schwarz inequality

  

|   |  ( |  k | ) ( |  m |2 ) 2 .
1 1
2 2
i i
i 1 k 1 m 1

3
 p
1.2-4 Minkowski Inequality. If p  1 and (i ) , ( i )  , then
  
( | i   i | p )  ( |  k | ) + (  |  m | ) .
1 1 1
p p p p p

i 1 k 1 m 1
Proof. For p =1 the inequality follows directly from the triangle inequality of
numbers. Let p > 1. For any iN,
| i   i | p = | i   i | | i   i | p 1  ( | i | + |  i | ) | i   i | p 1 . Take
n
the sum over i from 1 to any fixed nN of both sides to get | 
i 1
i   i |p 
n n

| 
i 1
i || i   i | p 1 + | 
i 1
i || i   i | p 1 ………………….. (1)

By Holder inequality
n n n

 | i || i   i | p 1  ( |  k | p ) p ( (| m   m | p 1 )q ) q
1 1

i 1 k 1 m 1
n n
= ( |  k | ) ( |  m   m |( p 1) q )
1 1
p p q

k 1 m 1
n n
= ( |  k | ) ( |  m   m | ) .
1 1
p p p q

k 1 m 1
n n n

|  || i   i |  ( |  k | ) ( |  m   m | ) .
1 1
p 1 p q p p
Similarly, i
i 1 k 1 m 1
Substitute the last two inequalities in (1) to get,
n n n

 | i   i | p  ( |  k | p ) p ( |  m   m | p ) q +
1 1

i 1 k 1 m 1
n n n n
( |  k | ) ( |  m   m | ) = { ( |  k | ) + ( |  k | p ) p }
1 1 1 1
p p p q p p

k 1 m 1 k 1 k 1
n n n
( |  m   m | p ) q . Hence ( | i   i | p )  ( |  k | ) +
1
1 1
q p p
1

m 1 i 1 k 1
n
( |  k | p ) p . By noting that 1 -
1
1
q = p, and letting n  ∞ you get
k 1
  
( | i   i | p )  ( |  k | ) + (  |  m | ) 
1 1 1
p p p p p

i 1 k 1 m 1

p p
1.2-5 Sequence space . Consider the set of all sequences of numbers

(i ) such that | 
i 1
i | p is finite, where p  1. Then ( p
, d ) is a metric

4
 p
space, where for any x = (i ) and y = ( i ) in

d( x, y ) = ( | i   i | )
1
p p
.
i 1
Proof. It is easy to check that (M1)-(M3) are satisfied. To check (M4), use
p
Minkowski inequality, where for every x = (i ) , y = ( i ) and z = ( i ) in ,
 
d( x, y ) = ( | i   i | ) ( [| i -i | + | i - i |] p )
1 1
p p p

i 1 i 1
 
 ( | i   i | ) + ( |  i   i | )
1 1
p p p p
= d( x, z ) + d( z, y )
i 1 i 1

Note. If p = 2, we have an important space called the Hilbert sequence space

2
.

In the following examples you can use Minkowski inequality to prove the
triangle inequality.
1.2-6 Euclidean plane R2. (R2, d ) is a metric space; where for any
x = (1 , 2 ) and y = ( 1 ,  2 ) in R2, d( x, y ) = (1   1 )2  (2   2 )2 .
This metric is called the Euclidean metric.
Proof. Left to the reader
1.2-7 Three dimensional Euclidean space R3. (R3, d ) is a metric space;
where for any x = (1 , 2 , 3 ) and y = ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 ) in R3 d( x, y ) =
(1   1 )2  (2   2 )2  (3   3 )2 . This metric is called the Euclidean metric.
Proof. Left to the reader
1.2-8 Euclidean space Rn, unitary space Cn, complex plane C.
a) ( Rn, d ) is a metric space; where for any x = (1 , 2 ,......, n ) and
y = ( 1 ,  2 ,......,  n ) in Rn, d( x, y ) = (1   1 )2  (2   2 )2  .........  (n   n )2 .
This metric is called the Euclidean metric.
b) Also ( Cn, d ) is a metric space, where for any x = (1 , 2 ,......, n )
and y = ( 1 ,  2 ,......,  n ) in Cn d( x, y ) = | 1   1 |2  | 2   2 |2 ......... | n   n |2 .
When n = 1 this is the complex plane C.
Proof. Left to the reader

Exersise 1.2
1. Let ( Rn, d1 ) be as in problem 1 Exersise 1.1. Show that d(x, y)  d1(x, y)
 n d(x, y), where d is the Euclidean metric on Rn.
2. In the notation of problem 2 in Exersise 1.1, show that ρ(x, y)  ρ1(x, y) 
n ρ(x, y), where ρ(x, y) = d12 (1 ,  1 )  .........  d n 2 (n ,  n ) .

H. W. 1-3, 6-12. H.W.* 8, 10 + 1, 2 above.

5
1.3 Open Sets, Closed Sets, Neighborhood

1.3-1 Definition. Let ( X, d ) be a metric space, x0 X and r be a positive real

number. Define the sets
a. B(x0; r) = { xX : d(x, x0) < r } as an open ball.
~
b. B (x0; r) = { xX : d(x, x0)  r } as a closed ball.
c. S(x0; r) = { xX : d(x, x0) = r } as a sphere.
Where x0 is called the center and r is the radius.
~
From the definition one can easily see that, S(x0; r) = B (x0; r) - B(x0; r).
From now on, we can let X to denote the metric space ( X, d ).
1.3-2 Definition. A subset M of a metric space X is said to be open if it
contains a ball about each of its points. A subset K of X is said to be
closed if its complement is open.
It is easy to see from the definition above that an open ball is an open set and a
closed ball is a closed set.
1.3-3 Definition. Let X be a metric space. An open ball B(x0; ) of radius  is
called an -neighborhood of x0 X . A neighborhood of x0, ( denpted by
N(x0) ) is a subset of X which contains an -neighborhood of x0.
1.3-4 Definition. Let X be a metric space. x0 is called an interior point of a
set M  X if M is a neighborhood of x0. The set of all interior points of
M is denoted by Int(M) or M 0.
It is easy to see that Int(M) is an open set.
1.3-5 Theorem. Let X be a metric space and  be the collection of all open
subsets of X. Then the following properties hold:
(T1) φ, X.
(T2) The union of any members of  is a gain in .
(T3) The intersection of finitely many members of  is a gain in .
Proof. (T1) is obvious. To prove (T2), let U be the union of arbitrary elements
( open subsets of X ) in  and let x be any element in U. Then x belongs to at
least one of these open sets, call this set M. Hence there is a ball B  M and
xB. Thus M  U, so that U is open; that is U. Finally, let y be any element
in the intersection of M1, M2, ………., Mn, then each Mi contains a ball about
y and the smallest of these balls is contained in the intersection. Therefore, the
intersection is open; that is it belongs to .
1.3-6 Definition. A topological space ( X,  ) is a set X and a collection  of
subsets such that  satisfies (T1), (T2), and (T3).
From Theorem 1.3-5 and the above definition we can say that “ a metric space
is a topological space.”
~
1.3-7 Definition. Let ( X, d ) and (Y, d ) be metric spaces. A mapping
T : X Y is said to be continuous at x0X if for every  > 0 there is
~
 > 0 such that d ( Tx, Tx0 ) <  for all x satisfying d( x, x0 ) < . T is
said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point of X.

6
 ~
1.3-8 Theorem. Let ( X, d ) and (Y, d ) be metric spaces. A mapping T: XY
is continuous if and only if the inverse image of any open subset of Y is
an open subset of X.
Proof. Suppose that T is continuous. Let S be any open set in Y and let G =
T -1(S). If G = , then it is open. Let G   and let x0 be any element in G.
Then there is y0S such that y0 = Tx0. However; S is an open set, then there is
a ball B(y0; )  S. Since T is continuous at x0 then there is  > 0 such that for
~
all x, d( x, x0 ) <  implies d ( Tx, Tx0 ) < . Now let xB(x0; ) then d( x, x0 )
~
<  and so d ( Tx, Tx0 ) < ; that is TxB(y0; ). However; B(y0; )  S, then
TxS and so xG = T -1(S). Hence B(x0; )  G. Therefore, G = T -1(S) is an
open subset of X.
Conversely, assume that the inverse image of every open set in Y is an open set
in X. Let x0 be any fixed point in X and let  > 0 be arbitrary. Since B(Tx0; ) is
an open set in Y, then T -1(B(Tx0; )) is an open set in X, then there is > 0 such
that B(x0; )  T -1(B(Tx0; )) . Therefore, for every  > 0 there is > 0 such
that for all x if d( x, x0 ) < , then xB(x0; ) and x T -1(B(Tx0; )). Hence
~
Tx B(Tx0; ) and so d ( Tx, Tx0 ) < . Therefore, T is continuous at x0. Since
x0 was arbitrary in X then T is continuous on X

1.3-9 Definition. Let M be a subset of metric space X. x0X is called an

accumulation point of M if for every neighborhood N(x0) of x0,
___
N(x0) \ {x0}  M  φ. The closure of M ( denoted by M ) is the set
consisting of M with its accumulation points.
_________ ~
Note. B(x 0 ; r) need not equal to B (x0; r). To see this consider the discrete
metric space (X, d) with X has at least two points. It is easy to see that
____________ ~
B(x 0 ; 1) = { x0 }  X = B (x0; 1).

1.3-10 Definition. A subset M of a metric space X is said to be dense in X if

___
M = X. X is said to be separable if it has a countable subset which is
dense in X.
Hence, M is dense in X if an only if every ball in X will contains points of M.

Examples
1.3-11 Real line R. The real line is separable.
Proof. Left to the reader

1.3-12 Complex Plane C. The complex plane is separable.

Proof. Consider the countable set M = { r1 + ir2 : r1, r2 are rational numbers}
___
and show that M = C

7
1.3-13 Discrete metric space. A discrete metric space X is separable if and
only if X is countable.
Proof. Suppose that X is separable, then there is a countable subset M of X
___
such that M = X. However, any subset of a discrete metric space is closed
hence M = X. Therefore, X is countable. Conversly, suppose that X is
___
countable then X = X. Hence X is separable

p p
1.3-14 The space . The space with 1  p <  is separable.
p
Proof. Consider the set M = { ( r1, r2,….., rn, 0,0,0,……)  : ri’s are rational
___
p
numbers and n N}, which is a countable set (how?). We show that M = .
p
Let x = (i )  be arbitrary. Then for every  > 0 there is n = n()N such

 p
that 
j  n 1
|  j |p <
2
. Since the rationals are dense in R, then for each  i

there is a rational number rj close to  i . Hence we can find y M satisfying


 p n 

 |  j  rj | p <
j 1 2
. Therefore, [ d(x, y) ] p =  |  j  rj | p +
j 1
 |
j  n 1
j |p <

 p
 p ___
+ =  p . Hence d(x, y) <  and so yB(x; ). Then x M .
2 2
___
p p
Therefore, M = . This completes the proof of the separability of 

Note. For any y  [0, 1] there is a sequence (i ) such that  i {0, 1} for all i
and y = 1 +  22 +  33 + …… is a binary representation of y. Moreover
2 2 2
different y  [0, 1] have different binary representation. [ See Introduction to
real analysis, R. G. Bartle & D. R. Sherbert, pp56-59].

 
1.3-15 The space . The space is not separable.
 
Proof. Let M be any dense subset of , and let S = { (i )  :  i {0, 1} }.
Since [0, 1] is uncountable and for each y  [0, 1] there corresponds (i )  S and
different y’s in [0, 1] have different sequences in S [ see the note above ]. Hence
S is uncountable. For any x = (i ) , y = ( i ) in S, x  y we have B(x; 1 ) 
3
B(y; 1
) = . Hence we have uncountable number of balls that are not intersect.
3

However, M is dense in then each of the above balls must contain an

element of M. Thus M must be uncountable. Since M was arbitrary, then is
not separable

H. W. 1, 2, 4-6, 13-15. H. W.* 6, 14.

8
1.4 Convergence, Cauchy Sequences, Completeness

1.4-1 Definition. A sequence (xn) in a metric space ( X, d ) is said to be

convergent if there is xX such that lim d( xn, x ) = 0. In this case x is
n

called the limit of xn or (xn) converges to x and we write lim xn = x or

n

simply, xn  x. If (xn) is not convergent, it is said to be divergent.

Notes: 1) lim xn = x if and only if for every  > 0 there is k = k()N such that
n

xn B(x; ) for all n > k.

2) The limit of a convergent sequence must be a point of the space X in 1.4-1,
otherwise the sequence is divergent. To see this, let X = (0, 1) with the metric
d(x, y) = | x - y | and (xn) = ( 1 ). It is clear that ( 1 ) is divergent, because ( 1 )
n n n
wants to converge to 0 which is not in (0, 1).
1.4-2 Definition. A nonempty subset M of a metric space X is said to be
bounded if the diameter of M, (M) = sup{ d(x, y): x,yM } is finite.
The sequence (xn) in X is called a bounded sequence if the corresponding
point set is a bounded subset of X.
1.4-3 Lemma. Let ( X, d ) be a metric space. Then:
a) A convergent sequence in X is bounded and its limit is unique.
b) If xn  x and yn  y in X, then d(xn, yn)  d(x, y).
Proof. a) Suppose that xn  x . Then for  = 1, there is kN such that d(xn, x)
< 1 for all n > k. Let a = max { d(x1, x), d(x2, x), ……, d(xk-1, x) }. Then for all
n N we have, d(xn, x) < 1 + a. Hence for all n and m, d(xn, xm)  d(xn, x) +
d(xm, x) < 2 + 2a. Thus ( {xn})  2 + 2a , that implies (xn) is bounded.
Assume that xn  x and xn  z. Then 0  d(x, z)  d(x, xn) + d(xn, z)  0 as
n  Therefore, x = z, so that the limit is unique
b) Suppose that xn  x and yn  y. Then d(xn, yn)  d(xn, x) +d(x, y) +d(y, yn).
Hence d(xn, yn) - d(x, y)  d(xn, x) +d(y, yn). Similarly, d(x, y) - d(xn, yn) 
d(x, xn) +d(yn, y). Therefore, - [ d(xn, x) +d(y, yn) ]  d(xn, yn) - d(x, y) 
d(xn, x) + d(y, yn), that is, 0  | d(xn, yn) - d(x, y) |  d(xn, x) + d(y, yn)  0
as n . Hence d(xn, yn)  d(x, y) as n 
1.4-4 Definition. A sequence (xn) in a metric space ( X, d ) is said to be
Cauchy if for every  > 0 there is k = k()N such that d(xn, xm) <  for
all n, m > k. The space X is complete if every Cauchy sequence in X
converges.
1.4-5 Theorem. The real line and the complex plane are complete metric
spaces.
Note. For aR, R-{a}, and the set of all rational numbers Q are not complete.
1.4-6 Theorem. Every convergent sequence in a metric space is a Cauchy
sequence.
Proof. Suppose that xn  x . Then for every  > 0, there is k = k()N such
that d(xn, x) <  for all n > k. Hence for all n, m > k we have,
2

9
d(xn, xm)  d(xn, x) + d(x, xm) <  +  = . This shows (xn) is a Cauchy
2 2
sequence
1.4-7 Theorem. Let M be a nonempty subset of a metric space ( X, d). Then:
___
a) x M if and only if there is a sequence ( xn ) in M such that xnx.
b) M is closed if and only if the situation xnM, xnx implies that xM.
___
Proof. a) Let x M . If xM, then ( x, x, x, …..) is a sequence in M and
converges to x. If xM, it is an accumulation point of M. Hence for each n N,
B(x; 1 )  M   so there is xn B(x; 1 )  M. Hence d(xn, x) < 1 for all n.
n n n
Thus xnx as n .
___
Conversely, if ( xn ) in M such that xnx, if xM then x M . If xM, then for
every  > 0, there is k = k()N such that d(xn, x) <  for all n > k. Hence for
___
every  > 0, there is k = k()N such that B(x; )\{x}  M . Then x M 
___
b) By using a) above we have, M is closed if and only if M = M if and only if
the situation xnM, xnx implies that xM
1.4-8 Theorem. A subspace M of a complete metric space X is itself complete
if and only if the set M is closed in X.
___
Proof. Suppose that M is complete, and x M . Then by Theorem 1.4-7 (a),
there is a sequence ( xn ) in M such that xnx. Hence ( xn ) is Cauchy.
___
However, M is complete then xM. Therefore, M = M , that is M is closed.
Conversely, let M be a closed set and ( xn ) be Cauchy in M. By the
___
completeness of X, xnxX. Then x M , however, M is closed then xM.
Therefore, M is complete
1.4-9 Theorem. A mapping T : X  Y of a metric space ( X, d) into a metric
~
space (Y, d ) is continuous at x0X if and only if xnx0 implies
TxnTx0.
Proof. Suppose that T is continuous at x0X. Then for every  > 0, there is  > 0
~
such that d(x, x0) <  implies d (Tx, Tx0) < . Let xnx0. Then there is kN
~
such that d(xn, x0) <  for all n > k. Hence d (Txn, Tx0) <  for all n > k. Thus,
TxnTx0.
Conversely, Suppose that xnx0 implies TxnTx0. To prove that T is
continuous at x0 we use the contradiction. Suppose that T is not continuous at x0.
Then there is  > 0 such that for every  > 0 there is x  x0 with d(x, x0) < , but
~
d (Tx, Tx0)  . In particular, for  = 1 there is xnX satisfying d(xn, x0) < ,
n
~
but d (Txn, Tx0)  . Hence xnx0 but (Txn) does not converge to Tx0. This
contradicts the assumptiopn. Therefore, T is continuous at x0

H. W. 1, 2, 4-6, 8-10. H. W.* 6, 8.

11
1.5 Examples. Completeness Proofs

Examples

1.5-1 Completeness of R n and C n. Euclidean space R n and unitary space C n

are complete.
Proof. Let ( xm) be any Cauchy sequence in Rn, where xm = ( 1( m ) ,  2( m ) ,….,  n( m ) ).
Since ( xm) is Cauchy, then for every  > 0, there is k = k()  N such that
n
d(xm, xr) = ( (i
1
( m)
 i( r ) ) 2 ) 2
<  for all m, r > k ……………… (1)
i 1
n
Then for all m, r > k and all i = 1, 2,…,n (i( m)  i( r ) )2   (
i 1
i
( m)
 i( r ) )2 <  2.

So that |    | < . Hence for any fixed i, 1  i  n, the sequence ( i(1) , i(2) ,
i
( m)
i
(r )

……… ) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers, then it converges say, to i ; that

is i( m) i as m . Then x = ( 1, 2 , …., n ) Rn. By (1), as r  we have
n
d(xm, x ) = ( (i  i ) )
1
  for all m > k. Hence xm xRn. Therefore,
( m) 2 2

i 1

R is complete. Similarly for C n

n

 
1.5-2 Completeness of . The space is complete.

Proof. Let ( xm) be any Cauchy sequence in , where xm = ( 1( m ) ,  2( m ) , …….).
Then for every  > 0, there is k = k()N such that d(xm, xn) = sup | i( m)  i( n ) | < 
iN

for all n, m > k. Then for all n, m > k and any fixed i N, |   i( n) | <  .… (2) i
( m)

Hence for any fixed i, the sequence ( i(1) , i(2) , ……… ) is a Cauchy sequence
of numbers ( real or complex ). Then it converges ( because both R and C are
complete ) say, to i that is i( m ) i as m . Using these infinitely limits

we define x = ( 1, 2 , …. ). We show that x and xm x as m . From
(2), as n  we have that for all m > k. | i  i |   ……………....…. (3)
( m)


Since xm = ( 1( m ) ,  2( m ) ,…..) then there is km such that | i( m ) |  km for all i.
Hence for any i, | i |  | i - i( m ) | + | i( m ) |   + km. Hence ( i ) is a

bounded sequence of numbers. Then x . By (3), we have d( xm, x ) =
sup | i  i |   for all m > k. This shows that xm x. But ( xm ) was
( m)

iN
 
arbitrary Cauchy sequence in . Hence is complete

11
1.5-3 Completeness of c. The space c consists of all convergent sequences of

complex numbers with the metric induced from the space is complete.
___
Proof. Let x = ( i ) c . Then there is a sequence ( xm) in c such that xm x,
where xm = ( 1( m ) ,  2( m ) , …….). Hence for every  > 0, there is kN such that

sup | i( m )  i | = d(xm, x) < 3 for all m  k. Then for all m  k and any fixed i
i N
 
N, | i( m )  i | < 3 . In particular for m = k and all i | i( k )  i | < 3 . Since xkc,
its terms i( k ) form a convergent sequence, such a sequence is Cauchy. Hence there

is n such that | i( k )   j( k ) | < 3 for all i, j > n. Therefore, for all i, j > n we have,
  
| i - j |  | i  i( k ) | + | i( k )   j( k ) | + |  j( k )   j | <
+ 3 + 3 = . 3
Hence x = ( i ) is a Cauchy sequence of numbers, and so by the completeness of C,
___
( i ) is convergent this shows that xc. Therefore, c = c . Hence c is a closed
 
subspace of . However, is complete, then by Theorem 1.4-8, c is complete

p p
1.5-4 Completeness of . The space is complete, where p is fixed and
1  p < .
p
Proof. Let ( xm) be any Cauchy sequence in , where xm = ( 1( m ) ,  2( m ) , …….).
Then for every  > 0, there is k N such that for all n, m > k we have,

d(xm, xn) = ( | i( m )  i( n ) | p )
1
p
<  …………………………………….……… (4)
i 1

It follows that for any fixed i N, | i( m)  i( n) | < . This shows that for any fixed i,
the sequence ( i(1) , i(2) , …… ) is a Cauchy sequence of numbers ( real or complex ).
Then it converges ( because both R and C are complete ) say, to i that is i( m ) i
as m . Using these infinitely limits we define x = ( 1, 2 , …. ). We show that
p
x and xm x as m . From (4), we have that for all m, n > k and all l,
l l

 | i(m)  i(n) | p <  p. Letting n , we obtain

i 1
| 
i 1
i
( m)
 i | p   p for all m > k

and all l. Now let l ; then for m > k | i 1
i
( m)
 i | p   p and

( | i( m )  i | p )
1
p
  ………………………………………………………….(5)
i 1

, then ( | i( m ) | p )
1
p
Since xm = (  i
( m)
) p
is finite. By Minkowski inequality and
i 1
  
 ( | 
1
+ ( | i( m ) | p )
1
by using (5), ( | i | )
1
 i | )
p p ( m) p p p p
i is finite. Hence x .
i 1 i 1 i 1

12
Furthermore, by (5) d( xm, x )   for all m > k. This shows that xm x. But
p p
( xm ) was arbitrary Cauchy sequence in . Hence is complete

1.5-5 Completeness of C[a, b]. The function space C[a, b] is complete.

Proof. Let ( xm) be any Cauchy sequence in C[a, b]. Then for every  > 0, there is
k N such that for all n, m > k we have, d(xm, xn) = max | xm (t )  xn (t ) | <  ….. (6),
tJ

where J = [a, b]. Hence for all n, m > k and any fixed t0 J, | xm (t0 )  xn (t0 ) | < .
This shows that ( x1(t0), x2(t0), …….. ) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers,
then it converges ( because R is complete ) say, xm(t0) x(t0) as m . Then
for each t J we can associate a unique x(t)R. This defines a function x on J.
From (6) as n  max | xm (t )  x(t ) |   for all m > k; that means xm x as
tJ

m . Hence for all m > k and any tJ, | xm (t )  x(t ) |  , that means ( xm)
converges uniformly to x on J. However, xm’s are continuous on J. Hence x is
continuous on J; that is xC[a, b]. Therefore, C[a, b] is complete

Note. The above proof also proves the following theorem.

1.5-6 Theorem ( Uniform convergence ). Convergence xm x in the space

C[a, b] is a uniform convergence, that is ( xm) converges uniformly on [a, b]
to x.

Examples of incomplete metric spaces

1.5-7 Space Q. Let Q be the set of all rational numbers with the usual metric
d(x, y) = | x – y | for all x, y R. Then Q is not complete.
Proof. Let x be a fixed irrational number, then for any n N there is rnQ
1
such that x < rn < x + n . Hence rn  x as n . But xQ. Therefore, Q is
not complete

1.5-8 Space of Polynomials. Let X be the set of all polynomials over the real
interval J = [a, b] and define a metric d on X by d(x, y) = max | x(t )  y(t ) | .
tJ
Then (X, d) is not complete.
Proof. Left to the reader

13
1.5-9 The space of continuous functions. Let X be the set of all continuous
real-valued functions on J = [0, 1] and define a metric d on X by
1

d(x, y) =  | x(t )  y(t ) | dt . Then (X, d) is not complete.

0
Proof. Let ( xm) be a sequence of continuous functions on [0, 1], where
 0 if t  [0, 12 ]

xm(t) = m(t  12 ) if t  ( 12 , 12  m1 ) . For every  > 0, there is a natural
 1 if t  [ 12  m1 , 1]

1 1 1
number k   such that for all n > m > k we have, d(xm, xn) = m - n <
1
< , because d(xm, xn) is the area of the triangle in Fig.10 [ see the text
m
book].
1

Hence ( xm) is a Cauchy sequence. For any xX, d(xm, x) =  | xm (t )  x(t ) | dt =

0
2 m
1 1 1
2 1

 | x(t ) | dt +  | xm (t )  x(t ) | dt +  |1  x(t ) | dt . Since the integrals on the right

2 m
0 1 1 1
2
1
2

are nonnegative, then d(xm, x) 0 as m  would implies that  | x(t ) | dt = 0

0
1
1 2 1

and  |1  x(t ) | dt  0 as m . Hence  | x(t ) | dt =  |1  x(t ) | dt = 0.

2 m
1 1 0 1
2

However, x(t) is continuous, then x(t) = 0 on [0, ½) and x(t) = 1 on (½, 1].
But this is impossible for a continuous function. Therefore, d(xm, x) does not
converge to 0; that is (xm) does not converge to x. However x was arbitrary in
X, thus (xm) does not converge. Therefore, (X, d) is not complete

H. W. 1-5, 7, 8, 10-14. H. W.* 10, 13, 14 + Example 1.5-8.

14
1.6 Completion of Metric Spaces
~
1.6-1 Definition. Let ( X, d ) and (Y, d ) be metric spaces. Then
(a) A mapping T : X Y is said to be isometric or an isometry if T
~
preserves distances ; that is for all x, yX, d ( Tx, Ty ) = d( x, y ).
(b) The space X is said to be isometric with the space Y if there exists a
bijection isometry of X onto Y. The spaces X and Y are then called
isometric spaces.
1.6-2 Theorem ( Completion ). For a metric space ( X, d ) there exists a
 
complete metric space ( X , d ) which has a subspace W that is isometric
 
with X and is dense in X . This space X is unique except for isometries,
~ ~
that is, if X is any complete metric space having a dense subspace W
~ 
isometric with X, then X and X are isometric.
Proof. The proof is subdivided into the following four steps.
 
(a) Constructing ( X , d ).
___ 
(b) Constructing an isometry T of X onto W, where W = X .

(c) Proving the completeness of X .

(d) Proving the uniqueness of X , except for isometries.
 
(a) Constructing ( X , d ).
Let (xn) and (zn) be Cauchy sequences in X.
Define (xn) ~ (zn), if lim d(xn, zn) = 0. ( ~ is an equivalence relation, why?)…(1)
n
  
Let X be the set of all equivalence classes x , y , ….. of Cauchy sequences thus
  
obtained. Set d ( x , y ) = lim d( xn, yn )………………………………………(2),
n
    
where ( xn)  x and ( yn)  y and x , y  X . To prove that this limit exists we do
as follow: d( xn, yn )  d( xn, xm ) + d(xm, ym ) + d(ym, yn ). Then d( xn, yn ) -
d(xm, ym )  d( xn, xm ) + d(ym, yn ). Similarly, d(xm, ym ) - d( xn, yn )  d( xn, xm )
+ d(ym, yn ). Together, | d( xn, yn ) - d(xm, ym ) |  d( xn, xm ) + d(ym, yn ). Since
( xn) and ( yn) are Cauchy sequences, then for every  > 0, there is k such that for
 
all n, m > k we have, d( xn, xm ) < 2 and d(ym, yn ) < 2 , so that | d( xn, yn ) -
d(xm, ym ) | < . Hence ( d( xn, yn ) ) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers, then
it converges. Thus lim d( xn, yn ) exists. Now, we show that this limit is
n
 
independent of the choice of ( xn)  x and ( yn)  y , in other words, if (xn) ~ (zn)

15
and (yn) ~ (wn), then by (1) | d( xn, yn ) - d(zn, wn ) |  d( xn, zn ) + d(yn, wn) 0

as n  which implies lim d( xn, yn ) = lim d(zn, wn ). We prove that d in (2) is
n n
    
a metric on X . It is clear that d satisfies (M1), (M3) and d ( x , x ) = 0.
  
Furthermore, if d ( x , y ) = 0, then lim d( xn, yn ) = 0 and so (xn) ~ (yn). Hence
n
 
the equivalence classes x and y are equal. Therefore, (M2) is satisfied. To prove
      
(M4), note that, for all ( xn)  x , ( yn)  y and ( zn)  z and x , y , z  X we have,
  
d( xn, yn )  d( xn, zn ) + d(zn, yn ) and, d ( x , y ) = lim d( xn, yn )  lim d( xn, zn )
n n
       
+ lim d(zn, yn ) = d ( x , z ) + d ( z , y ). Therefore, ( X , d ) is a metric space.
n
___ 
(b) Constructing an isometry T of X onto W, where W = X .
 
Define T:X W  X by T(b) = b , where W = T(X), and for each bX we associate
 
the class b  X which contains the constant Cauchy sequence (b, b, b, b,…....). For
   
any a, bX, d (Ta, Tb) = d ( a , b ) = lim d(a, b) = d(a, b). Hence T is an isometry
n
from X onto W. However, any isometry is 1-1, then X and W are isometric. We
___    
show that W = X . Let x  X and ( xn)  x . Then for every  > 0, there is k such that
  
d( xn, xk ) < 2 for all n > k. Let ( xk, xk, xk,…….)  x k . Then x k  W. By (2)
    
d ( x , x k ) = lim d( xn, xk )  2 < . Therefore, B( x , )  W  φ for all  > 0.
n
___ 
Hence W = X .

(c) Proving the completeness of X .
  ___   
Let ( x n ) be any Cauchy sequence in X . Since W = X , then for all x n  X there
    1      
is zn W such that d ( x n , zn ) < n . Then d ( zm , zn )  d ( zm , xm ) +
      1    1 
d ( xm , x n ) + d ( x n , z n ) < m + d ( xm , x n ) + n . However, ( x n ) is a
1   
Cauchy sequence, then for every  > 0, there is k such that m + d ( xm , x n ) +
1 
n < . Therefore, ( zm ) is Cauchy. Since T : X  W is an isometry and
   
zm W, then the sequence ( zm), where zm = T zm is Cauchy in X. Let x  X
-1

          1   
and (zm) x , then d ( x n , x )  d ( x n , zn ) + d ( zn , x ) < n + d ( zn , x ) ..… (3)
  
Since (zm)  x and zn W, then (zn, zn, zn,…….)  zn and (3) becomes
   1 1
d ( xn , x ) < n + lim d( zn, zm ). However, (zm) is Cauchy and ( n )
n

16
converges, then for every  > 0, there is k sufficiently large such that for all n >k,
      
d ( x n , x ) < . Hence ( x n ) converges to x in X . Therefore, X is complete.

(d) Proving the uniqueness of X , except for isometries.
~ ~ ~ ~
Let ( X , d ) be another complete metric space with a subspace W dense in X and
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
isometric to X, then for any x , y  X we have sequences ( xn ), ( yn ) W such that
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
xn  x and yn  y . As in (a) one can show that | d ( x , y ) - d ( xn , yn ) | 
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
d ( x , xn ) + d ( y , yn ) 0 as n . Hence d ( x , y ) = lim d ( xn , yn ). Let
n
~  ~ ~
T : W  W  X be a bijection isometry. Since ( xn ), ( yn ) are Cauchy sequences
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
in W that are converges to x and y in X , respectively, then (T xn ) and (T yn ) are
 
Cauchy sequences in W. However, W is dense in X , then they converges in X ,
~  ~  ~
say lim T xn = x and lim T yn = y . Let S be the extension of T to X , and
n n
~  ~  ~  ~ ~
S : X  X defined by S x = x , where lim T xn = x and lim xn = x . By using
n n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~  ~ ~
the isometry of T we have, d ( x , y ) = lim d ( xn , yn ) = lim d ( T xn , T yn ) =
n n
    ~ ~  
d ( x , y ) = d ( S x , S y ). Therefore, S is an isometry and so 1-1. Let x  X , then
  
there is a sequence ( x n ) of elements in W such that lim x n = x . Since T is onto,
n
~ ~ ~ 
then there is a sequence ( xn ) of elements in W such that Then T xn = x n for all n.
~  ~
Then lim T xn = x . So that (T xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in W. However, T is an
n
~ ~ ~ ~
isometry, then ( xn ) = (T -1T xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in W . Since X is
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
complete then there is x  X such that xn  x . By the definition of S, S x = x .
~ 
Thus S is onto. Therefore, X and X are isometric. This completes the proof

Note. The space X occurring in the above theorem is called the completion of
the given space X.

H. W. 1, 3-5, 8-13. H. W.* 4, 8.

17