MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Physics
8.01

Problem Solving Session 6 Collisions Solutions

Reference Frames

There are many problems involving conservation of momentum in which the

analysis is easier depending on your choice of reference frame. In the notes that follow
we describe how velocities of objects are related in different reference frames and in
particular describe the center of mass reference frame.
!
Let R be the vector from the origin of a reference frame S to the origin of a
second reference frame S ! . Denote the position vector of particle i with respect to the
!
origin of reference frame S by ri and similarly, denote the position vector of particle i
!
with respect to the origin of reference frame S ! by ri! (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Position vector of i th particle in two reference frames.

The position vectors are related by

! ! !
ri = ri! + R . (1)

The relative velocity between the two reference frames is given by

! !
V = dR . (2)
dt

When the relative velocity between the two reference frames is constant then the relative
acceleration between the two reference frames is zero,

! ! !
A = dV = 0 , (3)
dt
When Eq. (3) is satisfied, the reference frames S and S ! are called relatively inertial
reference frames.

Suppose the i th particle in Figure 1 is moving; then observers in different

reference frames will measure different velocities. Denote the velocity of i th particle in
! !
frame S by v i = dri / dt , and the velocity of the same particle in frame S ! by
! !
v !i = dr ! / dt . Since the derivative of the position is velocity, the velocities of the particles
in two different reference frames are related according to
! ! !
v i = v!i + V . (4)

This relation is called the law of addition of velocities and is the primary tool that we will
use when we describe velocities in different reference frames.
!
Example: Suppose a cart has velocity V = Vî with respect to the ground. Let S denote a
reference frame fixed to the ground and let S ! denote the reference frame moving with
!
velocity V = Vî with respect to the ground. In S ! the cart is at rest. Suppose aball is
!
thrown from the cart with velocity u! = "uî relative to the cart. Then the velocity of the
ball relative to the ground reference frame S is
! ! !
u = u! + V = "uî + Vî = (V " u) î . (5)

Center of Mass Reference Frame

!
Consider a system of N particles. Let R cm be the vector from the origin of a
!
reference frame S to the center of mass of the system of particles. Let r j denote the
position of the j th particle. Recall the definition of the position of the center of mass

j= N
!
! !mr j j
1 j= N
!
R cm =
j =1
j= N
=
mT
!mr j j
(6)
!m j
j =1

j =1

j= N
where mT = !m j
is the mass of the system. The velocity of the center of mass is given
j =1

by
! 1 j= N
!
Vcm =
mT
!m v j j
(7)
j =1
 !
where v j is the velocity of the j th particle with respect to reference frame S . Choose
the center of mass to be the origin of reference frame Scm , called the center of mass
reference frame. Denote the position vector of particle i with respect to origin of
!
reference frame S by ri and similarly, denote the position vector of particle i with
!
respect to origin of reference frame Scm by rcm,i (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Position vector of ith particle in the center of mass reference frame.

The position vector of particle i in the center of mass frame is then given by
! ! !
rcm,i = ri ! R cm . (8)

The velocity of particle i in the center of mass reference frame is then given by
! ! !
v cm,i = v i ! Vcm . (9)
IC_W08D3-1 Group Problem: Railroad Gun

A railroad gun of mass m1 fires a shell of mass m2 at an angle of ! with respect to

the horizontal as measured in a reference frame moving with the final velocity of the
!
gun v1 f after the shell has been fired. After the firing is complete, the final speed of
! !
the projectile relative to the gun (muzzle velocity) is v !2 (with speed u = v !2 ). The
!
gun recoils with speed v f = v1 f and the instant the projectile leaves the gun, it
makes an angle ! with respect to the ground.

Solution:

Solution:
!
a) What is the velocity, v 2 , of the projectile with respect to the ground?

The projectile is shot at an angle ! with respect to the horizontal as measured relative to
the gun. Therefore the velocity of the projectile relative to the gun is given by
!
v !2 = u cos" î + u sin " ĵ . (10)

After the firing is complete, the gun is moving relative to the ground with velocity
! !
v1 f = !v f î . The velocity, v 2 , of the projectile with respect to the ground is given by

! ! !
v 2 = v !2 + v1 f = u cos" î + u sin " ĵ # v f î = (u cos" # v f ) î + u sin " ĵ . (11)

b) Find v f and ! in terms of m1 , m2 , u , and ! .

The final momentum of the projectile according to the observer on the ground is
! !
p 2 = m2 v 2 = m2 ((u cos! " v f ) î + u sin ! ĵ) . (12)
There are no external forces in the x -direction, so the x -component of the momentum of
the system is constant. Therefore we have

0 = px,1 + px,2 = !m1v f + m2 (u cos" ! v f ) . (13)

We can solve Equation (13) for the final speed of the gun as measured by the observer on
the ground,
m u cos!
vf = 2 . (14)
m1 + m2

Therefore we can find the final velocity of the ball relative to the ground by substituting
Eq. into Eq. (11) yielding
! m u cos!
v2 = 1 î + u sin ! ĵ . (15)
m1 + m2

Note that the y -component of the momentum is not constant because as the gun fires the
projectile the normal force that the ground exerts on the gun exceeds the gravitational
force, and so the net external force in the y -direction is non-zero.

The angle ! that the projectile makes with ground as seen by the observer on the ground
is given by
$ (m + m2 )u sin # '
tan ! = tan "1 (v y,2 / vx,2 ) = tan "1 & 1 ). (16)
% m1u cos# (

From Equation (16), ! > 0 ; the observer on the ground sees the projectile moving closer
to the vertical. Notice that this result is independent of the muzzle speed u .
IC_W08D3-2 Group Problem Helium-Lithium Collision:

This problem is on pset 7 and is a difficult problem so we will get you started today.

A thin target of lithium is bombarded by helium nuclei of energy E0 . The lithium nuclei
are initially at rest in the target but are essentially unbound. When a helium nucleus
enters a lithium nucleus, a nuclear reaction can occur in which the compound nucleus
splits apart into a boron nucleus and a neutron. The collision is inelastic, and the final
kinetic energy is less than E0 by 2.8 MeV . (1 MeV=106 eV=1.6 !10-13 J ). The relative
masses of the particles are: helium, mass 4 ; lithium, mass 7 ; boron mass 10 ; neutron,
mass 1 . The reaction can be symbolized

7
Li + 4 He !10 B +1 n " 2.8 MeV .

Let’s consider only the outgoing particles, boron and neutrons that are moving along the
same line as the initial helium nucleus, (call this the x -direction).

a) Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference frame in
which the target lithium nucleus is initially at rest.

b) What is the center of mass velocity of the system of lithium and helium? Does
this velocity change due to the collision?

Answer:
! ! !
! (mHe v He + mLi v Li ) mHe v He ) 4mv He î 4
Vcm = = = = v He î
mHe + mLi mHe + mLi 4m + 7m 11

There are no external forces so the velocity of the center of mass remains constant.

e) Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference frame
moving with the velocity of center of mass. What are the velocities of the helium
nucleus and the lithium in the center of mass reference frame? What is the
momentum of the system in the center of mass reference frame?

Answer: The velocity of the helium in the center of mass reference frame is given by
 ! ! ! ! 4 ! 7 !
v cm, He = v He ! Vcm = v He ! v He = v He .
11 11

The velocity of the lithium in the center of mass reference frame is given by

! ! ! 4 !
v cm, Li = v Li ! Vcm = ! v He .
11

The momentum of the system in the center of mass reference frame is zero.

! ! 7 ! 4 ! !
p cm, He + p cm, Li = 4m v He ! 7m v He = 0 .
11 11

Below threshold energy necessary to create the boron and neutron the helium and lithium
just bounce off. The momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in a reference
frame moving with the velocity of center of mass for that case are shown below.

c) The minimum initial kinetic energy necessary for the reaction to take place is called
the threshold energy, E0,threshold . Draw a momentum diagram for the initial and final
states in the center of mass reference frame when the initial kinetic energy of the
incident particles is at the threshold energy (keep in mind the lithium target is also
moving in the center of mass reference frame). Hint: What are the velocities of the
outgoing particles at threshold?

Answer. At the threshold the energy is just enough to create the boron and the neutron
so they are at rest in the center of mass reference frame.
 d) Write down equations for conservation of energy and momentum in the center of
mass frame when the initial kinetic energy of the incident particles is at the
threshold energy. What is the threshold energy in the center of mass reference
frame?

Answer: Momentum is zero.

! ! ! ! ! !
0 = p cm, He + p cm, Li = p cm, B + p cm,n = 0 .

The boron and neutron are at rest at threshold energy. The incident kinetic energy is
just equal to the energy necessary to create the boron and neutron which is 2.8 MeV .

1 1
2
(4m)vcm, He
+ (7m)vcm,
2
Li
= E0,Threshold
! = 2.8 MeV .
2 2

e) Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in the center of mass
reference frame when the initial kinetic energy of the incident particles lies in the
range E0,threshold < E0 < E0,threshold + 0.27 MeV . How many possible final states are
there? (Hint: Which way is the neutron moving?)

Answer: The momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in the center of mass
reference frame when the boron and neutron have non-zero kinetic energy above
threshold are shown below. There are two possible final states corresponding to the two
possible directions of the neutron and boron.

f) Draw momentum diagrams for the initial and final states in which the target is
initially at rest for the case of part e). How many possible final states are there?
(Hint: Which way is the neutron moving?)
Answer: There are two final states: state (a) corresponding to a slow neutron moving in
the positive x -direction; and state (b) corresponding to a slow neutron moving in the
positive x -direction.

g) What is the initial kinetic energy of the helium in this reference frame at
threshold? How many possible final states are there? (Hint: Which way is the
neutron moving?)

Answer: We have already determined that vcm, He = (7 / 11)v He and vcm, Li = (4 / 11)v He .
Therefore the initial kinetic energy in the center of mass reference frame at threshold is

1 1 1 49 2 1 16 2
K cm,i =
(4m)vcm,2
He
+ (7m)vcm,
2
Li
= (4m) v He + (7m) v
2 2 2 121 2 121 He
.
1 2 ! 49 28 $ 1 2 7
= (4m)v He # + = (4m)v He
2 " 121 121&% 2 11

Note that the incident kinetic energy in lab frame is

1
K lab,i = (4m)v He
2
.
2
Therefore
1 2 7 7
K cm,i = (4m)v He = K lab.i = 2.8 MeV
2 11 11

We set this equal to the threshold energy of 2.8 MeV in order to determine the incident
kinetic energy at threshold in the lab reference frame
 7
K = 2.8 MeV .
11 lab.i

Thus
K lab.i = 4.4 MeV; (at threshold)