Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bio11 Campbell Chapter 7
Bio11 Campbell Chapter 7
Bio11 Campbell Chapter 7
Microscopes Similarities
1. light microscope 1. all have plasma membrane
visible light is passed through the specimen and phospholipid bilayer
through the glass lenses semi-permeable
lenses refract/bend the light in such a way that the allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes
image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected to service the entire volume of the cell
resolving power: size of a small bacterium have proteins attached to/embedded on it
2. electron microscope carbohydrate side chains can be found on its outer surface
focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or hydrophilic region phospholipid heads, exterior proteins,
onto its surface parts of proteins, and carbohydrate side chains
cell ultrastructure cell’s anatomy as revealed by hydrophobic region phospholipid tails
the EM 2. cytosol
reveals organelles semifluid substance
disadvantage: methods used to prepare the cell kills it where organelles are suspended (eukaryotic)
or introduces structural features that do not exist in 3. all have chromosomes, DNA
the cell 4. all have ribosomes protein synthesizers
a. transmission electron microscope
~ used to study internal ultrastructure of cells Prokaryotic cells
~ uses electromagnets as lenses to focus and - nucleoid
magnify the image by bending the paths of the e- region where DNA is concentrated
~ very thin sections of preserved cells stained with not bound by a membrane
atoms of heavy metals are used - cytoplasm also known as the interior of the cell
b. scanning electron microscope - smaller in size
~ useful for a detailed study of the surface of the mycoplasmas bacteria, smallest cells
specimen - plasma membrane
~ e- beam scans the surface, w/c is usually coated
with a thin film of gold Eukaryotic cells
~ image appears to be 3D - have a nucleus
contains the chromosomes
resolving power membrane-enclosed (nuclear envelope) organelle
- measure of the clarity of the image - cytoplasm
- minimum distance two points can be separated and still be region between plasma membrane and nucleus
distinguished as two separate pts. membrane-bound organelles of specialized form and fcn
- Limited by the shortest wavelength of light used to are suspended in it
illuminate the specimen - bigger in size
- Inversely related to the wavelength of radiation a Size is a general aspect of cell structure that relates to
microscope uses function.
Metabolism depends on cell size
Isolation of Organelles The smaller the object, the greater the ration of SA to
Volume
Cell Fractionation The need for a surface sufficiently large to accommodate
- take cells apart, separating major organelles in order to the volume helps explain the microscopic size of cells
study their functions Larger organisms don’t have larger cells, they have more
- instrument: centrifuge, ultracentrifuge cells
1. homogenization - Plasma membrane
disruption of cells
break cells apart without damaging organelles Internal Membranes (Eukaryotic Cell)
pellet larger, heavier structures(nuclei, cellular - Partition the cell into compartments organelles
debris) found at the bottom of the test tube - Participate directly in metabolism
supernatant light parts of cell suspended in liquid - Many enzymes are built right into the membranes
found at the top of the test tube - Allows Incompatible process to go on simultaneously Cell
2. supernatant from 1 is centrifuged again compartments provide diff. local environments that favor
pellet mitochondria and chloroplasts specific metabolic fcns
supernatant - Generally consists of phospholipid bilayer and other lipids
3. supernatant from 2 is centrifuged - Diverse proteins are attached or embedded
pellet microsomes pieces of plasma membrane - Each type has a unique composition of lipids and proteins
and internal membranes suited to that membrane’s fcns
supernatant
4. supernatant from 3 is centrifuged THE NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES
pellet rich in ribosomes
The Nucleus cells that specialize in protein secretion (pancreatic cells,
- genetic library of the cell digestive enzymes) frequently have a high proportion of
some genes can be found in mitochondria and this type of ribosomes
chloroplasts) - both are structurally identical and can alternate between the
- enclosed by the nuclear envelope two roles
double membrane - cell adjusts the nos of each as metabolism changes
consists of lipid bilayer, proteins
- nuclear envelope is perforated by pores THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
in its lip the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear - related either through
envelope fuse together direct physical continuity or
lined by a pore complex protein structure that by transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles
regulates the entry/exit of certain large sacs made of membrane
macromolecules and particles - various membranes making up this system are not identical in
- nuclear lamina form and fcn
lines the nucleus side of the nuclear envelope - thickness, molecular composition and metabolic behavior are
a netlike array of protein filaments/intermediate not fixed
filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus
- nuclear matrix 1. nuclear envelope
framework of fibers extending throughout the nuclear 2. ER
interior 3. Golgi apparatus
- chromatin 4. Lysosomes
fibrous material where DNA + proteins are 5. Various kinds of vacuoles
organized 6. Plasma membrane
located inside the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
coils up as cell prepares to divide chromosomes
- An extensive membranous labyrinth
each eukaryotic specie has a characteristic no of
- Consists of a network of membranous tubules and cisternae
chromosomes
sacs
- nucleolus
- Separates the cisternal space (internal compartment of ER)
structure found in a nondividing nucleus from cytosol
granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin 1. Smooth ER
where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and 2. Rough ER
assembled with proteins imported from the cytoplasm
into the main components of ribosomes (ribosomal Smooth ER
subunits) - cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes
subunits pass through the pores to the cytoplasm - functions
form ribosomes synthesis of lipids
its no. depends on species and stage in cell’s metabolism of carbo liver cells
reproductive cycle detoxification of drugs and poison
not enclosed by a membrane - enzymes of smooth ER are impt to the synthesis of lipids
- synthesizes proteins oils
synthesizes messenger RNA (mRNA) made phospholipids
according to instructions of DNA steroids sex hormones, steroid hormones of adrenal
mRNA goes to cytoplasm via nuclear pores glands (cells that produce these are rich in SER)
ribosomes translate its genetic message into the - ex. Muscle cells
primary structure of a specific polypeptide
Rough ER
Ribosomes - ribosomes stud the cytoplasmic surface
- particles made of rRNA and protein
- organelles that carry out protein synthesis Synthesis of Secretory Proteins
- composed of two subunits - ribosomes attached to it makes the proteins cell secretes it
large - ex. Pancreas hormone insulin
small - polypeptide chain grows from a bound ribosome
- not enclosed in membrane - the chain is threaded into the cisternal space through a pore
formed by a protein in the ER
1. free ribosomes - new protein folds into its native conformation
suspended in cytosol - gylcoproteins
proteins made by this type will function within the many secretory proteins are of this type
cytosol proteins that are covalently bonded to carbohydrates
ex of protein: enzymes that catalyze first steps of carbohydrate appendix oligosaccharide
sugar breakdown - secretory proteins are formed ER keeps them separate from
2. bound ribosomes proteins produced by free ribosomes
attached to the outside of ER or nuclear envelope - sec. Proteins depart from ER wrapped in vesicles
generally make proteins that are destined for insertion membranes
into membranes, packaging within certain organelles bud like bubbles from transitional ER
(ie lysosomes), export from cell (secretion)
- transport vesicles transit from one part of the cell to docking sites on surface of specific organelles or plasma
another membrane