24 Logical Connectors GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION Introduction With the exception of our discussion of conjoined sentences, we have restricted our examination thus far to the structural components of single sentences. In this chapter we will look beyond surface structures which comprise single sentences, and consider logical connectors—words or phrases whose function it is to show some logical relationship between two or more basic sentences or—in some cases—between a basic sentence and a noun phrase. Conjunctions and correlatives, as we have seen, have as much a syntactic as a semantic function and serve to coordinate clauses within a surface structure sentence; logical connectors have primarily a semantic, cohesive function, which holds within or between surface structure sentences (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:244). Although using logical connectors properly is essential in the production of good writing, itis also important for ESL/EFL students to be able to recognize their function while reading and listening, and it is also important for the students to control the more common ones while speaking. Tomiyama (1980) found that native speakers were less able to correct ESL learners’ global errors related to the use of connectors than their “local”! errors such as problems with article usage. The explanation for this given by Tomiyama is that the connector errors so distorted the intended message that the native speakers were unable to reconstruct the clausal relationship the author/speaker had attempted to convey. Producing logical connectors is often more challenging than mightat first be apparent. In addition to the usual semantic and syntactic knowledge students must possess in order to use logical connectors appropriately, they must also have a sensitivity to register. Having a sensitivity to register means that students must know, for example, if they are introducing an “effect clause,” when to use a formal connector such as in consequence, and when the situation calls for a more informal connector such as so. One of the things that marks speakers as nonnative is their producing a logical connector of an inappropriate register, In any kind of informal situation, a native speaker of English would be surprised to hear somebody say notwithstanding the fact that to express the notion of concession. A connector such as even though would be much more likely. 1. The terms “local” and “global” errors come from the work of Burt and Kiparsky (1974). 323324 THE GRAMMAR BOOK. Although logical connectors are probably best presented to a class group by group spread out over an entire term, we will treat them together here to facilitate classification and discussion. A functional classification of logical connectors Typically, logical connectors are presented according to the function they fulfill, The following, although not an exhaustive list, is an enumeration of the most common functions which logical connectors can express. We have chosen to follow Secord’s hierarchy (1978) of functional categories, which in turn draws heavily from Halliday and Hasan (1976). We present an abbreviated version of her hierarchy below. No claim is made that within each group, all logical connectors are completely synonymous, since cach may convey a different aspect of the category's meaning, However, we feel itis the similarities which should be drawn upon initially when presenting logical connectors to ESL/EFL students. Like Secord, who basically followed Halliday and Hasan, the four broad headings under which we classify all the connectors are the followin 1. Additive (used to signal addition, introduction, to show similarity, etc.) 2. Adversative (used to signal conflict, contradiction, concession, etc) 3. Causal (used to signal cause/effect and reason/result, etc.) 4, Sequential (used to signal a chronological or logical sequence) We shall now proceed in greater detail with the classification. Additive 1. Addition a. Simple: additionally in addition (TO THIS) “also furthermore moreover further not to mention THIS? and toot either (negative) 2. Following the convention of Halliday and Hasan (1976), THIS is a symbol we use to indicate that a referential item must follow a logical connector. In some cases the referential item for the logical connector is either implicitor can be stated explicitly. Ifthis option exists for a particular logical connector, we will indicate the optionality of the reference word by using parentheses. Notice that sometimes when a reference word is optional, ifitis made explicit it must be preceded by a preposition, e.g, in addition (10 THIS). In such cases the preposition is included with the THIS in parentheses. 3, We have viewed and before as a sentential and phrasal conjunction, Here we refer to it as a logical connector, since it can convey the meaning of “in addition.” 4. We have also encountered this word before in Chapter 22 with reference to conjoined sentences. At that time we mentioned that foo is used within a sentence to signal the addition of a repeated constituent in an affirmative verb phrase: Marlene slaloms well and Burt does too. But notice semantically too implies “in addition” and therefore rightfully should be considered a logical connector in this category. Furthermore, as it can in conjoined sentences, fo0 can also be found in simple sentences where it does not signal the repetition of a constituent but rather functions in the discourse to mark an additional comment with the same theme as that of an earlier sentence: 4: For relaxation we play hearts and pinochle. B: Do you enjoy bridge too? 5. Some logical connectors occur in a negative context or impose a negative meaning on the phrase or clause being connected to the text. In such cases, we have added the word “negative” in parentheses after the connector to signal this fact. ‘x b. Emphatic: besides (THIS) notonly THIS but... on c. Intensifying: in fact as a matter of fact to tell (you) the truth to say nothing of (negative) d. Alternative: Logical Connectors 325 as well (AS THIS) what is more actually indeed let alone (negative) much less (negative) or nor (negative) alternatively on the other hand Exemplification a. To exemplify a representative member: such as as for example like for instance b. To exemplify the most important member: especially in particular particularly notably ©. To introduce an ordinary group member: including 4. To introduce a specific example which comes in a separate sentence from the preceding general statement: for one thing by way of example as an illustration to illustrate Reference To introduce a topic: speaking about THIS as for THIS considering THIS concerning THIS regarding THIS on the subject/topic of THIS a (eet THIS withyin { regard } eae reference Similarity similarly in a like manner likewise by the same token in the same way equally Identification To identify a constituent for which the reader/listener has already been prepared: that is (to say) namely specifically326 THE GRAMMAR BOOK 6. Clarification To clarify or rephrase a preceding item: that is (to say) in other words I mean (to) put (it) another way Adversative 1. Conflict/Contrast® (Two ideas incompatible or in contrast) but? while however whereas in contrast conversely by way of contrast on the other hand (and) yet though (in sentence-final position) when in fact’ 2. Concession (Reservation without invalidating the truth of the main clause) but on the other hand? even so despite THIS however in spite of THIS (and) still regardless (of THIS) (and) yet notwithstanding (THIS) nevertheless be that as it may nonetheless granted (THIS) although admittedly though albeit even though 3. Dismissal a. Alternative circumstances (Quirk et al,, 1972): either way ther case whichever happens in either event b, Universal circumstances—two or more possibilities (Quirk et al, 1972): whatever happens in any case/event all the same at any rate 4. Replacement a. To rectify a preceding item: (or) at least (01) rather b. To substitute a positive statement for a negative one or to substitute an actual outcome for a prior expectation: instead 6. In some studies conflict and contrast are treated separately. We do not feel the criteria for distinguishing them are sufficiently clear-cut at this time to justify two separate categories. 7. Note that but (also dealt with in the preceding chapters on conjoined sentences) occurs as a logical connector primarily in oral language and is usually unaccented, 8, When in fact conveys the special meaning of simultaneously discrediting the validity of the first clause while affirming the truth of the second, 9. Some logical connectors belong to more than one category or subcategory. They are used in different ‘ways by native speakers depending upon the context and the speaker's intentions. To illustrate, consider the following sentences in which the logical connector serves a different function: The polls have indicated that inflation is the biggest problem facing the nation. On the other hand, one could argue that the energy crisis is more detrimental to the economy. (contrast) On the other hand, the energy crisis is also a major problem, (concession)‘Cause/Reason being that seeing that since as inasmuch as forasmuch as because (of the fact that) Effect/Result so that so so much (so) that for this reason as a result (of THIS) because (of THIS) therefore Purpose so a { as to that that to with this in mind with this intention in order { Condition a. To introduce the condition: if in case provided that providing that on (the) condition that in the event that given that then if so in that case that being the case tial Chronological and Logical a. Numerical: (chronological and logical) in the (first) place first...; second... To introduce the consequence: ee oe , Logical Connectors 327 due to (the fact that) in view of (the fact that) owing to (the fact that) for the (simple) reason that for in that consequently as a consequence thus hence in consequence accordingly in the hope that for the purpose of to the end that for fear that (negative) for fear (negative) lest (negative) granted (that) granting (that) as/so long as even if only if unless (negative) under those circumstances if not (negative) otherwise (negative) initiallyTHE GRAMMAR BOOK b. Beginning: (chronological) at first ©. Continuation: (chronological) previously after THIS afterwards eventually subsequently before THIS d. Conclusion: (chronological) finally eventually at last in the end Digression by the way incidentally Resumption anyhow anyway at any rate Summation a, General: in conclusion to sum up to summarize b. Review of main idea or purpose: as I have said as was previously stated (chronological and logical) to start with to begin with for a start first of all initially (chronological and logical) next then (logical) at last last but not least as a final point lastly to conclude (with) to change the subject to get back to the point to return to the subject to resume in summary in sum as has been mentioned/noted c. Combination of effect/result and summary: then given (all) these points therefore so d. Summary of points: on the whole altogether in all consequently thus hence all in all overallLogical Connectors 329 e. Condensation: to make a long story short in short to put it briefly to be brief briefly in a word The syntax of logical connectors The first time a new logical connector is presented to a class, it should be shown in a meaningful discourse context and also in the position in which it typically occurs in a sentence. In some cases the placement of a logical connector is restricted; i,, it either occurs, ‘only in initial position in a clause, only clause medially, or only clause finally. ‘These three major positions and their variations can be represented schematically as follows: Clause Initial Before clause 1: Connector + clause 1 + clause 2 Before clause 2: Clause 1 + connector + clause 2'° Clause Medial Clause 1 + part of clause 2 + connector + rest of clause2 Clause Final Clause 1 + clause 2 + connector Sometimes a particular logical connector can occur in all three major positions. Of “course, when a logical connector can occur in all three positions, one would expect that there id be a difference in meaning depending on its location and that free variation is not issible, Salera (1978), in a study of logical connector mobility, hypothesized that the atives however, nevertheless, and instead would occur: 1. Clause initially if the situation calls for an emphatic, contrary-to-expectation sion. The fire swept down Mandeville Canyon. We were forced to evacuate, convinced we would return to find ashes. predicted as the preferred choice—+a. Instead, we found our home completely un- touched, b. We found, instead, our home completely un- touched. c. other d. Comment 10. In the discussion which follows, we further distinguish two types of sentences where the connector the second clause: those in which there is sentence-final punctuation after clause 1, eg: Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. In addition, it enjoys a relatively mild climate. ‘those in which the connector does not begin a new sentence, e.g: Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location, and it enjoys a relatively mild climate. ‘make this distinction because it is often the case that ESL/EFL learners err and use certain logical rs to begin new sentences, when prescriptively at least, the connectors in question should not be used ‘manner, €g: We were tired. *So we went home,330 THE GRAMMAR BOOK 2. Clause medially ifthe situation calls fora strong contrastive relationship (but one that is not emphatically counter to expectation) or one that expresses a reservation about the previous clause. Jack is a magazine columnist who is concerned that people aren't using words correctly. He notices that words sometimes mean different things to different people. This condition, he believes, could be corrected if people would use their dictionaries more often. predicted as the preferred choice —-a. He knows, however, that they won't. b. He knows that they won't, however. c. other d. Comment: 3. Clause finally ifthe situation calls fora contrastive comment or afterthought thatis not as important as what went on before. Miriam has been running for over a year. Two months ago she went into training fora 15 kilometer race by running the hilly perimeter of UCLA. The week before the test, she knew she was ready—she was running smooth and easy. When she gotto the race, she found the course more hilly than she had expected. a, She nevertheless ran a good race. predicted as the preferred choice—+b. She ran a good race nevertheless. c. other d. Comment In general, the results of Salera’s study revealed a confirmation of the hypotheses, although agreement among native speakers with regard to the preferred sentence position of the logical connectors was by no means unanimous. More usage studies dealing with the mobility of these adversative connectors, not to mention the other categories of connectors, would be helpful. In our discussion of the following categories, we illustrate the placement of logical connectors in the three locations. Additive Clause Initial Before clause 1: In addition to Besides relatively mild climate. } Atlanta boasting an ideal geographic location, it enjoys a Before clause 2: Sentence initial: Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location Also In addition Furthermore >, it enjoys a relatively mild climate. Additionally Moreover Sentence internal: and Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location, { , a ists amiideal: geoprap _ not to mention that } it enjoys a relatively mild climate.Logical Connectors 331 Clause Medial Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. also It [ores \ enjoys a relatively mild climate. furthermore Clause Final Atlanta boasts an ideal geographic location. It enjoys a relatively mild climate too also in addition as well t/Conflict Clause Initial Before clause 1: While Whereas producing it, that was not Abdullah’s problem. } ‘most of our students have an easier time understanding English than Before clause 2: Sentence initial: Most students have an easier time understanding English than producing it. However * On the other hand | , that was not Abdullah’s problem. Sentence internal: Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producingit, but and yet Clause Medial Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producing it: however | , Abdullah's problem, | that was not Abdullah's problem. that at was POL | on the other hand Clause Final Most of our students have an easier time understanding English than producing it. That was not Abdullah's problem, {te theomet rand . however splification Clause Initial Before clause 2: Intensive language instructional programs require a great deal of time. For example For instance} , students at the University of Michigan's English Language ‘As an example Institute attend English classes four hours daily. Clause Medial Intensive language instruction programs require a great deal of time. Students at the for example \ r.. University of Michigan's English Language Institute, { leriodaces English classes four hours daily.332. THE GRAMMAR BOOK Connector following example: Intensive language instructional programs, the University of Michigan's for example for instance as an example in particular require a great deal of time. Clause Final Intensive language instructional programs require a great deal of time. The students at the University of Michigan's English Language Institute attend English classes four hours dais, {For erannl| Cause and Effect/Reason and Result Precedes effect/result: Clause Initial Before clause 2: Sentence initial: For this reason Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself. Because of this } , she caught Asa result a cold. Sentence internal: so cere . } therefore Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself) Coe nanay } «she caught thus a cold, Clause Medial therefore Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself; she { } caught a cold. thus: Clause Final Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself. She caught a cold (a a result } for this reason Precedes cause/reason: Clause Initial Before clause 1: Due to the fact that Because | Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself, she caught a cold, Since Before clause 2 (also results in a change of clause order) Sentence internal: due to the fact that Mavis caught a cold | since } she hasn't taken good care of because herself.Logical Connectors 333 (Comcession _ Clause Initial Before clause 1: Though Although Even though _ While In ppite of the fact Despite the fact clause 2: Sentence internal (clauses are switched): even though in spite of the fact that despite the fact that regardless of the fact that Claude went on a strict diet, he continued to gain weight. Claude continued to gain weight he went ona strict diet. Final in spite of this despite this regardless though ° ude went on a strict diet. He continued to gain weight have not included all the logical connectors or all the possible permutations in the -we have provided, What we have attempted to do is to illustrate the various positions connectors can occupy and to reinforce our contention that an ESL/EFL teacher ‘not introduce logical connectors divorced from their semantic and syntactic contexts. ordering have seen in two instances above, there are times when the clause order may vary— Connector + clause 1 + clause 2 with Clause 2 + connector + clause 1. examples this pattern held for the adversative logical connectors: Even though Claude went on asstrict diet, he continued to gain weight. Claude continued to gain weight even though he went on a strict diet. ‘the causal logical connectors: Because Mavis hasn't taken good care of herself, she caught a cold. Mavis caught a cold because she hasn't taken good care of herself. question we want to pose is what the meaning difference is between the two clausal Secord (1977) conducted a usage study in which she found support for the following s with regard to the concessive logical connectors: 1. When the concessive clause is first, it reflects a counter-to-expectation which follows the previous context or the speaker's presuppositions about the listener's viewpoint. It334 THE GRAMMAR BOOK serves to either discredit the previous context or indicate that the main clause which follows will not be in perfect agreement with that context or what the speaker believes the listener's opinion is, eg: Although Hal's obnoxious, you have to admit he’s a very intelligent guy. 2. When the concessive clause comes second, the main clause basically continues the train of thought from the previous context. The function of the concessive clause here is an admission, a yielding, a reservation, or an acknowledgment of some point related to the main point, e.g: Star Wars was still drawing crowds a year after its release, though in smaller numbers. Thus, to account for such order variations and others which may exist, one should look to the discourse context in order to understand why speakers sequence the clauses joined by a logical connector in the order they do. Reductions Thus far we have discussed logical connectors which can precede clauses, occur medially within clauses, and follow full clauses. However, it is also the case that the clauses can be reduced in a number of ways and still be accompanied by logical connectors. We illustrate some of these reductions using concessive logical connectors as an example: 1. Clauses lacking a surface subject and the verb BE: Though Although duly elected, he failed to assume office. Even though 2. Subjectless gerunds preceding or following the main clause: In spite of Despite being duly elected, he failed to assume office. Regardless of in spite of He failed to assume office } despite being duly elected. regardless of Your students should thus be made aware that two (or more) full clauses are not always necessary when logical relationships are expressed. Conclusion We began this chapter by pointing out that an understanding of logical connectors would be of enormous help to ESL/EFL students in improving their reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills, Indeed, as Hunt (1965) has shown for native speakers of English and Larsen- Freeman and Strom (1977) and Larsen-Freeman (1978) have claimed for ESL learners, an English speaker/writer’s ability to use logical connectors to subordinate one clause to another is a fair measure of the learner's overall “syntactic maturity” (Hunt's term). Thus, by helping our students understand the meanings of logical connectors and by encouraging them to develop a sensitivity to both the register and the syntactic variations that occur in the use of these expressions, we can encourage our students to grow in all four skills.Logical Connectors 335 TEACHING SUGGESTIONS 1 Example Lesson Plan The following is Maureen Secord’s (1978:75-77) suggested method of presentation for logical connectors. Cause and effect logical connectors have been chosen to illustrate the general approach. ‘a. The teacher asks if any student(s) did not eat breakfast (lunch). When one responds, the teacher then asks if she or he is hungry. The teacher then writes on the board: Ed didn’t eat breakfast. He is very hungry. b. The teacher elicits from students which clause expresses the reason and which is the result and labels each accordingly. The teacher puts a list of different logical connectors on the board to show which can precede the result clause and which can precede the reason clause. (1) To introduce result (or effect) (a) As the second of two clauses: so Ed didn’t eat breakfast; } therefore, he is very hungry. (reason) consequently, (result) thus, (b) As the second of two sentences: For this reason Because of this Asa result As a consequence Ed didn’t eat breakfast. , he is very hungry. (2) To introduce reason (or cause) (a) As the second of two clauses: because Ed is very hungry 4 in that he didn’t eat breakfast. due to the fact that (b) As the first of two clauses: Being that Because of the fact that } Ed didn’t eat breakfast, he is very hungry. Since The teacher points out that while the result/effect clause or sentence introduced by a logical connector can only follow the reason/cause, the reason clause introduced by a logical connector can either precede or follow the result. c. Using pictures, the teacher suggests (or elicits when possible) statements about the subjects, then asks why this statement is so. For example, one picture could be a woman wearing a beautiful dress. The teacher then asks: “This lady just bought a new dress, Why?” “She is going to a dance” or any other logical response would then be combined with the original statement with since or because. The teacher could then ask another student to rephrase this into a complex sentence withso, therefore, or consequently. Iferrors or confusion arise, the teacher could write each clause on the board and have students label the reason/cause and the result/effect clauses. d. A more communicative class drill could be conducted wherein each student asks the next a “why” question with a verb phrase supplied by the teacher and another student could restate it with the opposite focus.336 THE GRAMMAR BOOK T: save money ‘Si: Charles, why are you saving money? $2: I'm saving money because I am going to buy a car. $3: Charles is going to buy a car so he is saving money. 2 Once a particular group of logical connectors has been presented, an exercise of the following sort should be given to reinforce appropriate usage. The most common drill, the combining of two sentences into one with a logical connector, has many variations: in unrelated sentences, in contextualized groups of sentences, in a paragraph containing unconnected sentences, and in dialogs. The following illustrates one such type: How does this paragraph sound to you? How could you improve it by rewriting it with appropriate logical connectors? Mrs. Andrews went downtown this morning. She had some errands to do. She took a bus. Her husband needed the car. Mrs. Andrews went to the bank first. She wanted to cash acheck, Itwas early. The bank was not crowded. She wanted to look at some sweaters. She went to Bullock's. The streets were still wet. It had rained that morning She walked very carefully. The streets were slippery. Her favorite soap opera began at noon. She hurried home. (Supplied by Maureen Secord) 3 Another common exercise involves sentence completion. For example: Complete the following with a phrase or sentence which makes sense considering the semantics of the logical connector: a. Betty is pretty besides b. He gets ten hours of sleep each night, yet ¢. There was no reason to stay any longer, so . Mr. Smith smokes too much; furthermore, e. He forgot to mail the invitations to his party. As a consequence, 4 Away tomake students sensitive to register differences would be to have them substitute a logical connector of one register with one from another. For instance, change each of the following example sentences with their logical connectors of formal register to a sentence containing a more informal logical connector: a. He hadn't done his homework; consequently, the teacher was angry. b. In spite of the fact that defeat was inevitable, the players continued to try their best to win the game. c. Susan is very talented; moreover, she is personable. 5 A good transformation exercise to practice syntax would be one which would require students to move a logical connector from a sentence-initial position to a sentence-internal position and make the corresponding changes. Look ateach example sentence; then using the logical connector provided in the parentheses, rewrite the example sentence. You might have to make some changes in the word order and syntax to produce an acceptable English sentence. a. Besides having to worry about his own children, Mr. Clark has to worry about his neighbor's child. (as well as) b. Because he hadn't prepared for the test, he performed very poorly. (thus)Logical Connectors 337 6 Tom Gorman and Marjorie Walsleben offer us an additional way to get our students to practice using logical connectors. In an exercise type which they call a “completion exercise” (ceallya modified cloze passage), students are presented with a passage in which all the logical ‘connectors have been deleted. At the end of the passage there is a word list containing all the Jogical connectors necessary to fill in all the blanks. The students are instructed to select the ‘appropriate logical connector from the word list and insert it in the passage in its proper position. The following is a portion of an exercise from their classtoom materials: (1) ______, we may observe that animal communication systems are closed, (2)_______ human languages are open-ended. (3) ____ bees communicate, they will only be able to exchange variants of the same message—in what direction the nectar is and how far away. Apes cannot communicate freely about anything for which they do not have a specific signal, and (4) __in those cases the possibilities are extremely restricted. People (5) can talk about anything they can observe or imagine. (6)______, what they can say on any topic is almost unlimited. ... Word list a. on the other hand d. finally b. whereas e. even c. as long as f moreover Such an exercise could also be used without supplying the word list if the students are sufficiently advanced. : EXERCISES ‘Test your understanding of what has been presented 1, Provide original example sentences that illustrate the following concepts. Underline the pertinent word(s) in your examples. negative logical connector clause-initial vs. clause-medial vs, clause- formal register of a logical connector final position for connectors referential word clause order variations concession 2. Account for the ungrammaticality of the following sentences: David was working hard in the garden. *While George was napping in the hammock. . Ifyou try hard, you will succeed. *Consequently Bill followed this advice and failed the test We took extra care to prepare for the storm, *In spite of it was devastating. |. The general surrendered at last. *He never gave up in spirit although. oP pe Test your ability to apply what you know 3. The following sentences contain errors that were made by ESL/EFL students. Account for the ungrammaticality, and explain how you would make your students aware of such errors. What remedial exercises would you provide? a, *Although he gets up early, but he’s always late to work. b. *Most of our students work very hard. Even so, not Mohammad.338 THE GRAMMAR BOOK, ©. *Because of know it's hard to go to medical school, Iam trying my bestto make a good GPA. d. *T have visited many places as Marineland 4. What type of difference, if any, exists between the sentences in the following pairs: a. (1) Due to the fact that she hasn't taken good care of herself, she caught a cold. (2) Due to the fact that she caught a cold, she hasn't taken good care of herself. b. (1) Even though he worked hard, he never got ahead. (2) In spite of his having worked hard, he never got ahead. (1) Because there has been very little rain lately, California is experiencing a severe drought. (2) As a consequence of having little rain lately, California is experiencing a severe drought. 5. What do both of the following groups of three sentences have in common? a. (1) In short, job opportunities for everyone is a right, not a privilege (2) To sum up, job opportunities for everyone is a right, not a privilege. (3) In conclusion, job opportunities for everyone is a right, not a privilege. b. (1) Furthermore, one must consider the economic impact as well. (2) Moreover, one must consider the economic impact as well (3) In addition, one must consider the economic impact as well. BIBLIOGRAPHY References Burt, M. K., and C. Kiparsky (1974). "Global and Local Mistakes,” in J. Schumann and N. Stenson (eds.), New Frontiers in Second Language Learning. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. Halliday, M.A. K., and R, Hasan (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman. Hunt, K.(1965). Grammatical Structures Written at Three Grade Levels. NCTE Research Report 3. Champaign, IIL: National Council of Teachers of English. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1978). “An ESL Index of Development.” TESOL Quarterly 12, 4:439-448, Larsen-Freeman, D., and V, Strom (1977). “The Construction of a Second Language Acquisition Index of Development.” Language Learning 27, 1:123-134. Quirk, R., et al. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary English. New York: Seminar Press. Salera, C. (1978). “The Mobility of Certain Logical Connectors.” Unpublished English 215 paper, UCLA. fall, 1978, Secord, M. (1977), “Contrastive and Concessive Relationships in English.” Unpublished English 215 paper, UCLA, fall, 1977, Secord, M. (1978). “A Categorization of Transitional Expressions in English.” Unpublished M.A. thesis in TESL, UCLA. Tomiyama, M.(1980),"Grammatical Errors and Communication Breakdown,” TESOL Quarterly 14,2:71-79. Suggestions for further reading For more detailed characterizations of the semantics of logical connectors, see the following: Arapoff, Nancy (1968). “The Semantic Role of Sentence Connectors in Extra-Sentence Logical Relationships’ TESOL Quarterly 2:4, 243-2: Greenbaum, . (1969). Studies in English Adverbial Usage. Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press. Halliday, M., and R. Hasan (1976), See above references.Logical Connectors. 339 For exercises on the teaching of logical connectors: Yorkey, Richard C. (1970). Study Skills for Students of English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw- Hill. For suggestions on writing assignments which necessitate the use of logical connectors, see Arapoff-Cramer, Nancy (1974). “Toward a Hierarchial Sequencing of Writing Situations,” in R. Crymes and W. Norris (eds,), On TESOL '74, Washington, D.C TESOL. Lawrence, Mary (1972). Writing as a Thinking Process. Ann Arbor: Universi of Michigan Press.