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Experimental analysis of thermal performance of evacuated tube solar air

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Article  in  International Journal of Ambient Energy · June 2015

DOI: 10.1080/01430750.2015.1074612.

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International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2015.1074612

Experimental analysis of thermal performance of evacuated tube solar air collector with phase
change material for sunshine and off-sunshine hours
Neeraj Mehla ∗ and Avadhesh Yadav
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119, India
(Received 22 September 2014; accepted 3 June 2015 )

An experimental investigation of an evacuated tube solar air collector coupled to a latent thermal energy store for generating
hot air when no solar radiation is incident was undertaken. Acetamide was used as a phase change material (PCM). The
latent thermal energy store was integrated with the manifold of the solar collector and water was used as the working fluid
transferring solar gain to the air being heated. The maximum measured temperature differential between the heated air and
the ambient air was 37°C and 20.2°C during conditions of incident and non-incident solar radiation, respectively. This
occurred using a circular fin configuration at a flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1 . The efficiency at low (0.018 kg s−1 ) air flow rates
was 0.05–0.50 times less as compared to high (0.035 kg s−1 ) air flow rates. This system has advantages over systems using
sensible storage as it can be used after sunset due to better heat storing capacity of the PCM.
Keywords: thermal performance analysis; solar air heater; one-ended evacuated tube; reflector; phase change material; air
flow rates

Nomenclature Qwater energy stored by water, kW

C copper coil QT,PCM total energy stored by PCM, kW
CF circular fin l,PCM PCM during liquid phase
Cpa specific heat of air, kJ/kg °C s,PCM PCM during solid phase
CPCM specific heat of PCM, kJ/kg °C Tavg,in average ambient temperature, °C
Cw specific heat of water, kJ/kg °C Tavg,out average outlet temperature of air, °C
D outer diameter of absorber tube, m Ti initial temperature of PCM, °C
f liquid fraction at the end of the charging Tin ambient temperature, °C
period Tm melting temperature of PCM, °C
G solar intensity, W/m2 Tout outlet temperature of air, °C
Gmax maximum solar intensity, W/m2 Tout, max maximum outlet temperature of air, °C
HFR high flow rate TPCM, max maximum temperature of PCM, °C
LFR low flow rate WF without fin
L latent heat of fusion, kJ/kg ηmax,Collector maximum efficiency of solar collector
LE length of evacuated tube, m ηCollector solar collector efficiency
ṁ mass flow rate of air, kg/h ηmax,PCM maximum thermal storage efficiency of
mPCM mass of PCM, kg PCM
mw mass of water, kg ηPCM thermal storage efficiency of PCM
PCM phase change material tmax maximum temperature difference of
Qin solar radiation energy on area of solar outlet air and ambient air, °C
collector, kW t24:00 temperature difference of outlet air and
Qout useful energy collected by the solar col- ambient air at 24:00 hours, °C
lector, kW
QPCM latent heat stored by PCM, kJ
Qstore total energy stored by a system, kW 1. Introduction
Qstore, avg average energy stored by a system, kW Evacuated tube solar collectors (ETCs) are widely used in
Qstore, max maximum energy stored by a system, the world market. Tang, Yang, and Gao (2011) reported
kW that ETC contributed 88% participation of the market in

*Corresponding author. Email: neerajmehla471@gmail.com

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

2 N. Mehla and A. Yadav
2003 and 95% in 2009. A solar tube collector (ETC) con-
verts sunlight into thermal energy (photo thermal energy
conversion) and is better suited to processes where higher
temperatures are required than those that could be gen-
erated using a non-evacuated system as per Yadav and
Bajpai (2013). According to Budihardjo and Morrison
(2009), the heat loss (UA = 1.2–1.67 WK−1 ) of an evac-
uated tube solar collector was less than the heat loss
(UA = 2.3 WK−1 ) of a flat plate solar collector. As per
Kim and Seo (2007), the combined effect of selective
coating and vacuum insulation in these solar collectors
provides high heat extraction when compared with flat
plate solar collectors. Therefore, the glass evacuated tube
is gradually becoming the key component in solar thermal
utilisation such as the solar air heating system. ETCs with
an area about 100 m2 have been installed in China (Li et al.
2012) and used to produce hot air.
A review of literature suggests that considerable efforts
have been made in the research and development of the
ETCs. Garg and Chakravertty (1988) developed an empir-
ical relation and observed that in series combinations the
efficiency decreased by increasing the number of collec-
tors and remained constant for parallel combinations with
the number of collectors. Kumar et al. (2001) evaluated
the thermal performance of a solar pressure cooker and
observed that the system based on evacuated tube collector
performed better than a normal flat plate collector. Morri-
son, Budihardjo, and Behnia (2004) presented a numerical
study of water circulation through long tubes and observed
that the existence of a stagnant region near the sealed end
of the tube would influence the performance of the collec-
tor. Shah and Furbo (2004) studied a prototype collector
with parallel-connected evacuated tubes and observed that
high thermal performance was obtained by keeping a dis-
tance of 0.2 m between the tubes and the collector. Sharma
et al. (2005) studied a solar cooker based on an evacuated
tube solar collector (ETSC) with a phase change mate-
rial (PCM) storage unit. By using PCM as a heat storage
unit, evening cooking became faster than noon cooking
and also noon cooking did not affect the evening cooking.
Budihardjo, Morrison, and Behnia (2007) observed that the
tank temperature had a significant effect on the circulation
flow rate through the tubes. Shah and Furbo (2007) investi-
gated heat transfer and flow structures inside the evacuated
tubes. High efficiency was achieved by shortening the tube
length. The flow structure in the glass tubes was unaffected
by inlet flow rate. El-Nashar (2009) evaluated the seasonal
influence of dust deposition on the solar collector. Ma et al.
(2010) studied an evacuated tube solar collector with U-
tube by using an analytical method based on the energy
balance. They concluded that the influence was remark-
able when the heat loss coefficient of the collector was
large. Ayompe et al. (2011) compared the energy and eco-
nomic performance of a flat plate collector and a heat pipe
evacuated tube collector. The annual average collector effi-
ciencies were 46.1% and 60.7%, but the system efficiencies
were 37.9% and 50.3%, respectively, for the flat plate col-
lector and heat pipe evacuated tube collector. Sharma and
Diaz (2011) reported that there were gaining in efficiency
of the evacuated tube solar collector based on minichan-
nels when compared with a similar-sized evacuated tube
solar collector without minichannels. Chow et al. (2011)
reported that daily and annual thermal performance of the
two-phase closed thermosyphon solar collector was better
than that of the single-phase open thermosyphon design.
Nkwetta and Smyth (2012) observed that the concentrated
double-sided absorber evacuated tube heat pipe performed
better than the concentrated single-sided absorber evac-
uated tube heat pipe solar collector. Yadav and Bajpai
(2012) concluded that a higher air temperature difference
was achieved at low flow rate in the evacuated tube solar
air collector. Kumar, Kumar, and Yadav (2014) reported
that the evacuated tube collector had more ability to save
energy as compared to the flat-plate collector. Al-Kayiem
and Lin (2014) concluded that the best performances of the
flat plate collector with PCM were achieved at an inclina-
tion angle of 10°, with efficiencies of 47.6%, 51.1% and
52.0% of the cases without PCM, with PCM and with
Cu-PCM nanocomposite, respectively.
The literature discussed till now was based on evacu-
ated tube collector. Generally, to achieve high temperature
ranges during off-sunshine hours, evacuated tube solar air
collectors with integrated thermal energy storage unit are
used. Thermal energy storages provide a mean to store
solar energy. Sensible and latent heat storages are the
method of storing thermal energy. As per Nallusamy, Sam-
path, and Velraj (2007), latent heat storage systems using
PCM as the storage medium have high heat storage capac-
ity per unit volume as compared to those using the sensible
heat storage medium. The PCM has the ability to store
both sensible and latent heat, so it is widely used in the
area of thermal energy storage unit (Sharma et al. 2001;
Sari 2003; Shukla, Buddhi, and Sawhney 2008; Ei-Sebaii
et al. 2009; Nomura et al. 2013; Waqas and UdDin 2013;
Pomianowski, Heiselberg, and Zhang 2013; Mosaffa et al.
2014; Chaabane, Mhiri, and Bournot 2014).
Sharma et al. (2001) observed that evening cooking was
possible with solar cooker integrated with the PCM stor-
age unit. Sari (2003) concluded that fatty acids had good
reliability with change in melting temperature and latent
heat of fusion after a number of thermal cycling. Shukla,
Buddhi, and Sawhney (2008) presented thermal cycling
test and concluded that inorganic PCMs were not suitable
after some cycles, while thermal cycling for organic PCMs
were undertaken up to 1000 thermal cycles. Ei-Sebaii et al.
(2009) observed that acetanilide was a promising PCM for
cooking indoors with good compatibility with aluminium
as a containing material. Nomura et al. (2013) described
the improvement of the heat storage performance of a
direct-contact heat exchanger using the PCM. Waqas and
UdDin (2013) concluded that the cooling system with a
PCM storage unit consumed less electricity as compared
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 3

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of evacuated tube solar air collector based on an air heating system with PCM unit.

to conventional ventilation and air conditioning systems.

Pomianowski, Heiselberg, and Zhang (2013) suggested
that to expose construction elements to direct solar radi-
ation was beneficial; hence, PCMs were located near to
the transparent building envelopes. Mosaffa et al. (2014)
studied the performance of a multiple-PCM as a thermal
storage unit and concluded that the increase in energy effi-
ciency by a reduction in inlet air temperature was more
favourable than increasing the air flow rate during the
charging process. Chaabane, Mhiri, and Bournot (2014)
presented a numerical study of the thermal performance
of an integrated collector storage solar water heater with
a cylindrical water storage tank and concluded that during
the day-time, the performance of the latent heat storage unit
was better than that of the sensible heat storage unit when Figure 2. Experimental set-up of an evacuated tube solar air
collector with PCM unit.
myristic acid was used as PCM.
Many researchers have worked on evacuated tube col-
lector, flat plate collector and heat pipe evacuated tube
collector, but none of them worked on evacuated tube solar shown in Figure 1. It consists of 40 evacuated tubes, a
air collector with integrated thermal storage unit. In the header (heat exchanger) with integrated PCM storage unit,
present work an experimental investigation of an evacuated fins, reflector, and water as the heat transfer fluid. The
tube solar air collector with integrated PCM is presented. photograph of experimental set-up with the blower and
The objective of the current study is to produce hot air measuring instruments is shown in Figure 2. The speci-
at different air flow rates during conditions of incident fication of experimental set-up is shown in Table 1. The
and non-incident solar radiation. Acetamide is used as a schematic diagram of the evacuated tubes used in this sys-
PCM and the advantages of it is that it acts as a heat tem is shown in Figure 3. Each evacuated tube consists
source and air is heated continuously after sunset. The effi- of two co-axial glass tubes made from strong borosilicate
ciency of the system and heat stored by acetamide (PCM) glass by fusing one end. The air between the two glass
are also discussed. The experimental set-up is installed at tubes is evacuated to create a vacuum which works as insu-
NIT Kurukshetra, India [29°58 (latitude) North and 76°53 lation. The outer tube is transparent which allows light rays
(longitude) East]. to pass through with minimum reflection. The outer sur-
face of the inner tube is coated with a special selective
coating of aluminium nitride (Al-N/Al) to absorb the solar
2. Experimental set-up radiation and convert these radiations into heat energy. The
The schematic diagram of an evacuated tube solar air selective absorption coating has high absorptivity and less
collector coupled with the latent thermal energy store is emissivity.
4 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

Table 1. Specification for the evacuated tube solar air collector coupled with the thermal energy store.

Item Specification

Manufacturer name Sunson Energy Device (P) Ltd., India

Number of collector tubes 40
Length of tube (m) 1.5
Diameter of outer glass tube (m) 0.047
Diameter of absorber tube (m) 0.037
Vacuum in between outer glass tube and absorber tube (Pa) 5 × 10−2
Inclined angle of the collector (degree) 15
Header-
Outer rectangular box dimensions (m) 1.5 × 0.22 × 0.22
Inner rectangular box dimensions (m) 1.5 × 0.186 × 0.186
Power rating of blower (kW) 0.350

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of evacuated tube (a) side view of the evacuated tube; (b) front view of the evacuated tube.

A header (heat exchanger) of two square cross sections
is used in this system and is shown in Figure 4. It consists
of two rectangular boxes which are made up of mild steel.
The outer rectangular box has 40 holes, 20 holes on each
side. The open end of the evacuated tubes is inserted in
these holes and the closed ends are supported by the frame.
Inner rectangular box consists of a hollow pipe (made of
mild steel) at the centre having a diameter of 0.075 m. The
inner rectangular box is filled with 50 kg of commercial
grade acetamide (PCM). On the outer surface of the outer
rectangular box, an insulation of polyurethane is used to
prevent heat transfer from the header to the atmosphere.
Figure 5 shows the photograph of the header which con-
tains two vents for the safety purpose by which the extra
amount of heat is released into the atmosphere in the form
of steam.
The south facing collector is inclined at an angle of 15°
relative to horizontal. To enhance the thermal performance
of the evacuated tube solar air collector, different config-
urations along with refelectors are used. Aluminium sheet
is used as a reflector having reflectivity of 80%, which is
used underneath the evacuated tubes. The objective of the
configurations is to increase the temperature of the outlet
air when it is placed concentrically into the circular pipe.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the header (heat exchanger) with PCM unit.
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 5

(a) (b)

Figure 5. The photograph of the header (heat exchanger) with PCM unit.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Schematic diagram (a) copper coil in a circular pipe of the header; (b) circular fin in a circular pipe of the header.

This provides obstruction to the air flow and increases the

surface area in the circular pipe. Due to this, the residen-
tial time of air within the pipe increases and air flow rate
decreases, which increases the temperature of the outlet air.
Two different types of fins are used in the experimental
set-up:

• Circular fin
• Copper coil
The length and diameter of the copper coil used are 1.5
and 0.07 m, respectively. The diameter of the copper wire
is 0.006 m. The other fin used has length and diameter of
1.5 and 0.073 m, respectively. Circular fins are made up
of mild steel. The schematic diagram of a copper coil and
a circular fin in a circular pipe of the header is shown in
Figure 6(a) and (b), respectively, and the photograph of the
copper coil and circular fin is shown in Figure 7.
The performance of the evacuated tube solar air col-
lector is also increased by using reflectors, so that the
solar radiations falling between the tubes are not wasted.
Therefore, two reflectors are used under the evacuated
Figure 7. The photograph of copper coil and circular fin.
tubes, one on each side of the header to reflect the sunlight
on the evacuated tubes. The dimension of each reflec-
tor is 1.56 m × 1.18 m. It is a galvanised sheet (made of
mild steel) with a coating of aluminium which provides
good reflectivity. The header and evacuated tubes in the
experimental set-up contain 100 l of water, which acts as a
medium for convective heat transfer. Water in the tubes is
heated by solar radiation and this heat energy is transferred
to the thermal storage unit and then transferred to the air.
A blower with a power rating of 0.350 kW is used to blow
6 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

Table 2. Thermophysical properties of commercial grade allows free vane movement, resulting in accuracy at both
acetamide. high and low velocity.
Melting temperature of acetamide 81°C

Latent heat of fusion of acetamide 263 kJ/kg 4. System operation

Specific heat of acetamide 1.94 kJ/kg°C In the experimental set-up, water is filled at temperature
Thermal conductivity 0.5 W/m°C
of 25°C in all the 40 evacuated tubes and the header.
Density-
Solid 1159 kg/m3 Every day, the solar collector is exposed to atmosphere
Liquid 998 kg/m3 to gain solar radiations at 7:00 h and readings are taken
from 09:00 h at an interval of 1 h. When solar radiations
fall onto the evacuated tubes, heat is gained by the evacu-
the air in the solar air collector. The blower is powered by ated tubes through these radiations and conveyed to water.
AC mains supply and air flow rate is controlled by using a Now water gets heated up and starts the thermosyphon phe-
regulator. nomenon through which hot water goes up and cold water
Phase change material selection depends upon its prop- comes down in the evacuated tubes. These evacuated tubes
erties such as melting temperature, latent heat of fusion, are connected to the outer rectangular box through which
toxicity, etc. In this experimental set-up, the PCM used the hot water enters the outer rectangular box. This outer
is commercial grade acetamide and its thermo physical rectangular box consists of an inner rectangular box con-
properties are given in Table 2. Acetamide is used as a taining the thermal energy storage material (PCM). The
heat storage material and 50 kg is filled in the inner rect- thermal energy storage material (PCM) gets heated in the
angular box in the header (heat exchanger). It acts as a inner rectangular box due to the heat gained from the water.
medium which collects heat from the working fluid in sun- Now this inner rectangular box consists of a circular pipe
shine hours and releases this stored heat to the air during through which the air flows. The air gets heated in the cir-
off-sunshine hours. cular pipe by gaining heat from the thermal energy storage
material (PCM). The same phenomenon of thermosyphon
is undertaken in the header (heat exchanger) through which
3. Measuring devices and instruments
the hot working fluid is at the high head and the cold
Different parameters measured in these experiments are as working fluid is at the low head.
follows: Three cases are studied to find the various results:

• Working fluid temperature, outlet air temperature • Ordinary collector

and thermal storage material temperature • Ordinary collector with copper coil
• Ambient temperature • Ordinary collector with circular fin.
• Solar radiation intensity
• Air flow rate
4.1. Ordinary collector
These parameters are measured by the following
An ordinary collector consists of a collector with reflectors
devices:
as shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 8(a). Reflec-
Working fluid, outlet air and thermal storage material
tors are used underneath the evacuated tubes to reflect the
temperatures are measured with the help of RTD PT100
solar radiations on the bottom side of the evacuated tubes.
thermocouples which are connected with a digital temper-
ature indicator that shows the temperature with an accuracy
of ± 0.3°C and resolution of 0.1°C. A sling psychrometer 4.2. Ordinary collector with copper coil
is used to measure the dry bulb temperature of ambient air
An ordinary collector consists of a collector with reflec-
with an accuracy of ± 0.5% and resolution of 0.5°C.
tors and copper coil as shown in Figure 8(b). A copper coil
A Pyranometer-Model CM11, of Kipp and Zonen, Hol-
is placed inside the circular pipe to extract heat from the
land, is used to measure the solar radiation intensity in the
PCM and deliver it to the air passing through the circular
test location during the day, with an accuracy of ± 2 W/m2
pipe. The copper coil is 1.5 m in length and 0.07 m in diam-
and resolution of 1 W/m2 .
eter, respectively. The wire diameter of the copper coil is
The air flow measurement is performed with an
0.006 m.
anemometer at the beginning of the experimental work.
A separate probe anemometer of model AM-4208 is used
to measure the velocity of air with an accuracy of { ±
(2% + dpipe )} and resolution of 0.1 m/s. It provides fast and 4.3. Ordinary collector with circular fin
accurate readings with digital readability and the conve- This type of collector consists of a collector with reflectors
nience of a remote sensor. Low friction ball-bearing design and a circular fin as shown in Figure 8(c). In this case, a
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 7

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. Schematic diagram of (a) Ordinary collector; (b) Ordinary collector with a copper coil; (c) Ordinary collector with a circular
fin.

circular fin is used instead of a copper coil inside the cir- Total energy stored by a system is given as:
cular pipe to extract heat from the PCM and deliver it to
the air passing through the circular pipe. Circular fins are Qstore = Qwater + QT,PCM , (6)
made up of mild steel and the length and diameter are 1.5    
mw cw t mPCM cPCM t
and 0.073 m, respectively. Qstore = +
3600 water 3600 s,PCM
   
mPCM L mPCM cPCM t
5. Analysis of experimental data + + , (7)
3600 PCM 3600 l,PCM
The thermal performance of the evacuated tube solar air
collector is examined over 16 hours for day- and night-time where
evaluation. The heat source during day time is solar radi-  
ation, while during night time the heat source is obtained mw cw t
Qwater = , (8)
from the PCM. 3600 water
The day- and night-time efficiency of the solar air    
mPCM cPCM t mPCM L
collector with PCM is given by Al-Kayiem and Lin (2014). QT,PCM = +
3600 s,PCM 3600 PCM
Qout  
ηcollector = , (1) mPCM cPCM t
Qin + , (9)
3600 l,PCM
where
where
Qout = ṁcpa (Tout − Tin ), (2a)
   
mw cw t mPCM cPCM t (mw cw t/3600)water = Energy stored in water.
Qin = GAc + +
3600 water 3600 s,PCM
(mPCM cPCM t/3600)s,PCM = Energy stored in PCM in
    solid state.
mPCM L mPCM cPCM t (mPCM L/3600)PCM = Energy stored in PCM during phase
+ + , (2b)
3600 PCM 3600 l,PCM change.
Area of the evacuated tube solar collector is given by (mPCM cPCM t/3600)l,PCM = Energy stored in PCM in
Ma et al. (2010) liquid state.
Ac = 2DLE , (3)
The thermal storage efficiency of PCM is given by 6. Experimental results and discussion
Chaabane, Mhiri, and Bournot (2014) The objective of this experimental work is to check the
QPCM performance of a solar air heater with one-ended evacu-
ηPCM =  t , (4) ated tubes and to investigate the temperature of outlet air
0 GAc dt at different air flow rates from an evacuated tube solar air
where QPCM is the latent heat stored by the PCM during the collector with integrated PCM during sunshine and off-
charging period and it is defined by the following relation: sunshine hours. The experimental analyses are conducted
during the month of June and July 2014. During most of
QPCM = fmPCM L. (5)
the days, the range of ambient temperature lies between
It is assumed that the specific heat for the solid and 29°C and 40.5°C. The experiments were carried out on
liquid phases of the PCM is same. clear sky days. The readings were taken from 09:00 h to
8 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM
Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C)
700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 9. Variation in temperature and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector.

Table 3. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 24 June 24:00 h. The evacuated tube collector was faced towards
2014. the south.
Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of
Time intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration
(hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C) 6.1. Case-1: Ordinary collector
9:00 469 33.5 39.4 6.1.1. At a low air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1
10:00 621 34 42.3 Figure 9 shows the variation in air temperature at the inlet
11:00 758 35 44.3
12:00 813 36.5 46.4
and outlet, also variations in water and PCM tempera-
13:00 834 37 48.8 tures at low head and high head, respectively, and solar
14:00 733 38 52.7 intensity with time in the evacuated tube collector. The
15:00 550 39 59.8 maximum intensity during the day was 834 W/m2 at 1:00 h
16:00 437 40.5 59.2 and the range of ambient temperature was 31°C to 40.5°C
17:00 260 39 56.7
18:00 106 37 52.5
(Table 3).
19:00 13 36.5 49.5 A maximum air temperature difference of 20.8°C was
20:00 0 34 47.9 achieved at 15:00 h, and the maximum temperature of
21:00 0 32.5 44.8 the outlet air was 59.8°C. The maximum water tempera-
22:00 0 32 42.5 tures at high head and low head were 99.9°C and 96.7°C,
23:00 0 32 41.6
24:00 0 31 39.2
respectively, whereas the maximum temperatures attained
by PCM at high head and low head were 92.6°C and

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.2 900
0.18 800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.16 700
0.14 600
Efficiency

0.12
500
0.1
400
0.08
0.06 300
0.04 200
0.02 100
0 0

Time (hr)

Figure 10. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector.
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 9

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM
Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C) 700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 11. Variation in temperatures and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector.

60.5°C, respectively. Air temperature difference of 8.2°C Table 4. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 27 June
was achieved at 24:00 h due to high heat stored by the 2014.
PCM. It stores both sensible and latent heat. Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of
Figure 10 shows the variation in efficiency and solar Time Intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collec- (hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C)
tor during day and night time. The maximum efficiency 9:00 495 32 39.8
was 17.35% at the low air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1 in 10:00 662 34.5 44.5
an ordinary collector at 16:00 h. The temperature differ- 11:00 748 35.5 46.4
ence between outlet air and ambient air is achieved during 12:00 836 36 48
off-sunshine hours due to the use of PCM, and firstly, the 13:00 825 37 49.7
14:00 741 39 52.3
efficiency decreases sharply and then decreases with little 15:00 598 38.5 58.3
beat rate. 16:00 446 38.5 58.1
17:00 220 38.5 58.4
18:00 109 38 54.4
6.1.2. At a high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 19:00 19 38 49.8
20:00 0 34 47.5
At a higher flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 , as shown in
21:00 0 34 45.6
Figure 11, the maximum intensity during the day was 22:00 0 33 42.4
836 W/m2 and the range of ambient temperature was 23:00 0 32.5 41
32°C to 39°C. The maximum air temperature difference of 24:00 0 32 39.1
19.9°C was achieved at 17:00 h, and the maximum tem-
perature of outlet air was 58.4°C. The maximum water
temperatures at high head and low head were 99.6°C and
6.2. Case-2: Ordinary collector with copper coil
98.3°C, respectively, whereas the maximum temperatures
attained by PCM at high head and low head were 96.5°C 6.2.1. At a low air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1
and 62.9°C, respectively. An air temperature difference of At a low air flow rate with copper coil, it was observed
7.1°C was achieved at 24:00 h, and it was slightly less as that the outlet air temperature steadily increased because
compared to the case of the ordinary collector at a low flow of an increase in residence time of air at a low flow rate.
rate (Table 4). As shown in Figure 13, the maximum intensity during the
Figure 12 shows the variation in efficiency and solar day was 707 W/m2 and the range of ambient temperature
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collector was 29°C to 33.5°C. The maximum air temperature differ-
during day and night time. The maximum efficiency was ence of 27°C was achieved at 16:00 h, and the maximum
34.64% at high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 in an ordinary temperature of outlet air was 60.5°C. The maximum water
collector at 16:00 h. It was observed that the maximum temperatures at high head and low head were 106.5°C and
efficiency at a high air flow rate is 1.99 times the maxi- 93.2°C, respectively, whereas the maximum temperatures
mum efficiency at a low air flow rate. This is because the attained by PCM at high head and low head were 98.3°C
high air flow rate increased approximately 2 times the low and 58.1°C, respectively. The air temperature difference of
air flow rate, while the change in temperature difference of 11.9°C was achieved at 24:00 h. The results showed that
ambient air and outlet air is low. the increase in temperature was more as compared to the
10 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.4 900
0.35 800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.3 700
600
Efficiency 0.25
500
0.2
400
0.15
300
0.1 200
0.05 100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 12. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector.

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM

Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C)

700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 13. Variation in temperatures and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with copper coil.

previous case due to the use of copper coils. The use of Table 5. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 3 July 2014.
copper coils increased the heat transfer rate from its surface
Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of
to air (Table 5). Time Intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration
Figure 14 shows the variation in efficiency and solar (hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C)
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collector
during day and night time. The maximum efficiency was 9:00 410 31 37
10:00 536 31 40.3
37.61% at a low air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1 in an ordinary 11:00 642 32 42.7
collector with copper coil at 16:00 h. It was observed that 12:00 707 32 45.5
the efficiency is 2.17 times the efficiency with the case of 13:00 702 33.5 48
low air flow rate with an ordinary collector. 14:00 585 33.5 55.5
15:00 355 33.5 59.4
16:00 291 33.5 60.5
6.2.2. At a high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 17:00 281 33 57
At a high air flow rate with copper coil, it was observed 18:00 130 32 53.6
19:00 21 31 48.5
that the outlet air temperature slightly decreased due to a 20:00 0 30 46.6
decrease in the residence time of air at high flow rate. As 21:00 0 30 44.5
shown in Figure 15, the maximum intensity during the day 22:00 0 30 43.2
was 821 W/m2 and the range of ambient temperature was 23:00 0 29 41.3
30°C to 37°C. A maximum air temperature difference of 24:00 0 28 39.9
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 11

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.4 800
0.35 700

Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.3 600

Efficiency
0.25 500
0.2 400
0.15 300
0.1 200
0.05 100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 14. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with copper coil.

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM
Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C)

700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 15. Variation in temperatures and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with copper coil.

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.45 900
0.4 800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.35 700
0.3 600
Efficiency

0.25 500
0.2 400
0.15 300
0.1 200
0.05 100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 16. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with copper coil.
12 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

Table 6. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 4 July 2014. Table 7. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 5 July 2014.

Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of
Time Intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration Time Intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration
(hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C) (hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C)

9:00 461 32 40.9 9:00 432 34 49.3

10:00 613 33.5 42.3 10:00 558 35 51.3
11:00 683 35.5 43.9 11:00 656 35 52.2
12:00 821 36 47.5 12:00 745 35.5 53.8
13:00 766 37 52.8 13:00 792 36 61.3
14:00 719 36.5 57.3 14:00 641 37 69.5
15:00 606 37 60.2 15:00 510 37 72.5
16:00 515 37.5 63.1 16:00 352 37.5 74.5
17:00 251 37 63.1 17:00 191 37 73.7
18:00 102 35 60.6 18:00 98 36.5 69.8
19:00 23 34 57.4 19:00 20 33.5 64.8
20:00 0 33 52 20:00 0 33 62.6
21:00 0 32 48.3 21:00 0 33 57.3
22:00 0 32 46.8 22:00 0 33 56
23:00 0 31 44.2 23:00 0 33 54.8
24:00 0 31 41.6 24:00 0 32.5 52.7

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM
Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C)

700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 17. Variation in temperatures and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with a circular fin.

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.45 900
0.4 800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.35 700
0.3 600
Efficiency

0.25 500
0.2 400
0.15 300
0.1 200
0.05 100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 18. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.018 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with a circular fin.
 International Journal of Ambient Energy 13

Ambient air Outlet air Low head PCM High Head PCM
Low head water High Head water Solar radiation

120 900
800

Solar radiation (W/m2)

100
Temperature ( 0C)
700
80 600
500
60
400
40 300
200
20
100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 19. Variation in temperatures and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with a circular fin.

26.1°C was achieved at 17:00 h, and the maximum tem- Table 8. Recorded data of ambient conditions on 7 July 2014.
perature of outlet air was 63.1°C. The maximum water
Solar Ambient Outlet air temperature of
temperatures at high head and low head were 106.4°C and Time Intensity temperature ETC (Regeneration
96.0°C, respectively, whereas the maximum temperatures (hours) (W/m2 ) (°C) temperature) (°C)
attained by PCM at high head and low head were 101.0°C
and 63.1°C, respectively. The air temperature difference of 9:00 424 31 44.7
10:00 562 32 46.7
10.6°C was achieved at 24:00 h. 11:00 695 33 48.4
Figure 16 shows the variation in efficiency and solar 12:00 790 35 52
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collec- 13:00 827 37 60
tor during day and night time. The maximum efficiency 14:00 762 37 64.5
was 39.62% at a high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 in 15:00 657 37 69.4
16:00 482 37 72.2
an ordinary collector with copper coil at 16:00 h. It was 17:00 260 37 72.1
observed that the maximum efficiency at a high air flow 18:00 99 36 68.3
rate is 1.05 times the maximum efficiency at a high air 19:00 21 34 63.6
flow rate of the ordinary collector with copper coil. In this 20:00 0 33 57.2
case, the maximum efficiency is 1.14 times the maximum 21:00 0 32 53.5
22:00 0 32 50.7
efficiency of the ordinary collector at high air flow rate 23:00 0 31 47.3
(Table 6). 24:00 0 31 43.6

Efficiency Solar radiation

0.45 900
0.4 800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

0.35 700
0.3 600
Efficiency

0.25 500
0.2 400
0.15 300
0.1 200
0.05 100
0 0

Time (hr)
Figure 20. Variation in efficiency and solar intensity with time in case of acetamide as phase change material at a flow rate of
0.035 kg s−1 for an ordinary collector with a circular fin.
14 N. Mehla and A. Yadav

6.3. Case-3: Ordinary collector with circular fin

6.3.1. At a low air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1

High air flow rate

(0.035 kg s−1 )
In case of the ordinary collector with a circular fin, the resi-

31°C–37°C

827 W/m2

1986.2 W
4922.1 W
107.9°C
102.1°C
101.8°C

57.57%
14.75%
63.3°C

72.2°C
35.2°C
12.6°C
dence time of air at low flow rate was more as compared to

collector with circular fin

the case of the ordinary collector with reflectors and copper
coil. So the maximum temperature difference of outlet air

Case-3. Ordinary
was achieved in this case (Table 7).
As shown in Figure 17, the maximum intensity dur-
ing the day was 792 W/m2 and the range of ambient
temperature was 32.5°C to 37.5°C. A maximum air tem-

Low air flow rate

32.5°C–37.5°C
(0.018 kg s−1 )
perature difference of 37°C was achieved at 16:00 h, and

792 W/m2

1901.2 W
4865.1 W
106.1°C
102.7°C
103.2°C

42.61%
16.47%
66.0°C

74.5°C

20.2°C
37°C
the maximum temperature of outlet air was 74.5°C. The
maximum water temperatures at high head and low head
were 106.1°C and 102.7°C, respectively, whereas the max-
imum temperatures attained by PCM at high head and
low head were 103.2°C and 66.0°C, respectively. The air
temperature difference of 20.2°C was achieved at 24:00 h.

High air flow rate

Figure 18 shows the variation in efficiency and solar

(0.035 kg s−1 )

30°C–37°C

821 W/m2
Table 9. Experimental performance of solar evacuated tube solar collectors coupled with the latent thermal energy store.
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collector

1627.5 W
4900.7 W
106.4°C

101.0°C

39.62%
15.14%
96.0°C

63.1°C

63.1°C
26.1°C
10.6°C
during day and night time. The maximum efficiency was

collector with copper coil

42.61% at a high air flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1 in an ordi-

Case-2. Ordinary
nary collector with circular fin at 16:00 h. In this case, the
maximum efficiency is 2.46 times the maximum efficiency
of the ordinary collector at a low air flow rate and 1.13
times the maximum efficiency of the ordinary collector
Low air flow rate
with copper coil at a low air flow rate. (0.018 kg s−1 )

29°C–33.5°C

707 W/m2

1563.9 W
4783.4 W
106.5°C

37.61%
17.65%
93.2°C
98.3°C
58.1°C

60.5°C

11.9°C
27°C
6.3.2. At a high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1
As shown in Figure 19, the maximum intensity during the
day was 827 W/m2 and the range of ambient temperature
was 31°C to 37°C. The maximum air temperature differ-
ence of 35.2°C was achieved at 16:00 h, and the maximum
High air flow rate
(0.035 kg s−1 )

temperature of outlet air was 72.2°C. The maximum water

32°C–39°C

836 W/m2

2074.2 W
4753.1 W
34.64%
14.43%
99.6°C
98.3°C
96.5°C
62.9°C

58.4°C
19.9°C
temperatures at high head and low head were 107.9°C and 7.1°C
Case-1. Ordinary collector

102.1°C, respectively, whereas the maximum temperatures

attained by PCM at high head and low head were 101.8°C
and 63.3°C, respectively. The air temperature difference of
12.6°C was achieved at 24:00 h (Table 8).
Figure 20 shows the variation in efficiency and solar
intensity with time in the evacuated tube solar air collector
Low air flow rate
(0.018 kg s−1 )

31°C–40.5°C

during day and night time. The maximum efficiency was

834 W/m2

1794.6 W
4391.9 W
92.6°C a

17.35%
14.71%
99.9°C
96.7°C

60.5°C

59.8°C
20.8°C

57.57% at a high air flow rate of 0.035 kg s−1 in an ordinary

8.2°C

collector with a circular fin at 16:00 h. It was observed that

the maximum efficiency at a high air flow rate is 1.35 times
the maximum efficiency at a high air flow rate of the ordi-
nary collector with circular fin. In this case, the maximum
efficiency is 1.66 times the maximum efficiency of the
Twater, max at high head

TPCM, max at high head

Twater, max at low head

TPCM, max at low head

ordinary collector at high air flow rate and 1.45 times the
maximum efficiency of the ordinary collector with copper
coil at a high air flow rate.
Range of Tin

ηmax,Collector

From the experimental results it was observed that the

parameter

Qstore, max
Qstore, avg
Name of

average air temperature difference in the ordinary collector

Tout, max

t24:00
tmax

ηPCM

with a circular fin is 1.36 times the average air tempera-

Gmax

ture difference of the ordinary collector with copper coil

 International Journal of Ambient Energy
and 1.77 times the average air temperature difference of
the ordinary collector during conditions of incident solar
radiation.
Also, the average air temperature difference in the ordi-
nary collector with a circular fin is 1.46 times the average
air temperature difference in the ordinary collector with
copper coil and 2.14 times the average air temperature dif-
ference in the ordinary collector at 24:00 h means during
off-sunshine hours. Hence, by using a circular fin con-
figuration, the performance of the evacuated tube solar
collector was increased.
The performance of a system with three different cases
is presented in Table 9. So it can be seen that the maxi-
mum efficiency of the system is 57.57% with a circular fin
configuration at a high air flow rate (0.035 kg s−1 ).
7. Conclusion
In the present study, the thermal performance of an evac-
uated tube solar air collector coupled to a latent thermal
energy store was studied. A header (heat exchanger) with
a PCM storage unit was designed to store solar energy
during incident solar radiation and generate hot air during
non-incident solar radiation. From the experimental results
obtained, the following conclusions are summarised:
(1) The experimental set-up is able to generate hot air
during non-incident solar radiation. It was found
that by using PCM in a system, it is operated
well during the off-sunshine hours. Hence results
showed that an evacuated tube solar air collector
coupled to a latent thermal energy store is able to
store an adequate amount of heat to produce hot air
upto 24:00 h.
(2) It is concluded that the temperature of the outlet
air in an evacuated tube solar air collector can be
significantly increased by using a circular fin and
copper coils because these configurations provide a
means by which heat transfer rate increased inside
the concentric circular pipe. The maximum mea-
sured temperature differential between the heated
air and the ambient air was 37°C and 20.2°C dur-
ing conditions of incident and non-incident solar
radiation, respectively, by using a circular fin con-
figuration at a flow rate of 0.018 kg s−1 .
(3) It is observed that the maximum efficiency of the
evacuated tube solar air collector at a low air flow
rate is less as compared to that at a high flow
rate. The efficiency can be significantly increased
by using a circular fin and copper coils because
it increases the working hours of the experimen-
tal set-up. The efficiency at low (0.018 kg s−1 ) air
flow rates was 0.05–0.50 times less as compared to
that at high (0.035 kg s−1 ) air flow rates.
15
(4) It is observed that the thermal storage efficiency of
PCM varies from 14.43% to 17.65% with different
configurations.
Therefore, an evacuated tube solar air collector coupled
to a latent thermal energy store in Kurukshetra should help
to popularise the potential for community applications in
the regions having good sunshine.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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