QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE

(FP 321)

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Definition of Quality

Quality, it has been said, should make a product what it is, conforming to requirements or
specifications. In this context, quality may be defined in different manners depending on the interest
of the manufacturers, or how they want to impress it upon their customers. One difficulty in using
this approach is that the definition of quality is neither precise nor consensual. Quality-like terms
such as effectiveness, satisfaction, and leadership, are descriptors rather than concepts, and no
objective reference exists.

Its definition is in the minds of the definers, so no single definition is correct for every
circumstance. In each case, quality has always been used as a qualifier in describing some product
or service: high-quality product, high-quality education, high-quality art, high-quality health care,
etc. Thus, in industrial manufacturing practices, quality can have several definitions, as follows:

Product-based: Based on features or attributes of the product that enhance quality, e.g, organically
manufactured food products as opposed to regular products.

User-based: The user determines the quality of the product. Joseph Juran defines this user-based
quality as “fitness for use,” e.g., ready-to- eat microwaveable dinners as opposed to other forms of
manufactured dinners.

Manufacturing-based: Conformance to specifications. Manufacturing engineering specifies the

product characteristics and the more closely manufacturing can conform to those requirements, the
better the quality of the product.

Value-based: The element of price is introduced into the definition of quality. Quality is the degree
of excellence at an acceptable price and the control of variability at an acceptable cost. Value
comprises price and quality of product and service.

Judgmental-based: there are some brands that have placed themselves among others as quality
products for example Nestle milk powder, Nike shoes, Adidas brand. Wherever you will find such
products, you can purchase them as high-quality brands. Here in Uganda, it is known that JESA
milk is evaluated to be of better quality than any other brand.

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Dimensions of Quality

Eight dimensions can be used at a strategic level to analyze quality characteristics. The concept
was defined by David Garvin. Some of the dimensions are mutually reinforcing, whereas others
are not—improvement in one may be at the expense of others. Understanding the trade-offs
desired by customers among these dimensions can help build a competitive advantage. Garvin's
eight dimensions can be summarized as follows
1. Performance: Performance refers to a product's primary operating characteristics. This
dimension of quality involves measurable attributes; brands can usually be ranked objectively on
individual aspects of performance.
2. Features: Features are additional characteristics that enhance the appeal of the product or
service to the user.
3. Reliability: Reliability is the likelihood that a product will not fail within a specific time
period. This is a key element for users who need the product to work without fail.
4. Conformance: Conformance is the precision with which the product or service meets the
specified standards.
5. Durability: Durability measures the length of a product’s life. When the product can be
repaired, estimating durability is more complicated. The item will be used until it is no longer
economical to operate it. This happens when the repair rate and the associated costs increase
significantly.
6. Serviceability: Serviceability is the speed with which the product can be put into service
when it breaks down, as well as the competence and the behavior of the serviceperson.
7. Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the subjective dimension indicating the kind of response a user
has to a product. It represents the individual’s personal preference.
8. Perceived Quality: Perceived Quality is the quality attributed to a good or service based
on indirect measurement

Performance
Performance refers to a product's primary operating characteristics. This dimension of quality
involves measurable attributes, so brands can usually be ranked objectively on individual aspects
of performance. Overall performance rankings, however, are more difficult to develop, especially

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when they involve benefits that not every consumer needs. Performance is often a source of
contention between customers and suppliers, particularly when deliverables are not adequately
defined within specifications. The performance of a product often influences the profitability or
reputation of the end-user. As such, many contracts or specifications include damages related to
inadequate performance. The question of whether performance differences are quality differences
may depend on circumstantial preferences-but preferences based on functional requirements, not
taste. Some performance standards are based on subjective preferences, but the preferences are so
universal that they have the force of an objective standard.
Features
Features are additional characteristics that enhance the appeal of the product or service to the user.
Similar thinking can be applied to features, a second dimension of quality that is often a secondary
aspect of performance. Features are the "bells and whistles" of products and services, those
characteristics that supplement their basic functioning. Examples include free drinks on a plane,
permanent-press cycles on a washing machine, and automatic tuners on a color television set. The
line separating primary performance characteristics from secondary features is often difficult to
draw.
Reliability
Reliability is the likelihood that a product will not fail within a specific time period. This is a key
element for users who need the product to work without fail.
This dimension reflects the probability of a product malfunctioning or failing within a specified
time period. Among the most common measures of reliability are the mean time to first failure, the
mean time between failures, and the failure rate per unit time. Because these measures require a
product to be in use for a specified period, they are more relevant to durable goods than to products
and services that are consumed instantly.
Reliability normally becomes more important to consumers as downtime and maintenance become
more expensive. Farmers, for example, are especially sensitive to downtime during the short
harvest season. Reliable equipment can mean the difference between a good year and spoiled
crops. But consumers on other markets are more attuned than ever to product reliability too.
Computers and copying machines certainly compare on this basis.
Reliability may be closely related to performance. For instance, a product specification may define
parameters for up-time, or acceptable failure rates. Reliability is a major contributor to brand or

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company image, and is considered a fundamental dimension of quality by most end-users. I.E.,
recent market research shows that, especially for women, reliability has become an automobile's
most desired attribute.
Conformance
The outcome of two example processes to show the meaning of the two approaches to
conformance. The dimension of conformance depicts to what extent a product’s design and
operating characteristics meet established standards. This dimension owes the most to the
traditional approaches to quality pioneered by experts like Juran.

All products and services involve specifications of some sort. When products are developed, these
specifications are set and a target is set, for instance the materials used or the dimension of the
product. Not only the target but also the tolerance (the range of permitted deviation from the
target) is defined. One problem with this approach is that there is little interest in whether the
specifications have been met exactly as long as the tolerance limits are met.

On the one hand, this can lead to the so-called “tolerance stack-up”. When two or more parts are to
be fit together, the size of their tolerances often determine how well they will match. Should one
part fall at a lower limit of its specification and a matching part at its upper limit, a tight fit is
unlikely. The link is likely to wear more quickly than one made from parts whose dimensions have
been centered more exactly.

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This problem can be addressed by taking a different approach to measuring quality. Instead of
measuring a simple conformance to specifications, the degree to which parts or products diverge
from the ideal target is measured. Using this approach, process 1 (see picture) is better even though
some items fall beyond specification limits. The traditional approach would have favoured process
2 because it produces more items within the specification limit. It was demonstrated that the
problem of “tolerance stack-up” is worse when the dimensions of parts are more distant from the
target than when they cluster around it, even if some parts fall outside the tolerance. This approach
requires a fresh look at the common process quality factor of 'defect rate', to take into account the
fact that two parts may each pass the 'tolerance test' separately but be unusable when the attempt is
made to join them together.
In service businesses, measures of conformance normally focus on accuracy and timeliness and
include counts of processing errors, unanticipated delays and other frequent mistakes.
Durability
Durability measures the length of a product’s life. When the product can be repaired, estimating
durability is more complicated. The item will be used until it is no longer economical to operate it.
This happens when the repair rate and the associated costs increase significantly. Technically,
durability can be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it deteriorates. After
so many hours of use, the filament of a light bulb burns up and the bulb must be replaced. Repair is
impossible.
In other cases, consumers must weigh the expected cost, in both dollars and personal
inconvenience, of future repairs against the investment and operating expenses of a newer, more
reliable model. Durability, then, may be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product
before it breaks down and replacement is preferable to continued repair.

This approach to durability has two important implications. First, it suggests that durability and
reliability are closely linked. A product that often fails is likely to be scrapped earlier than one that
is more reliable; repair costs will be correspondingly higher and the purchase of a competitive
brand will look that much more desirable. Second, this approach implies that durability figures
should be interpreted with care. An increase in product life may not be the result of technical
improvements or the use of longer-lived materials. Rather, the underlying economic environment
simply may have changed.

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Serviceability
Serviceability involves the consumer's ease of obtaining repair service (example: access to service
centers and/or ease of self-service), the responsiveness of service personnel (example: ease of
getting an appointment, willingness of repair personnel to listen to the customer), and the
reliability of service (example: whether the service is performed right the first time). Competence
and ease of repair is the speed with which the product can be put into service when it breaks down,
as well as the competence and the behavior of the service personnel.
Consumers are concerned not only about a product breaking down but also about the time before
service is restored, the timeliness with which service appointment are kept, the nature of dealings
with service personnel, and the frequency with which service calls or repairs fail to correct
outstanding problems. In those cases where problems are not immediately resolved and complaints
are filed, a company's complaint handling procedures are also likely to affect customer's ultimate
evaluation of product and service quality.
Some of these variables reflect differing personal standards of acceptable service. others can be
measured quite objectively. Customers may remain dissatisfied even after completion of repairs.
How these complaints are handled is important to a company's reputation for quality and service.
Eventually, profitability is likely to be affected as well. Companies differ widely in their
approaches to complaint handling and in the importance they attach to this element of
serviceability. Some do their best to resolve complaints; others use legal gimmicks, the silent
treatment and similar ploys to rebuff dissatisfied customers.

Important attributes for serviceability dimension are: service warranty, parts warranty, parts
availability, number of reasonable distance to dealer service centers, distance to service parts
center-dealer, distance to service parts center individual, length of wait for service appointment,
schedule of preventive maintenance, employees listen to customers, information regarding repairs,
courteous service centers, repaired correctly first time, service time relative to other dealers,
warranty claims handled without argument, average repair cost/year, extended warranty,
underestimation of service cost and provision of loan car.

Aesthetics

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The aesthetic properties of a product contribute to a company's or brand's identity. Faults or defects
in a product that diminish its aesthetic properties, even those that do not reduce or alter other
dimensions of quality, are often causing for rejection. Aesthetics refers to how the product looks,
feels, sounds, tastes or smells. It is clearly a matter of personal judgment and a reflection of
individual preference. Nevertheless, there appear to be some patterns in consumers' rankings of
products on the basis of taste. A recent study of quality in 33 food categories, for example, found
that high quality was most often associated with "rich and full flavor, tastes natural, tastes fresh,
good aroma, and looks appetizing". The aesthetics dimension differs from subjective criteria
pertaining to "performance" in that aesthetic choices are not nearly universal. Not all people prefer
"rich and full" flavor or even agree on what that means. Companies therefore have to search for a
niche. On this dimension of quality, it is impossible to please everyone.

Perceived Quality
Perception is reality. The product or service may possess adequate or even superior dimensions of
quality, but still fall victim to negative customer or public perceptions. Consumers do not always
have complete information about a product's or service's attributes; indirect measures may be their
only basis for comparing brands. A product's durability for example, can seldom be observed
directly; it usually must be inferred from various tangible and intangible aspects of the product. In
such circumstances, images, advertising and brand names-inferences about quality rather than the
reality itself-can be critical. Reputation is the primary stuff of perceived quality. Its power comes
from an unstated analogy: that the quality of products today is similar to the quality of products of
yesterday, or the quality of goods in a new product line is similar to the quality of a company's
established products.
In summary, the term quality, without being defined by some standard, means very little. As stated
by Gould and Gould, industry defines quality as a measure of purity, strength, flavor, color, size,
maturity, workmanship and conditions, or any other distinctive attribute or characteristic of the
product. On the other hand, the trade generally uses the term in the sense of the finest product
attainable.
Food processors have learned that consumers recognize brands that maintain their quality at the
standard set for that particular product, and on this basis, high-quality products never fail to sell;
the attainment of such quality is the outgrowth of good, sound QA practices. In recent years, the

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focus on quality has changed and, more and more, quality has begun to take on the appearance of
organizational performance. Managers have become converted to the pursuit of quality as the
single most important organizational objective.

Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes
external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency), texture, and flavour;
factors such as federal grade standards (e.g. of eggs) and internal (chemical, physical, microbial).

Food quality is an important food manufacturing requirement, because food consumers are
susceptible to any form of contamination that may occur during the manufacturing process. Many
consumers also rely on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know what
ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements (kosher, halal, vegetarian), or
medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, or allergies).
Besides ingredient quality, there are also sanitation requirements. It is important to ensure that the
food processing environment is as clean as possible in order to produce the safest possible food for
the consumer.

Food quality also deals with product traceability, e.g. of ingredient and packaging suppliers, should
a recall of the product be required. It also deals with labeling issues to ensure there is correct
ingredient and nutritional information.
From techno-managerial approach, Food quality is a function of food behavior and human
behavior. Whereby food behavior refers to food dynamics and technological conditions AND
human behavior refers to human dynamics and administrative conditions.

NB. Find out examples of human dynamics, food dynamics

Quality attributes of food

A clear overview of attributes that influence quality perception of food is an essential part of the
techno-managerial approach. Moreover, to control and assure quality a good understanding is
required of factors and parameters, which affect these attributes in the agri-food production chain.

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The proposed quality concept about intrinsic and extrinsic quality attributes is used as basis for the
next sections, giving an overview of major technological aspects influencing quality perception;
whereas for technological details is referred to literature.

Intrinsic quality attributes

There are different classifications with respect to intrinsic and extrinsic quality attributes. In our
approach, the following aspects were considered as intrinsic attributes: safety and health aspects of
a product, shelf life and sensory properties, convenience and product reliability. These topics are
described below.

A. Product safety and health

Product safety and health aspects are important intrinsic quality attributes. Health aspects refer to
food composition and diet. For example, nutritional imbalance can have negative consequences on
human health. Nowadays, the food industry anticipates these nutritional needs by the development
of functional foods. These products are assumed to contribute positively to human health. For
example, low-fat and low-cholesterol products, but also vitamin or mineral enriched foods

Food safety refers to the requirement that products must be 'free' of hazards with an acceptable
risk. A hazard can be defined as a potential source of danger. A risk can be described as a measure
of the probability and severity of harm to human health. According to Shapiro and Mercier (1994),
a food product can be considered safe if its risks are judged to be acceptable.

Different sources can affect food safety, i.e. growth of pathogen micro-organisms, presence of
toxic compounds, physical agents and occurrence of calamities. Negative health effects can have a
different time span. Some can be acute, such as allergic reactions or food poisoning; whereas on
the long-term, chronic effects which can occur are cancer, heart and vascular diseases. These
chronic effects can be due to, amongst others, unhealthy balances of diet or term exposure to
chemical agents.
Pathogenic micro-organisms

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Pathogenic micro-organisms include both bacteria and moulds. With respect to these pathogen
micro-organisms a distinction must be made between food infection and food poisoning.

Food infection is caused by the presence of living pathogens in food. The pathogens are
transferred trough food to the human (or animal) body. They can penetrate the intestinal mucosa
and colonize (i.e. multiply) in the gastrointestinal tract or in other tissues. The symptoms consist of
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headache and diarrhoea. Major bacteria that are responsible for
food infections are members of the genus Salmonella, Shigella ssp and certain strains of
Escherichia coli (Jay, 1996), but also Campylobacter jejuni. Beef, turkey, chicken, eggs, pork and
raw milk products are typical vehicle foods for Salmonellosis outbreaks.

Poor personal hygiene is a common factor in foodborne Shigellosis, with shellfish, chicken, salads,
fruits and vegetables being prominent among vehicle foods. Traveller's diarrhoea is often caused
by specific strains of Escherichia coli (Jay, 1996).

Another source of food infection is foodborne listeriosis caused by Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria species are widely distributed in soils, animal faeces, sewage, silage and water. Listeria
infections also occur in foods, especially raw milk, soft cheeses and other dairy products. It is
suggested that Listeria infections in some foods might be due to zoonotic transmissions, i.e.
disease transmission from animal to human. Listeriosis forms mainly a risk for pregnant women,
young children and individuals with a suppressed immune system (for example by AIDS, diabetes
etc.).
Campylobacter jejuni is assumed to be the most common cause of acute bacterial diarrhoea in
humans. It is not an environmental organism but the bacteria are carried through the animal
intestinal tract. A large percentage of all major meat animals contain C. jejuni in the faeces,
especially poultry.

Food poisoning is caused by toxic compounds produced by pathogenic bacteria (enterotoxins) and
moulds (mycotoxins) in the food. The compounds can be-released in raw materials or processed
food products. Consumption of the poisoned food can result in symptoms that range from acute

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abdominal pain and diarrhoea to long term diseases such as cancer or histological changes in the
liver.

Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus and Campylobacter jejuni are well known bacteria
responsible or productlon of enterotoxins in food. Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic spore-
forming bacteria widely spread in soil and water: Especially food packed under low oxygen
concentrations containing low-acid foods may function as vehicle food for Clostridium (e.g.
canned foods 'sous-vide' processed or modified atmosphere packed foods). Staphylococci have
been detected in a large number of vehicle foods (like meat, chicken and bakery products).

Moulds can also cause food poisoning; A well-known mycotoxin is aflatoxin, which can be
produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Major vehicle products are peas and cereals
such as rice, corn and wheat stored under warm and humid conditions.

The factors that often contribute to outbreaks of pathogen micro-organisms include the following
• in adequate refrigeration;
• preparing foods far in advance of planned service;
• infected persons practising poor personal hygiene;
• inadequate cooking or heat processing;
• holding food in warming devices at bacterial growth temperatures.

Therefore, these factors should be considered when controlling the safety during production,
storage, transport and preparation of food.

Toxic compounds
Toxic compounds can originate from different sources in the agri-food production chain. Toxins
can occur as natural compounds in raw materials (i.e. natural toxins), but they can also be formed
during storage and processing. Other sources of toxic compounds are contaminants from the
environment (like polychlorinated biphenyls -PCB's- and nitrate), ~ residues from pesticides,
veterinary drugs and disinfectants. In addition, consumers often consider food and colour additives

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 as unsafe toxic compounds as well. However, the use of these additives is strictly regulated and the
scientific dossiers are permanently reconsidered to guarantee humans safety.

To estimate the risk of toxicants for food safety, the following points have to be considered:

• The origin of the compound? For example, fresh raw mushrooms contain hydrazine, it is a
natural toxicant. Other toxins are formed due to storage and transport conditions, such as aflatoxin,
which formation is favoured by humid and warm storage. Toxic substances can also be introduced
during processing, such as the development heterocyclic amines in broiled, smoked or deep-fried
fish or meat. The heterocyclic compounds are due to the reaction between creatinine with amino
acids and sugars
• What are the properties of the toxic compounds?

a) The fat solubility of toxic compound is an important aspect. Fat-soluble toxic compounds can
accumulate in the food cycle production. For example, small amounts of polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) accumulate in the adipose tissue of fatty fish species; by far the biggest source of PCBs in
the human diet is fatty fish
b) Another important property is the degradability, or inactivation. Some toxic compounds are very
stable and therefore remain in the food production cycle for a long period. DDT, a very stable
pesticide that has been used in the 40-50's, has accumulated in the food production cycle via milk
fat, meat and breast milk. For many years, human breast milk contained higher amounts of DDT
compared to cow milk.
c) The toxicity'" of the toxic compound itself and the toxicity of its degradation products also
determine the risk. Compounds can be toxic at very low levels and can have a direct or indirect toxic
effect. For example, the enterotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is highly toxic and the
fatality rate is much higher than the enterotoxin produced by Clostridium perfringens. Oxalates and
alkaloids have an indirect effect; they can bind bivalent metals and thus effect their bioavailability.
Sweet peas can contain lathyrogens (an unusual amino acid) that can cause directly skeletal and
aortic abnormalities. The toxicity is assessed by approved tests, including tests to study the effects
of toxic compounds on reproduction and teratogenicity, tests to assess mutagenicity and
carcinogenicity, tests for allergic reactions and tests for immunity function. Based on these toxicity

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tests the acceptable daily intake (ADI) is assessed. The ADI is the daily amount of the substance that
can be ingested during the whole life span without a negative effect on health.

• How can you affect the toxic compounds? Can the toxicant be prevented, controlled or reduced.
Genetic engineering or plant breeding can be used to eliminate some undesirable substances from
plants (prevention). Cultivation and storage conditions can also prevent or sometimes reduce the
toxic compound. For example, the amount of glycoalkaloids in potatoes can be kept low by
controlling cultivation, harvesting (proper ripeness stage and bulb size) and storage conditions
(light, temperature and humidity). In some cases, the toxic compound can be reduced or eliminated
by processing; for example, heating eliminates trypsin inhibitor.

• What is the damage? The spectrum of potential risks associated with toxic compounds' in food:
range from acute poisoning to the undefined risk of lifetime exposure to potential toxic substances.
The extent to which these latter compounds contribute to the disease burden of humans cannot be
accurately assessed.

Foreign objects
Foreign objects belong to the third type of safety influencing factors that can be distinguished.
Foreign compounds include physical objects like pieces of glass, wood, stones but also pests and
insects.
.

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B. Sensory properties and shelf life

Sensory properties and shelf life are also intrinsic quality attributes. The sensory perception of
food is determined by the overall sensation of taste, odour, colour, appearance, texture and sound
(e.g. the sound of crispy chips). The physical features and chemical composition of a product
determine these sensory properties. In general, agri-food products are perishable by nature. After
the harvesting of fresh produce or the processing of foods, the deterioration processes starts, which
negatively affects the sensory properties. Processing and/or packaging are aimed at delaying,
inhibiting or reducing the deterioration processes in order to extend the shelf life period. For
example, freshly harvested peas are spoiled within 12 hours, whereas canned peas can be kept for
2 years at room temperature.

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The shelf life of a product can be defined as the time between harvesting or processing and
packaging of the product and the point at which it becomes unacceptable for consumption. The
unacceptability is usually reflected in decreased sensory properties, for example formation of
rotten odour or sour taste by bacteria spoilage. The actual shelf life of a product depends on the
rate of the deterioration processes. Often one type of deterioration process is limiting for the shelf
life; for example, cured ham can colour grey very quickly upon exposure to oxygen.
Although the product is still safe, because bacteria did not spoil it, it will become unacceptable
because of the grey colour (i.e. the shelf life limiting reaction). Below are described some major
shelf life limiting deteriorating processes typical for food products.

Shelf life can be restricted by microbiological, and/or (bio) chemical and/or physiological and/or
physical processes

Microbiological processes in foods can result in food spoilage with the development of
undesirable sensory characteristics, including loss of texture, development of off-flavours and off-
colours. In some situations the food contains pathogens; the food can become unsafe prior to
detecting any changes in sensory characteristics.

Typical chemical reactions that can limit product shelf life are non-enzymatic browning and
oxidative reactions. Non-enzymatic browning (or Maillard reaction) causes mainly changes in
appearance and lowering of nutritional value by loss of essential amino acids. Oxidative reactions,
especially autoxidation of lipids can alter the flavour. Bleaching of plant pigments (e.g.
carotenoids) can be due to autoxidation as well. Generally, chemical changes occur during
processing and storage of agri-food products. Finally, the non-enzymatic browning reaction also
leads to desirable quality characteristics, such as browning of bread crust and the brown colour of
fried meat.

Biochemical reactions involve enzymes. Generally enzymes can spoil foods which means that the
enzymes are separated from their substrate on subcellular or tissue level. Disruption of the integrity
of the plant or animal tissue leads to enzymatic reactions. For example, cutting of fresh vegetables
initiates several enzymatic reactions, such as browning by phenolase and formation of off-flavours

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by lipoxygenase. In some instances biochemical reactions are controlled and used to produce better
digestible food, e.g. fermentation of cabbage. A typical example is accelerated ageing of meat by
increased hydrolase activity. This process is accomplished by exposing the meat to higher than
normal temperatures while surface growth of bacteria is controlled by ultra violet light.

Physical changes are often due to mishandling of agri-food products during harvesting, processing
and distribution. For example, bruising of fruits during harvesting and post-harvest storage
handling favours the development of rot. Mishandling of manufactured products during
distribution might result in high numbers of broken or crushed products. During storage and
distribution, fluctuating temperature and humidity conditions can, depending on the conditions,
result in desiccation of humid products, swelling of dried products or phase changes. The breaking
of emulsions and phase separation are also typical physical processes resulting in negative product
features.

Physiological reactions commonly occur during post-harvest storage of fruits and vegetables and
strongly depend on storage conditions. The products still have a respiration rate and often ethylene
is produced, which can have a considerable effect on typical post harvest defects.

The shelf life of a product is often limited by one major reaction, but sometimes a typical quality
defect may be due to different mechanisms. For example, rancid off-flavours can be due to lipase
activity producing short fatty acids chains or by oxidation of fatty acids. It is therefore necessary,
to be able to control this quality defect, to first identify the responsible mechanism.
Often the fastest reaction is responsible for the shelf life limitation. For example, undesirable
changes in texture of bread usually occur prior to growth of moulds. In this case physical
degradation is faster than microbiological changes; degradation is thus the shelf life limiting factor.
Inhibition, reduction or prevention of the main shelf life limiting factor often results in an extended
shelf life for that specific factor. However, during the extended storage slower degradation
processes may become prominent. For example, freezing of foods extends the microbial-free shelf
life but after 1 to 1 % year colour and texture changes occur by chemical and physical reactions.

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To control the technological product quality it is important to understand the different processes
that limit product shelf life and affect sensory properties.

C. Product reliability and convenience

Two other intrinsic quality attributes, are product reliability and convenience.

Product reliability refers to the compliance of actual product composition with product
description. For example, the weight of the product must be correct within specified tolerances.
But also claims, such as enriched with vitamin C, must be in agreement with actual concentration
in the product after processing, packaging and storage. Deliberate modification of the product
composition will cause damage to the product reliability, i.e. product falsification. An example is
when (cheaper) alternative raw materials are used and not mentioned on the label. Product
reliability is generally an implicit expectation, consumers just expect that a product is in
compliance with the information mentioned on the packaging.
Convenience relates to the ease of use or consumption of the product for the consumer, and thus
contributes to product quality. Product convenience can be accomplished by preparation,
composition and packaging aspects. Convenience food has been defined as food offered to the
consumer in such a manner that purchase, preparation and consumption of a meal costs less
physical and mental effort and/or money than when the original and/or separate components are
used.

The increased consumption of convenience food is assumed to be due to decreasing volume of

households, decreasing appreciation for housekeeping, increasing labour participation of women
and increasing welfare. Convenience foods range from sliced and washed vegetables to complete
ready-to-eat meals that only have to be warmed in the micro- wave or oven. Much attention is paid
in the food industry to development of ready-to-eat meals that can be easily and quickly prepared
while having good sensory and nutritional properties. Also packaging concepts are more and more
designed to fulfill the consumer's need for convenience; typical examples are easy-to-open and
close, good pouring properties and extra light packaging.

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Extrinsic quality attributes

Production system characteristics, environmental implications, of food products and their

production and marketing aspects can be-considered as extrinsic quality attributes. Extrinsic
quality attributes do not necessarily have a direct influence on physical product properties, but can
influence consumers' quality perception. For example marketing activities can influence consumer
expectations but have no relationship with any physical property.

A. Production systems characteristics

Production characteristics refer to the way a food product is manufactured. It includes factors such
as the use of pesticides while growing fruit and vegetables, animal welfare during cattle breeding,
use of genetic engineering to modify product properties or use of specific food preservation
techniques. The influence of production systems characteristics on product acceptance is very
complex. For example, there has been much concern about public acceptance of new genetically
modified food products and genetic engineering in general. Nevertheless, indicated in their study
on the consumer's attitude towards different food technologies used in cheese, that product benefits
(such as product quality, animal welfare, environment) was a more important factor in their
decision than process considerations. However, they emphasized that the results could not be
merely translated to other applications of genetic engineering in food production; each application
should be considered on a case-by-case basis.

B. Environmental aspects

Environmental implications of agri-food products refer mainly to the use of packaging and food
waste management. Wandel and Bugge (1997) proposed that intrinsic quality properties such, as
taste or nutritional value are related to personal interests, whereas environmental properties of food
may be related to wider community oriented interest. Consumers may express interest in buying
foods from environmentally sound production, either because of concern for their own health or
because of concern for the external environment. With respect to the environmental consequences
of packaging waste, European directives have been enacted to reduce this environmental impact.

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Since 1997, the food packaging industry is legally liable to improve material recycling and to
reduce the amount of packaging materials, so reducing packaging waste. In response to this
legislation, one of the largest retailers in the Netherlands stimulates their packaging suppliers to
produce according to this Packaging Convenant. This was not only because of legal requirements
but also because consumers become increasingly environmentally concerned.

With respect to waste management, inefficient processing is mainly a cost problem for processors
and not yet a major quality concern of consumers. For example, in fresh produce processing,
recoveries vary from 47 to 52% of finished product yields; the product loss can be found on the
processing floor. Researchers suggest tha more emphasis should be put on waste management, to
improve waste reduction methods and thus decrease the environmental waste load.

Though citizens may be concerned about environmental issues, it can not be assumed that
behaviour has changed accordingly. This is particularly the case when the product represents a
conflict between environmental soundness and other perceived benefits such as convenience,
performance, various other quality attributes and price (Alwitt and Berger, 1993; Wandel and
Brugge, 1997). Moreover, although consumers pretend to be interested in foods produced in an
ecologically sound manner and with less environmental impact, only a small group is willing to
pay the present high prices for these products (Wandel and Bru,g.ge, 1997). In fact as citizens,
people are concerned with social and environmental issues, however as customers the economic
aspects are often prevalent. However, currently in the Netherlands the major retailers are
discussing the purchase, on large scale, of environmentally sound produced meat. The large- scale
purchase may lower the price and thus stimulate the consumers to purchase.

C. Marketing (communication)

The effect of marketing on product quality is complex. According to Van Trijp and Steenkamp
(1998) consumers form an impression about the product's expected fitness for use at purchase; this
is the consumer’s judgement of ‘quality expectation’.

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FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL PRODUCT FEATURES IN THE AGRI-FOOD
CHAIN

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