Geyserite – Hydrothermal

Alteration
Febryanto Masulili, S.T, M.Sc
Kuliah Alterasi Batuan – Universitas Prisma, Manado
November 2019
Introduction

Geyserite is the name given to siliceous or calcareous mineral deposits at & in the
vicinity of hot springs and geysers, typically develop at the intersection of the water
table and the Earth’s surface in subaerial volcanic terrains (Sillitoe 1993; Guido and
Campbell 2011).

• Typically composed of opaline silica (SiO2·nH2O).

• Sometimes they are calcareous (CO2-rich fliuds), resulting in a superficial
travertine.
• A siliceous geyserite (near-neutral pH alkali chloride fluids) is also known as
siliceous sinter.

It tends to be porous, lightweight, and somewhat friable.

Introduction

Siliceous hot spring deposits characteristics (Fournier 1985; Cady and Farmer 1996;
Fournier and Rowe 1966; Lynne et al. 2008; Guido and Campbell 2011; Lynne 2012) :

• Chemically precipitated,
• Bedded, erosion-resistant mounds and sheet deposits,
• Metres to tens of metres thick,
• Typically occurring in the geologic record as topographical highs,
• Containing a myriad of sedimentary features with environmental significance (i.e.
lithofacies),
• Produced from the thermal fluid discharge of dilute brines heated in the
subsurface.
Introduction

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram showing how siliceous sinters and pseudosinters of thermogene travertines, silica
residue, silicified volcanics, silicified fluvial sediments, silicified lake sediments and epithermal veins relate to
geothermal up-flow and outflow (modified from Buchanan 1981; Tosdal et al. 2009; and Hamilton et al. 2018).
Introduction
Sinter deposits are surface manifestations of geothermal systems, largely produced
by near-neutral pH alkali chloride fluids that are oversaturated in silica.

Fig 1. Solubility curves of silica with temperature (modified from Gunnarsson and
Arnórsson 2000; Rodgers et al. 2004; Lynne et al. 2019).
Geyserite - What’s Important ?

• Due to their common spatial relationship with epithermal ore deposits, thereby
providing a useful tool in exploration (Sillitoe 2015; Hamilton et al. 2018).
• Sinters also trap extremophiles in situ in a durable mineral deposit, therefore
preserving life from extreme environments within the fossil record, which has
implications for recognising early signs of life on the Archean Earth (Djokic et al.
2017), and for narrowing the search for possible ancient life on Mars (Ruff and
Farmer 2016).
• The preserved organic material within sinters also can be utilised to reconstruct
paleoclimatic conditions (Goldie 1985).
Sinter – Lithofacies
(Cady and Farmer 1996)

• Proximal apron (~100–65 °C),

• Middle apron (~65–45 °C)
• Distal apron (<45 °C)
• Geothermally influenced marsh environments
(tepid to ambient).

Fig. 3. Chart and schematic cross-section of siliceous sinters

showing biofacies and lithofacies transitions in near-neutral pH
alkali chloride fluids along the temperature gradient from vent to
geothermally influenced marsh (~100 °C to ambient) (modified
from Cady and Farmer, 1996; Farmer 2000; Campbell et al. 2015a;
and Hamilton et al. 2018).
Vent-related and Proximal Apron Lithofacies

• Silica infiltrate
• Spring conduits
• Geyserite (specular, nodular, radiating macrobotryoidal, geyser eggs)
• Finely laminated
Vent-related: Silica Infiltrate

• Definition: interpreted to represent the deposits of tortuous, superheated, shallow

subterranean hydrothermal fluid feeders positioned immediately beneath subaerial
geyser vents, mounds and surface pools (Campbell et al. 2019).
 Vent-related: Silica Infiltrate
• Description: parallel, thin, irregular beds of
alternating bluegrey and white silica (<3 cm
thick), with very thin borders of dark blue-grey,
metal-rich silica (<1 mm thick), as well as swirly
to globular white silica.
• Formation Environment: forming in very
shallow subterranean settings beneath
subaerial vent areas.
• Formation Temperature: > 100°C
• Flow Direction: upwards and outwards away
from vent-feeder conduits.
• Extent: Localised within vent areas over lateral
distances of a few metres.

Fig. 4. Examples of silica infiltrate texture in sinter vent throat

settings (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Vent-related: Spring Conduits

• Definition: Spring conduits are usually open, tortuous, cylindrical central holes
occurring within mounds or fissures, through which very high temperature geothermal
fluids are expelled at the surface in relatively high volumes (vents) to produce geysers
and spouters (Braunstein and Lowe 2001; Guido and Campbell 2009; Guido et al. 2010;
Guido and Campbell 2011).
 Vent-related: Spring Conduits
• Description: Geyser mounds with associated
conduits are tens of centimetres to metres in
diameter and range up to metres in height. The
mounds contain cylindrical holes that are a few
centimetres to up to a few metres in diameter.
• Formation Environment: fluid flow pathways
that exit to the land surface. Localised to the
spring vent area.
• Formation Temperature: >~75–100°C at the
surface; tens of metres beneath the surface
temperatures may be up to ~180°C
(Giggenbach et al. 1994).
• Flow Direction: upwards and outwards in
vicinity of conduit exit points.

Fig. 5. Examples of vent conduit features (Hamilton AR, Campbell

KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Proximal Apron: Spicular Geyserite

• Definition: Spicular geyserite constitutes vertically packed, needle-like siliceous

sinter structures of high length-width ratios comprising dense, fine laminae of silica
which typically form just above the air-water interface, in frequent splash areas of very
high temperature thermal fluids at spring-vent pool rims or in the upper spring-vent
mound (Walter 1976; Braunstein and Lowe 2001; Walter et al. 1992; Campbell et al.
2015a).
 Proximal Apron: Spicular Geyserite
• Description: dense, finely laminated, acicular
sinter needles with round to sharp tips, in
closely spaced vertical pillars that may branch
upwards and always grow perpendicular to
lamination. Spicules are typically 0.5–1 mm in
diameter and up to 3 cm long.
• Formation Environment: formed by
evaporative wicking and cooling of thermal
fluids directly adjacent to boiling spring vent
fluids areas.
• Formation Temperature: >~75–100°C.
• Extent: localised to surging and splashing vent
areas and boiling proximal channel margins
over lateral distances of a few metres from the
vent source.

Fig. 6. Examples of spicular geyserite sinter. (Hamilton AR,

Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Proximal Apron: Nodular Geyserite

• Definition: Nodular geyserite consists of small rounded, clumped nodular humps (≤1
cm in diameter) of dense, finely laminated sinter that predominantly forms around
slightly drier portions of vent areas subjected to less splash but still at very high
temperatures (Walter 1976; Braunstein and Lowe 2001; Walter et al. 1992; Campbell et
al. 2015a).
 Proximal Apron: Nodular Geyserite
• Description: individual nodules (≤1.5 cm wide,
≤4 cm high) of geyserite are cemented
together and commonly merge, and comprise
thin, dense, smooth, relatively even laminae
(~5–50 μm thick), which occur adjacent to and
stacked upon one another.
• Formation Environment: occurs in the outer
splash zones in vent areas, or on vent rims
vertically above the air-water interface of the
spring source hot pool.
• Formation Temperature: >~75°C.
• Extent: localised to vent margins over lateral
distances of a few metres.

Fig. 7. Examples of nodular geyserite sinter (Hamilton AR,

Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Proximal Apron: Radiating Macrobotryoidal Geyserite

• Definition: comprises globular clusters of dense, finely laminated sinter that

predominantly forms in the mounded upper (proximal) areas and interiors of geyser
vent mounds at very high temperatures (Walter 1976; Braunstein and Lowe 2001; Walter
et al. 1992; Campbell et al. 2015a).
 Proximal Apron: Radiating Macrobotryoidal Geyserite
• Description: irregular, bulged botryoidal,
shaped siliceous vent mounds (>10 cm in
diameter), with interior microfabrics of spicular,
nodular or several intermixed and transitional
geyserite textural morphologies.
• Formation Environment: in the splash zone of
spring effluent areas of aggrading vent
mounds.
• Formation Temperature: >~75°C.
• Flow Direction: laminations of geyserite layers
form in a radiating pattern perpendicular to the
splash radius around vents.

Fig. 8. Examples of radiating macrobotryoidal geyserite with

internal fabric of spicular or pseudocolumnar geyserite textures
(Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Proximal Apron: Geyser Eggs

• Definition: Geyser eggs, or geyser beads are spherical to somewhat irregular, densely
laminated sinter (geyserite) that may be smooth on their exteriors, or spicular upon
their tops. These overall rounded geyserite spheroids (<10 cm in diameter) form at the
air-water interface in the splash zone of fountaining geysers, in very shallow pools of
proximal vent areas at high temperatures (Walter 1976; Jones et al. 2001; Campbell et
al. 2015a).
 Proximal Apron: Geyser Eggs
• Description: concentric, dense silica laminae
in rounded spheres (up to 10 cm in diameter),
some of which display spicular geyserite on
their upper surfaces. Somewhat flattened where
subsequently cemented to the substrate.
• Formation Environment: in splash areas of
effusive geysers and fountains that are often
disturbed by surging vent fluids.
• Formation Temperature: >~75 °C.
• Extent: localised to vent areas over lateral areas
of a few metres to tens of metres in large
fountain geysers.

Fig. 9. Examples of geyserite eggs (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA,

Guido DM. 2019).
Proximal Apron: Finely Laminated

• Definition: fine laminations of silica that accumulate where fast flowing geothermal
fluids debouch from the vent on the proximal slope and in upper apron outflow
channels at high temperatures (Guido and Campbell 2011).
 Proximal Apron: Finely Laminated
• Description: lamination composed of silica, up
to 2 mm thick, that is laterally continuous for
tens of centimetres, in places with small
wavelets that have amplitudes up to 5 mm and
crests up to 1 cm apart.
• Formation Environment: develops on the
proximal slope adjacent to vents, where
episodic deposition takes place (Walter et al.
1996; Guido and Campbell 2011).
• Formation Temperature: ~60 - 75 °C.
• Flow Direction: flow is parallel to lamination.
• Extent: lateral extent is centimetres to metres.

Fig. 10. Examples of geyserite eggs (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA,

Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron Lithofacies

• Packed fragmental • Conical tufted

• Streamer fabric • Bubble mat texture
• Domal stromatolites • Network fabric
• Low-amplitude wavy stromatolites • Oncoids
• Ropy pool mats
Middle Apron: Domal Stromatolites

• Definition: domed to convexly curved stromatolites that grow upwards from the
bottom of relatively deep pools at moderate temperatures of the mid-apron (Drake et
al. 2014).
 Middle Apron: Domal Stromatolites
• Description: stromatolites comprising thin (<5
mm), domed, wavy laminae and bands of sinter
that are continuous within domes.
• Formation Environment: domal stromatolites
grow from the base of deep (>1.5 m), calm,
moderate temperature pools, metres to tens of
metres from vent areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Fluid Volume: high volumes of thermal fluids
are required.
• Flow Direction: grow perpendicular to water
level, upward accumulation of mat and sinter.
• Extent: Decimetres to tens of metres.

Fig. 11. Examples of domal stromatolites that grew from mid-

temperature, spring pool floors, in vertical views. (Hamilton AR,
Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Low-Amplitude Wavy Stromatolites

• Definition: Low-amplitude, wavy, siliceous stromatolites of long wavelength that are

broadly convex-upwards, domal, with numerous lenticular voids; features form atop
calm pool surfaces of moderate temperature on the mid-apron (Hamilton et al. 2018).
 Middle Apron: Low-Amplitude Wavy Stromatolites
Fig. 12. Examples of low-amplitude wavy stromatolite sinter
lithofacies (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
• Description: curved flattened to elliptical voids
represent gases that were trapped within and
beneath the poolsurface microbial mats, either
from microbial photosynthetic by-products
(Hinman and Lindstrom 1996), or thermal pool
volatile exsolution, or both.
• Formation Environment: grow over the
surfaces of deep (>1.5 m), calm pools at
moderate temperatures, metres to tens of
metres from vent areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Fluid Volume: high volumes of thermal fluids
are required.
• Flow Direction: grow perpendicular to water
level, with domed feature terminating at the air-
water interface.
• Extent: Decimetres to tens of metres.
Middle Apron: Packed Fragmental

• Definition: the packed fragmental sinter lithofacies consists of broken, silicified,

microbial mats (<5 mm thick), which form as a result of transportation in relatively
high-energy conditions (i.e. during storm-flood conditions) at moderate temperatures
in the mid-apron (Drake et al. 2014).
 Middle Apron: Packed Fragmental
• Description: the thin microbial sinter layers of
the packed fragmental lithofacies are <5 mm
thick and may be up to 10 cm in length.
Individual layers may be contorted, but they are
more often relatively indurated.
• Formation Environment: in spring-fed
thermal creeks, on point bars that can be
metres to tens of metres or more from vent
areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Fluid Volume: high volumes of thermal fluids
are required, stacked groupings of silicified
microbial mat fragments, as well as fluvial
energy input to erode, transport and deposit
the silicified mats comprising this lithofacies.

Fig. 13. Examples of packed fragmental sinter lithofacies

(Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Streamer Fabric

• Definition: streamer fabric consists of densely packed, wavy, silicified, elongated

strands or streamers of filamentous microbes that are parallel to flow direction in
moderate temperature outflow channels of the mid-apron (Cunneen and Sillitoe 1989;
Walter et al. 1996; Schubotz et al. 2013).
 Middle Apron: Streamer Fabric
• Description: Aligned, wavy, silicified microbial
strands are parallel to one another and may
comprise bundles of multiple filaments
silicified into “streamers” in discharge channel
outflows of the mid apron (Cunneen and Sillitoe
1989;Walter et al. 1996; Schubotz et al. 2013).
• Formation Environment: Restricted to fast
flowing, shallow to moderately deep channels,
where flow is sufficient to elongate the
microbial mats in the flow.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Extent: localised to discharge channels, may be
centimetres to metres in extent.

Fig. 14. Examples of streamer fabric sinter lithofacies in plan

view, with arrows indicating flow direction (Hamilton AR,
Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Network Fabric

• Definition: network fabric is a surface feature that constitutes irregular threads of silica
(<1mm) in a webbed pattern. Found along the drying margins of moderate-
temperature pools of the mid-apron, where EPS exuded by cyanobacteria becomes
dried out and web-like as it silicifies (Guido and Campbell 2011; Handley and
Campbell 2011).
 Middle Apron: Network Fabric
• Description: Irregular, silicified, webbed
features.
• Formation Environment: Wetting and drying
of mats around pool margins, metres to tens of
metres from vent areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Fluid Volume: low fluid volumes, in areas of
drying out microbial sinter.
• Extent: localised to pool margins, centimetres
to metres in extent.

Fig. 15. Examples of network sinter fabric in plan view (Hamilton

AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Ropy Pool Mats

• Definition: ropy pool mats form as irregularly contorted to torn, thick, green and
orange layers (mm’s to cm’s thick) of rubbery (soft) microbial mats growing along the
margins of and across the surfaces of deep (>1 m), moderate-temperature pools in the
middle apron (Guido et al. 2010).
 Middle Apron: Ropy Pool Mats
• Description: silica sinter beds (individually
mm’s to cm’s thick), up to 1 m in length, that
may transition from minor contortions to twisted
and torn morphologies.
• Formation Environment: At the margins of or
on the surfaces of deep (>1 m) pools,
especially where spring discharge channels
enter pools, metres to tens of metres away from
vent areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Fluid Volume: fluctuating thermal fluid input
are required to form ropy pool mats.

Fig. 16. Examples of streamer fabric sinter lithofacies in plan

view, with arrows indicating flow direction (Hamilton AR,
Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Conical Tufted

• Definition: conical tufts constitute irregularly laminated, cone-shaped, finely

filamentous cyanobacteria that exhibit a phototaxial response, which form
subaqueously in calm, shallow (few centimetres to >1 m), moderate temperature pools
in the mid-apron (Walter 1976; Cady and Farmer 1996; Walter et al. 1996; Guido and
Campbell 2011; Lynne 2012).
 Middle Apron: Conical Tufted
• Description: individual, finely laminated cone
shapes, or tufts, are <5 mm in width and may
extend up to 10 cm in height. These conical tufts
form perpendicular to bedding.
• Formation Environment: The height of tufts
depends on the depth of the thermal pools, with
larger (taller) tufts forming in deeper pools.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 60 °C.
• Flow Direction: tufts grow perpendicular to
water level in shallow, relatively calm pools and
may elongate in the direction of discharge.

Fig. 17. Examples of conical tufted sinter (Hamilton AR, Campbell

KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Bubble Mat Texture

• Definition: bubble mats, or curved lenticular to spherical voids within wavy laminated
sinter (Cady and Farmer 1996; Campbell et al. 2001), form where gases become
trapped within the exopolymeric substance (EPS) of the matrix of the cyanobacterial
mats during photosynthesis, at moderate temperatures of the mid-apron (Hinman and
Lindstrom 1996), or from thermal spring emissions of exsolved volatiles.
 Middle Apron: Bubble Mat Texture
• Description: Spherical to elongated voids
parallel to bedding, up to 5 cm in diameter,
surrounded by silica, which later may be
infilled by silica.
• Formation Environment: gas bubbles form
subaqueously, becoming trapped as microbial
mats exude oxygen during photosynthesis
(Hinman and Lindstrom 1996) or as the pool
degases from physicochemical processes,
occurring over extensive areas in shallow
pools.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 55 °C.
• Extent: bubbles may form over laterally
extensive areas, from metres to tens of metres.

Fig. 18. Examples of bubble mat sinter lithofacies (Hamilton AR,

Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Middle Apron: Oncoids

• Definition: Oncoids are irregular spheroids, consisting of crenulated concentric

laminae of silica that are microbially influenced, accumulating in areas of intermittent
sheet flow within the middle-apron at moderate temperatures (Renaut et al. 1996).
 Middle Apron: Oncoids
• Description: irregular spheroids <2 cm in
diameter, often slightly flattened, with each
concentric lamina of silica <1 mm in thickness
and displaying a wavy to crenulated texture.
• Formation Environment: in very thin
intermittent sheet flow areas near the
middle/distal apron transition.
• Formation Temperature: ~45 - 55 °C.
• Fluid Volume: intermittent, low volume flows.
• Extent: localised to relatively wide sheet flow
discharge areas on middle apron surfaces, from
centimetres to tens of metres in extent.

Fig. 19. Examples of sinter oncoids (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA,

Guido DM. 2019).
Distal Apron Lithofacies: Palisade

• Definition: Palisade sinter consists of thickly laminated to thinly bedded horizons

(typically a few mm’s to 2 cm in thickness) of coarsely filamentous microbes aligned
perpendicular to the laminae, in which cyanobacterial mats build up to produce
overlapping terracettes (Cady and Farmer 1996; Lynne 2012; Campbell et al. 2015b).
 Distal Apron Lithofacies: Palisade
• Description: Individual silicified filaments are
≤1 mm thick and usually <2 cm in height
(Lynne and Campbell 2003; 2004). The
filaments comprise densely packed
micropillars perpendicular to bedding.
• Formation Environment: palisade fabric
forms in the distal apron, tens to hundreds of
metres from vent areas, developing as large
blocky terraces over laterally extensive areas.
• Formation Temperature: ~30 - 45 °C.

Fig. 20. Examples of palisade sinter fabric (Hamilton AR,

Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Geothermally Influenced Marsh Lithofacies

• Ambient temperatures (<35 °C), tens to hundreds of metres from vent.

• Tolerable for plants and algae to grow in relatively high densities.
• Eukaryotes (e.g. insects, ostracods, micromolluscs, etc) also thrive in the tepid waters.
• Lithofacies developed:
• Plant-rich
• Clotted fabric
Marsh Lithofacies: Plant-rich Sinter

• Definition: plant-rich fabric consists of silicified branches, twigs, reeds and leaves,
which commonly show a preferred orientation. Plants are encrusted with fluffy, fine
grained opaline silica in modern hot-springs within the geothermally influenced marsh
at ambient temperatures (Weed 1889; Channing et al. 2004).
 Marsh Lithofacies: Plant-rich Sinter
• Description: Fine-grained silica can replace,
encrust and form casts of plant material. Insects
and other eukaryotes also may be associated.
• Formation Environment: At low temperatures,
where plants are able to grow in the interfluves
between the thermal spring discharge channels
on the distal apron.
• Formation Temperature: <35 °C
• Extent: May form over widely extensive areas,
metres to hundreds of metres away from vent
areas.

Fig. 21. Examples of plant-rich sinter (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA,

Guido DM. 2019).
Marsh Lithofacies: Clotted Fabric

• Definition: Clotted texture is produced by fluffy, fine-grained microbial encrustations

upon plants and sinter fragments in the geothermally influenced marsh, at ambient
temperatures (Weed 1889; Campbell et al. 2001).
 Marsh Lithofacies: Clotted Fabric
• Description: fine, discontinuous fluffy
encrustations coat plant and other materials on
the distal discharge apron and into marshy
areas that are fed by tepid to cool spring
discharge.
• Formation Environment: forms at low
temperatures, tens to hundreds of metres from
vent areas, often in marshy, ponded areas
amongst reeds.
• Formation Temperature: <35 °C
• Extent: metres to tens of metres in lateral
extent.

Fig. 22. Examples of clotted sinter fabric (Hamilton AR, Campbell

KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Pseudo-Sinter: Silicified Thermogene Travertine

• Definition: Thermogene travertines are hot spring deposits (~100–30 °C) precipitated
from CO2-rich fluids, forming constructional calcium carbonate deposits within
mounds and terrances (Pentecost 2005).
 Pseudo-Sinter: Silicified Thermogene Travertine
• Description: commonly associated textures -
very thick palisade fabrics (A), stromatolites
(B), fenestral fabrics (C), and spherulites (D).
• Formation Environment:
• CO2-rich thermal fluids + bicarbonate springs
(Henley and Ellis 1984; Renaut and Jones 2011),
• derived from magmatic sources (Gibert et al. 2009),
or
• situated in ancient carbonate stratigraphy (Chafetz
and Guidry 2003).
• Formation Temperature: ~100 °C - ambient
temperatures
• Distinguishing (Petrography):
• feathery microtextures
• remnant calcite and aragonite (Fouke et al. 2000;
Pentecost 2005: Guido and Campbell 2017).

Fig. 23. Examples of distinctive thermogene travertine textures

(Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Hydrothermal Eruption Breccia

• Definition: Hydrothermal eruption breccia comprises fragmented solid material

abruptly ejected from the shallow subsurface within a geothermal system, which
occurs because of heat loss and sudden phase changes of subterranean thermal fluids
(Browne and Lawless 2001).
 Hydrothermal Eruption Breccia
• Description: composed of poorly sorted,
heterogeneous clasts of sinter, volcanic and
sedimentary host rock, as well as
hydrothermally altered material expelled from
depth.
• Formation Environment: a change in pressure
of geothermal fluids at depth, accompanied by
pressurised liquid flashing to steam
(Hedenquist and Henley 1985; Nelson and Giles
1985; Browne and Lawless 2001).
• Formation Temperature: >100 °C
• Fluid Volume: a sudden influx of a high volume
of thermal fluid is required to produce steam
expansion.

Fig. 24. Examples of hydrothermal eruption breccias (Hamilton

AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
Epithermal Veins

• Definition: Silica rich veins are produced in epithermal systems to paleo depths of ~1
km by near-neutral pH alkali chloride fluids traversing country rock in focused veins
and conduits (Lindgren 1933; Simmons et al. 2005).
 Epithermal Veins
• Description: Vein textures indicate episodic,
multistage accumulation of ore minerals from
various fluid processes, principally boiling
(Simmons et al. 2005; Christie et al. 2007).
• crustiform (B),
• colloform banded chalcedonic veins (A, D),
• quartz pseudomorphism of lamellar calcite (C).
• Formation Environment: The veins occur in
zones of epithermal fluid up-flow within the
shallow subsurface (<3 km depth), cross-cutting
lithology.
• Formation Temperature: ~200 - 300 °C
• Extent: Epithermal veins are generally
localised in fractures and faults.

Fig. 25. Epithermal veins with somewhat similar textures to

siliceous sinters (Hamilton AR, Campbell KA, Guido DM. 2019).
SUMMARY

• Siliceous sinters form as chemical precipitates of silica-bearing, near-neutral pH,

alkali chloride thermal fluids that are expelled at the Earth’s surface to cool along
spring discharge pathways from 100 °C to ambient temperatures.
• At depth (<3 km), these same fluids may produce Au - Ag ore deposits in adularia
sericite epithermal systems.
• The lithofacies are generally porous and vary laterally and vertically, recording
flow direction, temperature and relative volume of the thermal fluids, which allows
delineation of geothermal up-flow and outflow zones.
• Furthermore, sinter deposits also entomb extremophiles in a durable mineral
deposit, therefore preserving life in extreme environments, with similarities to
early life on Earth and potentially other planets like Mars.