CONCEPTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

BUILDING MATERIALS WHICH ARE THE MATERIAL FOUNDATION FOR

ALL THE CONSTRUCTION

Variations of Building Materials:

Chemical components (INORGANIC, ORGANIC, COMPOSITE)
Functions of materials (STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS)

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. ECONOMIC FACTORS
 availability and cost of raw materials
 manufacturing costs
 transportation
 placing
 maintenance
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES- The mechanical behavior of materials is the response
of the material to external loads.
3. NON-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES- density, thermal properties, and surface
characteristics.
4. PRODUCTION AND CONSTRUCTION
 Production- availability of the material and the ability to fabricate the material
 Construction - the ability to fabricate and erect the structure on site
5. AESTHETIC CHARACTERISTICS- the appearance of the material
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
The substances which are useful in the field of engineering are called Engineering
materials. A particular material is selected is on the basis of following considerations
1. Properties of material
 Mechanical properties - strength, ductility, toughness, hardness, strength to
weight ratio etc.
 Physical properties - density, specific heat, thermal expansion, conductivity,
melting point etc.
 Chemical properties - oxidation, corrosion, flammability, toxicity etc.
 Manufacturing properties - formed, casting, machined, welding
2. Cost of material
3. Availability of material (desired shape and size and quantity) & reliability of supply.
4. Service in life of material
 Dimensional stability of material wear, corrosion etc., shorten life
5. Appearance of material
 Color
 Surface texture etc.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 STRENGTH: defined as the ability of a material to resist loads without failure. It is
usually expressed or measured in terms of maximum load per unit area (i.e. maximum
stress or ultimate strength).
 Further the strength is divided into three types they are
o Tensile Strength: The tensile strength or tenacity is defined as the ability of
material to resist a stretching (tensile) load without fracture.
o Compressive Strength: The ability of a material to resist squeezing
(compressive) load without fracture is called compressive strength.
o Shear Strength: The ability of a material to resist transverse loads i.e. loads
tending to separate (or cut) the material is called shear strength.
 STIFFNESS: It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection under load.
Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by the modulus of elasticity.
 ELASTICITY :
The ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original shape when the load is
removed is called elasticity.
 PLASTICTY :
The ability of a material to deform under load and retain its new shape when the load is
removed is called plasticity.
 DUCTILITY :
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture under tensile load. Due
to this property material can be drawn out into fine wire without fracture.
 MALLEABILTY :
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture under compressive
load. Due to this property metals are hammered and rolled into thin sheets.
 TOUGHNESS :
It is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy up to fracture during the plastic
deformation. Toughness of a metal offers the resistance to breaking when force is applied.
 BRITTLENESS :
It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible permanent deformation.
 HARDNESS :
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching or indentation by another hard
body. Hardness is directly related to strength.
 CREEP :
The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at constant stress is called
creep.
 FATIGUE :
Failure of material under repeated or reversal stresses is called fatigue. Machine parts are
frequently subjected to varying stresses and it is important to know the strength of materials in
such conditions. The maximum stress at which the material will operate indefinitely without
failure is known as the endurance limit or fatigue limit.
 RESILIENCE :
It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is
measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit.
 MACHINABILITY:
The ease with which a given material may be worked or shaped with a cutting tool is called
machinability. Machinability depends on chemical composition, structure and mechanical
properties.
  WELDABILITY:
It is the ability of material to be joined by welding. Weldability depends on chemical
composition, physical properties and heat treatment to which they are subjected.
 CASTABILITY :
Castability of metal refer to the ease with which it can be cast into different shapes and is
concerned with the behavior of metal in its molten state.
 STRAIN HARDENING :
The strengthening effect produced in metals by plastic deformation (cold working) is called
strain hardening or work hardening. Strain hardening reduces ductility and corrosion resistance
but, raises the hardness and electrical resistance.

STONES
STONE AND ITS MAJOR TYPES BASED ON FORMATION
 Building stone is a natural engineering material.
 Stone is obtained from rock by applying certain disintegration techniques like manual
quarrying and blasting etc.
 Stones obtained from rocks are irregular in shape and size and thus need proper dressing
before using for construction purpose.
Based on formation of the parent rock it has three types
1. The igneous rocks
2. The sedimentary rocks and
3. The metamorphic rocks
 The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining
walls, abutment, dams, barrages, roads etc. are known as building stones.
 Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.
 Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the olden days
due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

 Hardness
 Durability
 Decomposition
 Disintegration
 Reliability
 Appearance and Color

TESTS ON BUILDING STONES

 Acid Test: Acid test is used to investigate how much atmospheric action can be resisted
by stone.
 Smith's Test: This test is used for finding out the presence of soluble matter in stones.
 Crushing Strength: Crushing test is used to investigate the compressive strength of
stone.
 Water Absorption Test: In this test, 50 grams of stones in chipped form are places in an
oven at 105 degree Celsius for 3 hours then cooled at room temperature. Weight of stones
 is then taken (W1). Then stones are places in distilled water for 3 days. After 3 days
weight of stones is taken (W2).
 Crystallization Test: 4 cubes of stone with dimension 40mm are taken. Stones are dried
for 3 days and weighed. Then stones are immersed in 14% solution of Sodium Sulphate
(Na2SO4) for 2 hours. After this stones are dried at 100 degree Centigrade and weighed.
Difference in weight is noted .Process of drying, weighing, immersion and reweighing is
repeated at least 5 times. Each time, change in weight is noted and it is expressed as a
percentage of original weight.
 Hardness Test: This test is carried out to determine the hardness of stone.
 Impact Test: This test is carried out to determine the toughness of stone. This test
requires an 'Impact Testing Machine'.
 Microscopic Test: In this test specimen of stones is placed under microscope and various
properties are studied such as grain size, texture of stone, pores, veins, shakes etc.
 Attrition Test: This test is carried out to test the resistance to abrasion (ability to
withstand grinding action) of stone. This test is carried out in 'Attrition Test Machine'.
DURABILITY OF STONES
It is based upon the stones natural properties and characteristics and environmental
conditions to which it will be subjected.

 Durable stones stay strong and in a good condition over a long period of time. It
exists without significant deterioration.
DETERIORATION AGENTS OF STONES

 Rain- it acts both on physical and chemical properties of the stones.

 Physical Action- alternate wetting and drying causes internal stress in the stones
and results to disintegration.
 Chemical Action- when acidic rain water reacts to stone that leads to
DECOMPOSITION, OXIDATION and HYDRATION
 Frost –frost pierces the pores of the stones causing the stone to create cracks.
 Wind- since wind carries dust particles the abrasion caused by these deteriorates
the stones.
 Temperature – temperature change causes the expansion and contraction of
stones
causes deterioration.
 Vegetable Growth- roots of trees and weeds that grow in masonry affects the
stone to deteriorate.
 Mutual Decay- when different types of stones are used together mutual decay
takes place.
 Chemical Agents- smokes, fumes, acids, and acid fumes present in the
atmosphere causes the stone to deteriorate.
 Lichens- stones deteriorate to act as protective coat for other stones.

STRENGTH AND DURABILITY

 The more compact the grained and heavier a stone the harder it is. It is because of the
alternate wetting and drying

 Dry stones allow more crushing strength than wet stones.

 Durability test is performed to find out the capacity of the stone to resist
disintegration and decomposition
PRESERVATION OF STONES
Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay. Different types of stones require
different treatments.  Stone preservative is intended to prolong the life of a stone by either
restoring its physical integrity or by inhibiting its decay.
-Things to consider in choosing preservatives:

 Physical and Chemical Properties of Stones

 Chemical composition of the preservatives
 Nature of the surroundings
Various Preservatives:
– Pointing ( Struck or raised)
– Plaster Paints oils and chemical solutions
– Linseed oil boiled
– Melted paraffin
– Ransome’s process
– Potassium or Sodium Chloride is fed into the pores of stones by repeated application
– Use of Solution of Barium Hydrate (Bayrta) in atmosphere charged with Carbonic and
Sulpur acids
– Szerelmeys Stone
– Liquid Silicates of Sodium and potassium applied with chlorides of Calcium and
Barium
– Cleaning and washing etc

SELECTION OF STONES
 Chemical Composition: chemical properties and composition must be tested and
verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different properties.
 Strength and Hardness: The more compact grained and heavier a stone, the stronger it
is. A crystalline stone is superior to a non-crystalline texture. The specific gravity of good
stone should be above 2.7.
 Resistance to Heat: Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low
amount of expansion due to large increase in temperature.
 Bio-deterioration: Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones and
have both mechanical and chemical adverse effects. Special microbes can grow on the
surface and in minute fissures, their by-products cause flaking and discoloration.
 Appearance: The aesthetic aspect that is colour, appearance and show of stones must
also be considered when being used in a project. Appearance depends on the colour and
the ease with which the stone can be dressed, rubbed or polished.
AGGREGATES- is a broad category of coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used
in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic
aggregates. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt
concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material

General Classification of Aggregates

a.) According to Production Methods

Natural Aggregates:
Taken from native deposits without any change in their natural states during production
except for crushing, grading or washing.
Example: sand, gravel, crushed stone, lime rock.
By-Product Aggregates:
Comprise blast-furnace slags and cinders, fly ash, etc. Cinders are residue of coal or
wood after
Processed Aggregates
– Heat treated, expanded materials with lightweight characteristics.
– Example: Perlite, burnt clays, shales, processed fly ash.
Colored Aggregates:
– Glass, ceramics, manufactured marble for decorative and architectural purposes.

b.) According to Petrological Characteristics

Igneous Rocks- Solidification of molten lava forms igneous rocks.
• Example: Quartz, granite, basalt, obsidian, pumice, tuff.
Sedimentary Rocks: Obtained by the deposition of weathered and transported pre- existing
rocks.
• Example: Sandstone, limestone, shale.
Metamorphic Rocks: Formed at a depth under high heat and pressure by the alterations of either
igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks.
• Example: Marble, slate, schist.

c.) According to Particle Size

1) Fine Aggregate (sand):
Fine aggregate includes the particles that all passes through 4.75 mm sieve and retain on 0.075
mm sieve.
2) Coarse Aggregate (gravel): Coarse aggregate includes the particles that retain on 4.75 mm
sieve.
Silt: sizes 0.002-0.075 mm
Clay: sizes smaller than 0.002 mm

d) According to Their Unit Weights:

1) Normal Weight Aggregates:
• Sand, gravel and crushed stone.
• Concrete produced by these aggregates:2160 to 2560 kg/m3.
2) Light Weight Aggregates:
• Slag, slate and other light stones.
 • Concrete produced by them: 240 to 1440 kg/m3.
• This concrete is normally used for insulation purposes.
3) Heavy Weight Aggregates:
• Hemotite, barite magnetite, steel and iron punchings.
• Concrete produced by them: 2800 to 6400 kg/m3.

4.4 Mechanical Properties of Aggregates

4.4.1 Bond of Aggregate
• Bond is the interlocking of the aggregate and the paste owing to the roughness of the
surface of the former.
• A rough surface, such as that of crushed particles, results in a better bond; better bond is
also usually obtained with softer, porous and mineralogically heterogeneous particles.
• No accepted test exists.
• Generally, when bond is good, a crushed concrete specimen should contain some
aggregate particles broken right through, in addition to the more numerous ones pulled
out from their sockets.

4.4.2 Strength of Aggregate

• NOTE:Comp. strength (concrete) < Comp. strength (aggregate)
• The crushing strength of aggregate cannot be tested with any direct test. There are some
indirect tests to inform us about the crushing strength of aggregate.

Other Mechanical Properties of Aggregates:

a) Impact value: Impact value of aggregates measures the toughness of particles by impact.
b) Abrasion: Abrasion of aggregates measures the resistance of aggregates against wearing.
• It is an important property of concrete in roads and in floor surfaces subjected to heavy
traffic. The most frequently used test method is the Los Angeles Abrasion Test.
• Los Angeles Abrasion Test: The aggregate of specified grading is placed in a cylindrical
drum, mounted horizontally. A charge of steel balls is added and the drum is rotated a
specified number of revolutions. The tumbling and dropping of the aggregate and the
balls result in abrasion and attrition of the aggregate. The resulting grading should be
compared with the standard limitations.

TESTS ON AGGREGATE
In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:
• Crushing test
• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test

CRUSHING TEST- One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under
compressive stress. A test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the
crushing strength of aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load.

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST- The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate
the resistance to impact of aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm
sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached
to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is
tamped for 25 numbers of blows. Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with
a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of
blows. The crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value
is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample
(W1).

SHAPE TESTS- The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of
flaky and elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to
higher workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size.Test procedure had been standardized in India
(IS: 2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles
whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to
aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. This test is also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I).

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION- The specific gravity and water
absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required for the design of concrete and
bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal
volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-
permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
Apparent specific gravity and Bulk specific gravity.

Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e
the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,
MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter,
W is the density of water.

Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing
but the water permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by
weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids
filled with water. The difference of the above two is MW.
MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.
Thus,
Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to
2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.

BITUMEN ADHESION TEST- Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates
provided they are dry and free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion
problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by
removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further,
the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs
when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to
an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite
simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

CLINKER- Clinker is a substance which is formed during the cement manufacturing process.
These are marble size pellet like materials formed in a klin.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT CLINKER

 Tricalcium Silicate, Dicalcium Silicate, Tricalcium Aluminate, Tetracalcium Alumino
Ferrite 

CEMENT- It is a binding material used to bind things together often in building construction
work. Cement is typically made from limestone and clay or shale. These raw materials are
extracted from the quarry crushed to a very fine powder and then blended in the correct
proportions.

MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
• The first step is to quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone, clay, and other
materials.
• After quarrying the rock is crushed.
• The crushed rock is combined with other ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and
ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.
• The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge
cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special firebrick.
 • As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are driven off in the form of
gases. The remaining elements unite to form a new substance called clinker. Clinker
comes out of the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.
• Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and generally is brought
down to handling temperature in various types of coolers.
• After the clinker is cooled, cement plants grind it and mix it with small amounts of
gypsum and limestone.
• Cement is so fine that 1 pound of cement contains 150 billion grains.  
•
LIME MORTAR- The lime mortar was discovered that limestone, when burnt and combined
with water, produced a material that would harden with age. Mortars containing only lime and
sand required carbon dioxide from air to convert back to limestone and harden.

GYPSUM MORTAR- A plastic mixture of gypsum,

water, and often sand; can be troweled in the plastic state hardens in place when the
water it contains evaporates.

LIMESTONE a hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate or dolomite,

used as building material and in the making of cement.

POZZOLAN a broad class of siliceous and aluminous materials which, in themselves, possess
little or no cementitious value but which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
water, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.

QUICKLIME- a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline,

crystalline solid at room temperature.

HYDRAULIC AND NON-HYDRAULIC LIME

Hydraulic lime sets by hydration so it can set under water.
Non-hydraulic lime sets by carbonation and so needs exposure to carbon dioxide in the air and
cannot set under water or inside a thick wall. For natural hydraulic lime (NHL) mortars, the lime
is obtained from limestone naturally containing a sufficient percentage of silica and/or alumina.
Artificial hydraulic lime is produced by introducing specific types and quantities of additives to
the source of lime during the burning process, or adding a pozzolan to non-hydraulic lime. Non-
hydraulic lime is produced from a high purity source of calcium carbonate.

MIXING LIME MORTAR

It is essential that the lime is consistently dispersed and that any fine agglomerations are
broken down. At the time of lime being mixed, it will need to be controlled by an efficient mixer.
A roller-pan or a screed mixer has the most effective action; but a simple tilting drum cement
mixer can be used if a longer mixing time is required. If it is a large job we recommend to use a
mixer with a capacity for a full bag of hydraulic lime.
CONCRETE- is a composite construction material (cement + coarse aggregate + fine aggregate
+ water + admixtures). Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement
due to a chemical process known as hydration.

CEMENT- It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates, aluminates and ferrites - compounds

which combine calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron in forms which will react with water.
Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone with clay or shale and
grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate.

REINFORCEMENT- Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the

compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place
can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads

READY MIXED CONCRETE- Ready-mixed concrete is often remixed once it arrives at the
jobsite to ensure that the proper slump is obtained. However, concrete that has been remixed
tends to set more rapidly than concrete mixed only once. Materials, such as water and some
varieties of admixtures, are often added to the concrete at the jobsite after it has been batched to
ensure that the specified properties are attained before placement.

Transmit Mixed Ready Mix VS Volumetric Mixed Ready Mix

 A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.
 The batch plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, while the delivery trucks
can service residential districts or inner cities.
 Volumetric trucks often have a lower water demand during the batching process.
 Centralized batch systems are limited by the size of the fleet.
 Volumetric mixers can seamlessly change all aspects of the mix design while still
producing concrete.

Types of Ready Mix Concrete

 Standard Ready-Mix Concrete
 Architectural and Decorative Concrete
 Rapid-setting Concrete
 Fiber-reinforced Concrete
 Fluid-fill Concrete
 Roller-compacted Concrete
 Self-consolidating Concrete (SCC)
 Pervious Concrete
 Antibacterial Concrete

Types of Ready Mix Concrete (depending on the mixing of various ingredients)

1. Transit Mixed Concrete
 Concrete mixed at jobsite
  Concrete mixed in transit
 Concrete mixed in the yard
2. Shrink Mixed Concrete
3. Central Mixed Concrete

Mix Design- Concrete mix design is the process of finding the proportions of concrete mix in
terms of ratios of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions
1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one
part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The concrete mix
design proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed
in mass.

Types of concrete Mix Design

 Nominal Mixes
 Standard Mixes
 Designed Mixes
Factors affecting Concrete Mix design Strength
 Water/Cement Ratio
 Cement Content
 Relative proportion of fine and coarse aggregates
 Use of admixtures

Trial and Error Method- In Trial and Error Method of concrete mix design, the proportion of
fine aggregate to coarse aggregate is finding out by trial, which gives the maximum weight of the
combined aggregate. The density of particle of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is nearly the
same; the mixture which will give the maximum weight will have the maximum solid matter
therefore the least voids and surface area. In another method of trial mix fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate are combined in several proportions.
The quantity of cement per unit volume of concrete is found to give a certain water-
cement ratio for each mixture. The percentage of sand is known as optimum percentage.
Cement required will be more for the same consistency if sand used is more than
optimum. The mix will become harsh for low quantity of sand. Optimum percentage of sand is
lower for lower water-cement ratio

ACI Method- ACI method of concrete mix design is based on the estimated weight of the
concrete per unit volume. This method takes into consideration the requirements for consistency,
workability, strength and durability.

Properties of Fresh Concrete

1. Consistency – Measure of the stiffness or sloppiness of the concrete mix.

Slump Test – Measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets.
2. Workability - The relative ease, with which the concrete can be placed, compacted and
finished without separation or segregation of the individual materials.
 3. Settlement and Bleeding - Cement and aggregate have densities three times that of water.
In fresh concrete they consequently tend to settle and displace mixing water which
migrates upward and may collect on the top surface of the concrete.
4. Plastic Shrinkage - If water is removed from the compacted concrete before it sets, the
volume of the concrete is reduced by the amount of water removed. This volume
reduction is called plastic shrinkage.
5. Slump Loss - From the time of mixing, fresh concrete gradually loses consistency. This
gives rise to the problems only if the concrete becomes to stiff to handle, place and
compact properly.

Properties of Hardened Concrete

1. Strength - When we refer to concrete strength, we generally talk about compressive

strength of concrete. Because, concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak
in tension and bending.
2. Creep - Deformation of concrete structure under sustained load. Long term pressure or
stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is applied.
3. Durability - the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and
abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
4. Shrinkage - Shrinkage is the volume decrease of concrete caused by drying and chemical
changes. In another word, the reduction of volume for the setting and hardening of
concrete is defined as shrinkage.
5. Modulus of Elasticity - The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of
Elasticity of the concrete ingredients and their mix proportions.
6. Water Tightness - Water tightness of concrete is directly related to the durability of
concrete. The lesser the permeability, the more the durability of concrete. Sometime, it’s
called impermeability of concrete.

High Strength Concrete

 A term used to describe concrete with special properties not attributed to normal
concrete.
 A high strength concrete has low shrinkage, low permeability, a high modulus of
elasticity or high strength.
 It can’t be only achieved by just using conventional materials and normal mixing,
placing, and curing practices.
 The requirements may involve enhancements of placement and compaction without
segregation, long-term mechanical properties, early-age strength, toughness, volume
stability, or service life in severe environments.
 High-strength concrete is typically recognized as concrete with a 28-day cylinder
compressive strength greater than 6000 psi or 42 Mpa.

Concrete with a uniaxial compressive strength

 Strengths of up to 20 000 psi (140 Mpa)
 Laboratories have produced strengths approaching 60,000 psi (480 Mpa).
 The most common method of creating high-strength concrete is to design and control the
combination of cementitious material, aggregates, water, and admixtures. Cementitious materials
include portland cement, fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace slag, or natural
pozzolans. Typically, fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag substituted for some of the
portland cement is an effective method to increase the long-term strength of a mixture.

Workability and Related Mix Properties

 The lower water/cm ratio for high-strength concrete yields a very low slump and thus
poor workability.
 Limiting aggregate size increases workability
 Rheological tests can be performed at the mixing site and superplasticizers added as
required

Concrete Specification and Strength

 The uses of the fresh and hardened concrete
 The curing conditions
 The dimensions of the structure, this effects heat development
 The environmental exposure conditions
 Surface finish
 Maximum nominal aggregate size
 Restrictions on suitability of materials

 High-strength concrete has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa (5800 psi)

 Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete which has a superior surface finish.

High performance Concrete

 Ultra-high-performance concrete is a new type of concrete that is being developed by
agencies concerned with infrastructure protection. UHPC is characterized by being a steel
fibre-reinforced cement composite material with compressive strengths in excess of 150
Mpa
 Micro-reinforced ultra-high-performance concrete is the next generation of UHPC. In
addition to high compressive strength, durability and abrasion resistance of UHPC,
micro-reinforced UHPC is characterized by extreme ductility, energy absorption and
resistance to chemicals, water and temperature.
 Self-consolidating concrete
 Vacuum concrete
 Shotcrete
 Lime Crete
 Cellular concrete
 Roller-compacted concrete
 Refractory cement
 Gypsum concrete

Self-Compacting Concrete
  Self-compacting concrete, which flows under its own weight and does not require any
external vibration for compaction, has revolutionized concrete placement.

Materials Used
 Cement -Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 43) was used.
 Admixtures -Polycarboxylic ether based superplaticizer complying with ASTM C-
494 type F, was used.
 Aggregates -4.75mm maximum size was used as fine aggregate and 16mm maximum
size was used as coarse aggregate.

Test Methods
1. Slump Flow Test
- Used to assess the horizontal free flow of SCC in the absence of obstructions
2. V-funnel Test
- The flow ability of the fresh concrete can be tested with the V-funnel test, whereby
the flow time is measured.
3. L-box Test
- The passing ability is determined using the L-box Test

Durability of Concrete – It can be defined to mean ‘its resistance to deteriorating influences,

which may reside inside the concrete itself, or which are present in the environment to which the
concrete is exposed’.

Factors Influencing the Durability

 Environment, freezing and thawing, exposure to aggressive chemicals.
 Cover to embedded steel.
 Type and quality of constituent materials.
 Cement content and water-cement ratio.
 Workmanship to obtain full compaction and efficient curing.
 Shape and size of member.
Admixtures

 Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other than Portland cement, water, and
aggregates that are added to the mixture immediately before or during mixing.

Classification of admixtures by functions:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Water-reducing admixtures
3. Plasticizers
4. Accelerating admixtures
5. Retarding admixtures
6. Corrosion inhibitors
7. Shrinkage reducers

Reasons for using admixtures

1. To reduce the cost of concrete construction.
 2. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means.
3. To maintain the quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing, and
curing in adverse weather conditions.
4. To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations

BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
There are two basic classes of bituminous materials: (1) asphalt; and (2) tar. These materials are
generally used as water-proofing sealants, and as a binder to hold aggregate together in
bituminous pavements.

Asphalt
Asphalt comes primarily from two sources: (1) naturally occuring asphalt deposits; and (2) from
the refinement of crude petroleum.

1. Natural Asphalt Deposits

Naturally occurring asphalt deposits occur in various locations around the planet. Although
these deposits are sometimes called “tar pits” they are in fact natural asphalt deposits.

2. Refinement of Petroleum
Unrefined petroleum consists of a spectrum of different products of different volatilities.
From highest to least volatility these products are: gasoline, kerosene, light oils, heavy oils, and
asphalt residuum.

A simple index that helps to determine the composition of crude petroleum is the API Gravity
Index.
The API GI is thus inversely related to the specific gravity of the material. Generally speaking,
the lower the API GI of a petroleum, the higher will be its asphalt content, and the lower its
content of volatile phases like gasoline and kerosene.

Tar
While asphalt is essentially a product of petroleum, tar is a product that derives from distillation
of coal. While coal tar was once quite commonly used as a binder in paving materials, it used
less often now for a number of reasons:
1. It ages/oxides more rapidly than asphalt does, hence its service lifetime is shorter.
2. It tends to be more be more temperature susceptible than asphalt, which means that it
changes in consistency more with temperature than does asphalt.
3. It is a class I carcinogen and hence the vapors can be hazardous to health.

Tests on Asphalt Cement

 Flexural Fatigue- The flexural fatigue test is used to characterize the fatigue life of HMA at
intermediate pavement operating temperatures. This characterization is useful because it
provides estimates of HMA pavement layer fatigue life under repeated traffic loading.

 Laboratory Wheel Tracking Device- Laboratory wheel-tracking devices are used to run
simulative tests that measure HMA qualities by rolling a small loaded wheel device
 repeatedly across a prepared HMA specimen. Performance of the test specimen is then
correlated to actual in-service pavement performance

 Moisture Susceptibility- Moisture susceptibility is a primary cause of distress in HMA

pavements. HMA should not degrade substantially from moisture penetration into the mix.
HMA mixtures may be considered susceptible to moisture if the internal asphalt binder-to-
aggregate bond weakens in the presence of water. To measure the potential for moisture
damage to HMA mixtures, moisture susceptibility testing can be performed. Results may be
used to predict the potential for long-term stripping and to evaluate anti-stripping additives,
which are added to the asphalt binder, aggregate, or HMA mixture to help prevent stripping.

 Binder Content- Asphalt binder content affects HMA mixture performance in the areas of
stiffness, strength, durability, fatigue life, raveling, rutting and moisture damage. Therefore,
it is important in HMA quality assurance, pavement forensic investigations and HMA
research. The ignition test is the most common method used to determine HMA asphalt
binder content.

 Mixture Characterization Test- Mixture characterization tests are used to describe

fundamental mixture parameters such as density and asphalt binder content. The three
primary mixture characterization tests discussed here are: Bulk specific gravity Theoretical
maximum specific gravity Asphalt content/gradation Bulk Specific Gravity

 Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity- The theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gmm)
of a HMA mixture is the specific gravity excluding air voids. Thus, theoretically, if all the air
voids were eliminated from an HMA sample, the combined specific gravity of the remaining
aggregate and asphalt binder would be the theoretical maximum specific gravity.

 Bulk Specific Gravity- The bulk specific gravity test is used to determine the specific
gravity of a compacted HMA sample by determining the ratio of its weight to the weight of
an equal volume of water.

 Asphalt Mixture Performance Test-The asphalt mixture performance tester (AMPT) is the
companion performance test for use with the Superpave mix design procedure. Although the
original SHRP asphalt research program was essentially done by 1993, it did not include a
performance test for use with the rest of the Superpave mix design procedure.

 Flash Point- A typical flash point test involves heating a small sample of asphalt binder in a
test cup. The temperature of the sample is increased and at specified intervals a test flame is
passed across the cup. The flash point is the lowest liquid temperature at which application of
the test flame causes the vapors of the sample to ignite.

 HMA Peformance Test- Performance tests are used to relate laboratory mix design to actual
field performance. The Hveem (stabilometer) and Marshall (stability and flow) mix design
methods use only one or two basic performance tests. Superpave is intended to use a better
and more fundamental performance test.
Liquid Asphalt- It’s sticky (adhesive) and it’s elastic, able to stretch, bend and flex without
breaking (cohesive). Also known as asphalt cement. It has been used since roman times as a glue
and for water proofing.. Composed of asphalt cement carried in various solvents; therefore their
character and behavior in highway work are largely dependent upon the character and amount of
solvent present.

Types of Liquid Asphalt

1. Slow Curing Liquid Asphalts - SC oils are recovered from petroleum by distillation
which is operated to give the desired grade or they may be manufactured by combining
asphalt cement with additional oils to produce the different grades of material.
2. Rapid Curing Liquid Asphalts - RC cutback asphalts are manufactured by combining
80-120 penetration asphalt cement with a naphtha solvent. The naphtha is varied 278 in
amount to produce the different grades of RC material.
3. Medium Curing Liquid Asphalts - MC cutback asphalts are manufactured by
combining 120-300 penetration asphalt cement with a kerosene solvent. The kerosene is
varied in amount to produce the different grades of MC material.

Asphalt Pavement
known by many different names: asphalt pavement, asphaltic concrete, plant mix,
bituminous mix, bituminous concrete, hot-mix asphalt, warm-mix asphalt and many others. It is
a combination of two primary ingredients - aggregates and asphalt binder. The aggregates total
approximately 95 percent of the total mixture by weight. They are mixed with approximately 5
percent asphalt binder to produce asphalt pavement.
Asphalt pavement is transported by truck to the paving site where it is spread to a uniform
thickness with a mechanical paving or finishing machine. The material is then compacted to the
required degree by heavy, self-propelled rollers, producing a smooth pavement course.

Classification of Paving Materials

1. Pit or Bank-Run Aggregates Pit or Bank-Run Aggregates - Gravel and sand are pit or
bank-run natural aggregates. They are typically screened to proper size before being used
for asphalt paving purposes.
2. Processed Aggregates - When natural pit or bank-run aggregate has been crushed and
screened to make it suitable for asphalt pavements, it is considered a processed aggregate.
Crushing typically improves the particle shape by making rounded particles more angular
What is an Asphalt Binder?
- Is produced in a variety of types and grades ranging from hard-brittle solids to near water
thin liquids. The semi-solid form known as asphalt binder is the basic material used in
asphalt pavements. Liquid asphalt is produced when asphalt binder is blended or “cut
back” with petroleum distillates or emulsified with water and an emulsifying agent.

TIMBER
Wood is the hard, fibrous material that makes up the tree under the bark, whereas timber may be
defined as a wood which retains its natural physical structure and chemical composition and is
suitable for various engineering works.
STRUCTURES OF TIMBER

 MICROSTRUCTURE - Structures that are apparent only in great magnification.

 MACROSTRUCTURE - The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small
magnification. Macrostructure of timber can be studied by cutting the trunk in three
directions: cross, longitudinal and radial.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER

• NARROW ANNUAL RINGS
• COMPACT MEDULLARY RAYS
• DARK COLOR
• UNIFORM TEXTURE
• SWEET SMELL AND SHINING FRESH CUT SURFACE
• WHEN STRUCK, SONOROUS SOUND IS PRODUCED
• FREE FROM DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• HEAVY WEIGHT
• NO WOOLLINESS AT FRESH CUT SURFACE

SEASONING OF TIMBER- Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content

(drying) of timber in order to prevent the timber from possible fermentation and making it
suitable for use. It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood to a moisture content
approximately equal to the average humidity of the surroundings, where it is to be permanently
fixed.

DEFECTS OF TIMBER
• DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION
• DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING
• DEFECTS DUE TO ABNORMAL GROWTH
PLYWOOD
 A sheet material manufactured frm thin piles f wd that are glued together with wood
grain
 It consist of three or more layers of veneer
COMMON GRADES OF PLYWOOD
N - highest quality
A - free from all defects
B - few small knots or discolorations
C - has knots and defects filled in
D - some knots and defects are not filled, the least quality

BASIC TYPES OF PLYWOOD

 INTERIOR PLYWOOD - plywood in which the laminating glue is adversely affected by
moisture; hence, it should be restricted to indoor or interior applications.
APPLCATIONS: cabinets, indoor ceiling, shelves, furniture, wall sheeting

 EXTERIOR PLYWOOD - plywood whose layers of veneer are bonded with a waterproof
glue.
 APPLCATIONS: exterior door and ceiling, wall cladding

 MARINE PLYWOOD - a high-grade plywood especially adaptable t boat hull

construction. All inner piles must be B-grade or better.
APPLCATIONS: ship building, ship parts

 STRUCTURAL PLYWOOD - it contains veneers measured and tested for strength and
stiffness , normally pressed in uneven layers of veneers.
APPLCATIONS: concrete forms; columns, beams

Veneers
A thin sheet of woods used to produce flat panels such doors, tops and panels for cabinets,
parquet floors and parts of furniture.
The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 to 0.6mm but it won’t exceed 1mm.

Type Of Veneers
1) Raw Wood Veneers
  Due to the variety of exotic trees that exist, raw wood veneer is widely available
in several grain patterns.
 It is highly durable and resilient, especially since most of the tree species are of
hardwood variety.
2) Backed Veneers
 most expensive of wood veneer varieties available.
 They incorporate another material to add strength and flexibility to the veneer. 
 You can use backed veneers on both flat areas and curved surfaces.
3) Rotary-Cut Veneers
 They are produced from a log as it spins on a lathe.
 A log is placed on a wooden lathe that has a cutting implement attached to it.
 The cheapest variety of veneers
4) Shop Sawn Veneer
 This is produced manually by woodworkers who prefer to produce their own
wood veneers.
 They use a band saw to cut the veneer from raw timber.
 The disadvantage of shop-sawn veneers is that they are often thick.
5) Laminate Veneer
 Several fine layers of wood are pressed together to form one material. An
adhesive is used to compact the individual layers together.
 Laminate veneer is one of the more flexible types. It can be shaped and bent into
place accordingly. This makes it widely popular.

Laminate panel is a type of manufactured timber made from thin sheets of substrates or wood
veneer. It is similar to the more widely used plywood, except that it has a plastic, protective layer
on one or both sides. Laminate panels are used instead of plywood because of their resistance to
impact, weather, moisture, shattering in cold (ductility), and chemicals.
Laminate panel layers (called veneers) are glued together with adjacent plies having their grain at
right angles to each other for greater strength. The plastic layer(s) added for protection vary in
composition, thickness, color and texture according to the application.

WHAT IS LAMINATE?
The laminate is most commonly used as an overlay over wooden furniture. If you are going into
carpentry’s shop, you can often find carpenters fixing laminate sheets on to a plywoodbase, using
adhesive like Fevicol.
Standard laminates are used in normal applications like furniture, cabinetry, table tops, etc.
Decorative laminates are used as walling and flooring. Fire resistant laminates are used in
kitchens and cinema halls.

Preservation of Timber

 Preservatives Types:
 Type 1 (Oil Type) – coal tar creosote with or without admixture of petroleum, coal
tar, fuel oil or other suitable oils having high boiling range.
 Type 2 (Organic solvent type) – consist of toxic chemical compounds dissolved in
a non- aqueous solvent like volatile oils, spirits, naphtha etc.
 Type 3 (Water-soluble [leachable] ) – these preservatives are inorganic salts
soluble in water.
 Type 4 (Water-soluble [Fixed] ) – These consists of the various salt described
above with the addition of fixative salt, usually sodium or potassium dichromate.

 Wood-Based Product
 Veneers -thin sheet of wood, 0.4 mm to 0.6 mm in thickness obtained by different
knife cutting process.
 Plywood – is made by gluing together veneers.
 Hardboard -manufactured from raw materials like woodwaste, veneer
manufacturing, furniture making.
 Particle boards - is a board manufactured from particles of wood or other lingo
cellulose materials.
 Block board - these are boards having a coremade up strips of wood each not
exceeding 25mm.
 Batten board - it is a board having a core made up of strips of wood usually 8 cm
wide each laid separately or glued or otherwise joined to form a slab.
 Lamin Board - it is a board having core strips, each not exceeding 7 mm in
thickness,

 TESTING of Timber
 Drilling Resistance Measurement: IML-RESI Systems
 Accurate identification of defects and measurement of the thickness of the
residual wall
 Sound Speed Measurement: IML Micro Hammer
 Easy and fast verification of defects yet in early stages of damage
 Bending & Compression Strength Measurement: Fractometer
 Evaluation of stability and strength of wood using a wooden core extracted
with the increment borer
 Analysis of Annual Rings: IML-Measuring Table
 Analysis of wooden cores of trees and information about the structure of the
annual rings, growth and wood decay

MANUFACTURING METHOD OF STEEL

Process involved in manufacturing
• Carbonization of COKE
• Blast furnace
• Basic Oxygen Steel making [BOS]
• Electric arc method

Blast Furnace
• The blast furnace is a huge, steel stack lined with refractory brick.
• The purpose of a blast furnace is to reduce and convert iron oxides into liquid iron called
"hot metal"

Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of iron from its ore. The combined
mixture is called the charge:
• Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3.
• Limestone (calcium carbonate).
• Coke - mainly carbon The charge is placed a giant chimney called a Blast furnace. The
blast furnace is around 30 metres high and lined with fireproof bricks. Hot air is blasted
through the bottom.

Basic Oxygen Steelmaking

 70% iron and 30% recycled steel are mixed with other alloys in the 300-tonne basic
oxygen steelmaking furnace to create the metallurgical qualities which suit the customers'
end use requirements

Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Steelmaking

 The Electric Arc Furnace uses from 70 to 100% recycled steel as its raw material (as
contrasted to the Basic oxygen stream which uses primarily iron ore, coal, and
limestone).

II. PROPERTIES OF STEEL

The properties that need to be considered by designers when specifying steel construction
products are:
Strength
 Grades of stainless steel are designated by a numerical 'steel number' (such as 1.4401 for
a typical austenitic steel) rather than the 'S' designation system for carbon steels. 
 The strengths of commonly used structural stainless steels range from 170 to
450 N/mm². 
Toughness
 If the steel is insufficiently tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic
deformation and result in a 'brittle fracture'.
Ductility
 Is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the onset of
yield and eventual fracture under tensile loading.
Weldability
 The greater the thickness of material, the greater the reduction of toughness.
Durability
 Steel provides superior protection from physical damage by forklifts or other plant
equipment.
 Unlike other types of metal conduit, galvanized steel conduit can be used in concrete,
direct burial and areas with severe corrosive influences.
Weathering steel - a high strength low alloy steel that resists corrosion by forming an adherent
protective rust 'patina', that inhibits further corrosion. No protective coating is needed.
Stainless steel - a highly corrosion-resistant material that can be used structurally, particularly
where a high-quality surface finish is required.
Other properties
 Modulus of elasticity, E = 210,000 N/mm²
 Shear modulus, G = E/[2(1 + ν)] N/mm², often taken as 81,000 N/mm²
 Poisson's ratio, ν = 0.3
 Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 12 x 10-6/°C (in the ambient temperature range).

WROUGHT IRON, CAST IRON AND STEEL

Wrought Iron
 is a soft, ductile, fibrous variety that is produced from a semi fused mass of relatively
pure iron globules partially surrounded by slag
Cast Iron
 an alloy of iron that contains 2 to 4 percent carbon, along with varying amounts
of silicon and manganese and traces of impurities such as sulfur and phosphorus. 
Steel
 is a mixture of several metals (this is called an alloy) but most of it is iron.
 is harder and stronger than iron. Steels are often iron alloys with between 0.02% and
1.7% percent carbon by weight.
 is different from wrought iron, that has little or no carbon.
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steel can be broadly categorized
into four groups based on their chemical compositions:
 Carbon Steels.
 Alloy Steels.
 Stainless Steels.
 Tool Steels.
Carbon steels - contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel
production.
Alloy steels -  contain alloying elements (e.g.
manganese,silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium, and aluminum) in varying proportions in
order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength,
formability, weldability or ductility.
Stainless steels - generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and
are valued for high corrosion resistance.
Tool steels - contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.

FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METAL

Non-Ferrous Metals - is a metal, including alloys, that does not contain iron (ferrite) in
appreciable amounts. They are therefore nonmagnetic and don't rust like ferrous metals do.

EFFECTS OF CARBON CONTENT

What will happen if you add carbon to iron?
- Adding carbon to iron to make steel does make it stronger and tougher, up to a point.
Then it will get stronger but less tough (i.e. like cast iron). Carbon strengthens iron by
distorting its crystal lattice. This distortion is similar in effect to work hardening. It is
unfortunately a very complex effect and depends on how the steel is heat treated and
exactly what percentage of carbon is added (<4% by weight normally). It is not true of all
metals

What is corrosion?
• Electrochemical reaction involving an anode and a cathode.
• Deterioration of a material because of reaction with the environment.
• Combines many elements of engineering and impacts ALL engineering disciplines:
Chemical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Material Engineering, Electrical
Engineering and Civil Engineering

Metal Corrosion
• the destruction of a material by chemical or electrochemical reaction to its environment”
• typically a transfer of electrons from one metal to another through an Oxidation-
Reduction Reaction.

Acceleration of Corrosion
• Physical Characteristics
 exposed area (less, increases corrosion rate)
 time of exposure (more time, more corrosion)
• Environmental Characteristics
 acidic environment
 sulfur gas environment
 temperature (high temps, more corrosion)
 moisture (oxygenated moisture)
Forms of Corrosion

Uniform corrosion of a single metal

 usually an electrochemical reaction at granular level
 relatively slow and predictable
  rusting of exposed steel, tarnished silver
 easily corrected with coatings and regular maintenance
Galvanic Corrosion
 2 dissimilar metals, electrolyte, electrical connection and oxygen
Pitting Corrosion
 Localized corrosion forming holes or indentations
 Difficult to initially detect

Crevice Corrosion
 narrow crevice filled with ionized solution
 Oxygen-rich on the outside, oxygen-poor on the inside
 metals oxidize with salt anions FeCl2 and pH rises in cathodic zone
 H+ may destroy passivity
Intergranular Corrosion
 corrosion along grain boundaries at microscopic level
 stainless steels and heat treated high-strength steels
 carbides precipitate along grain boundaries leaving these areas with no alloyed
Chromium
 Welds can have this same depletion effect
Cavitation and Erosion in Pipe
 particulate matter
 turbulent flow
 abrades away the corrosion product
 abrasion of zinc coatings
Stress Corrosion Cracking
 tensile stress and corrosive environments
 cracks are initiated at corrosion areas
 tensile stresses propagate the crack
 corrosion further deteriorate crack

ALLUMINUM
Aluminum- is a chemical element with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white,
soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. It is the second most malleable metal and
the sixth most ductile. It is the second most widely specified metal in buildings after steel, and is
used in all construction sectors, from commercial buildings to domestic dwellings.
PROPERTIES
• Durability: Aluminum building products are made from alloys, which are weather-
proof, corrosion-resistant and immune to the harmful effects of UV rays, ensuring
optimal performance over a very long serviceable lifetime.
• Design Flexibility: The extrusion process offers an almost infinite range of forms and
sections, allowing designers to integrate numerous functions into one profile.
• Hundreds Of Surface Finishes: Aluminum can be anodized or painted in any colour, to
any optical effect, using any number of surface touches, in order to meet a designer’s
decorative needs.
• High reflectivity: This characteristic feature makes aluminum a very efficient material
for light management.
• Fire Safety: Aluminum does not burn and is therefore classed as a non-combustible
construction material.
• Optimal Security: Where high security is required, specially designed, strengthened
aluminum frames can be used.