Seeley’s
Metabolism
ESSENTIALS OF Anatomy & 2. Control of food intake and digestion
Physiology Tenth Edition
Chapter 10
Endocrine System Lecture Outline
Endocrine System Glands
Figure 10.1
Cell Secretion Types 1
Autocrine:
• released by cells and a have local
effect on same cell type
• Example - eicosanoids
Paracrine:
 released by cells that affect other
cell types in
close proximity
 Example - somatostatin
Cell Secretion Types 2
Neurotransmitter and
neuromodulators:
• secreted by nerve cells
• Example - nervous system
function
Hormones and neurohormones:
• secreted into blood and bind to
receptor sites
• Example - epinephrine and
insulin
6 Endocrine System Functions 1
1.
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
7 Endocrine System Functions 2
6. Heart rate and blood pressure
regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients
8. Control of Reproductive functions
9. Uterinecontractionandmilkrelease
10.Immune System regulation
8 Characteristics 1
The endocrine system is composed of
endocrine glands and specialized
endocrine cells located throughout the
body. Endocrine glands and cells
secrete minute amounts of chemical
messengers called hormones into the
bloodstream, rather than into a duct.
Hormones then travel through the
general blood circulation to target
tissues or effectors.
9 Characteristics 2
The target tissues have receptors for a
specific hormone.
Hormones produce a particular
response in the target tissues.
10 Types of Hormones
Water-soluble hormones:
• includes proteins, peptides, amino
acids
• most common 16 Inhibition of Hormone
• Examples - growth hormone, Release 1
antidiuretic, prolactin
Humoral inhibition of hormone release
Lipid-soluble hormones: generally involves the actions of
• includes steroids and eicosanoids companion hormones.
Usually each of the companion
• Examples - LH, FSH, androgens hormones performs an opposite
function.
11 Control of Hormone Release
1 For example, to raise blood pressure,
Blood-borne chemicals can directly the adrenal cortex secretes the hormone
stimulate the release of some aldosterone in response to low blood
hormones. pressure, but to lower it the heart atria
These chemicals are referred to as secrete atrial natriuretic peptide.
humoral stimuli because they circulate They work together to maintain
in the blood, homeostasis of blood pressure.
Humoral refers to body fluids,
including blood. 17 Inhibition of Hormone
Hormone release can also be under Release 2
neural control. Neurons inhibit targets just as often as
Following action potentials, neurons they stimulate targets.
release a neurotransmitter into the
synapse with the cells that produce the If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the
hormone. target endocrine gland doesnot
secreteitshormone.
12 Control of Hormone Release 2
In control of hormone release by other
Hormone release can also be controlled hormones, some hormones are
by other hormones. inhibitory hormones, that reduce the
It occurs when a hormone is secreted release of the hormone being
that, in turn, stimulates the controlled.
secretion of other hormones. 2 For example, thyroid hormones can
control their own blood levels by
The same three types of stimuli inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
(humoral, neural, and hormonal) can
hormone.
stimulate or inhibit hormone release.
18 Regulation of Blood
13 Humoral Regulation Figure
Hormone Levels
10.2
Two major mechanisms maintain
14 Neural Regulation Figure 10.3 hormone levels in the blood within a
homeostatic range: negative feedback
15 Hormonal Regulation Figure and positive feedback
10.4 Most hormones are regulated by a
negative-feedback mechanism,
whereby the hormone’s secretion is
inhibited by the hormone itself once
blood levels have reached a certain
point.
Some hormones are regulation by
positive feedback, as exemplified by
tropic hormone action.
19 Negative and Positive
Feedback
Figure 10.5
18 Regulation of Blood Hormone
Levels
Two major mechanisms maintain
hormone levels in the blood
within a homeostatic range: negative
feedback and positive feedback
Most hormones are regulated by a
negative-feedback mechanism,
whereby the hormone’s secretion is
inhibited by the hormone itself once
blood levels have reached a certain
point.
Some hormones are regulation by
positive feedback, as exemplified by
tropic hormone action.
19 Negative and Positive
Feedback Figure 10.5
20 Hormone Receptors 1
A hormone can stimulate only the cells
that have the receptor for that hormone.
The portion of each receptor molecule
where a hormone binds is called a
receptor site.
The receptor site has specificity,
allowing only one hormone to bind to
it.
Some hormones, such as epinephrine,
can bind to a “family” of receptors that
are structurally similar.
This specificity is due to molecular
shape and chemical characteristic.
21 Hormone Receptors 2
Lipid-soluble and water-soluble
hormones bind to their own classes of
receptors.
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear
receptors due to their lipid solubility
and small molecular size allowing to
easily pass through the cell membrane.
Water-soluble hormones bind to
membrane-bound receptors. Water-
soluble hormones are polar molecules
and cannot pass through the cell
membrane.
22 Lipid-Soluble Hormone
Receptors
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear
receptors due to their lipid solubility
and small molecular size, allowing to
easily pass through the cell membrane
and nuclear membrane.
Nuclear receptors can also be located in
the cytoplasm, but then move to the
nucleus when activated.
When hormones bind to nuclear
receptors, the hormone-receptor
complex interacts with nuclear DNA to
regulate specific gene transcription.
23 Water-Soluble Receptors
Water-soluble hormones, such as
protein and peptide types, cannot pass
through the cell membrane.
Interactions are with membrane-bound
receptors, that are proteins that extend
across the cell membrane, with their
hormone-binding sites exposed on the
cell membrane’s outer surface.
When the hormone binds to the
receptor, it turns on intracellular
enzymes that ultimately cause the
response dictated by the hormone-
receptor interaction.
24 Target Tissue Specificity
and Response Figure 10.6
25 Nuclear and Membrane-
Bound Receptors Figure 10.7
26 Action of Nuclear Receptors
Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate
protein synthesis.
Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across
the cell membrane and bind to their
receptors, with the complex now
binding to hormone- response elements
on DNA.
This action regulates the transcription
of specific messenger ribonucleic acid
(mRNA) molecules and protein
synthesis occurs.
27 Nuclear Receptor Model Figure
10.8
28 Membrane Receptor Actions
1 Depending on the other enzyme,
Membrane receptors act in two ways,
either altering the activity of G proteins
on the inner surface of the cell
membrane or directly altering the
activity of intracellular enzymes.
Activation of G proteins, or
intracellular enzymes, elicits specific
responses in cells, including the
production of molecules called, second
messengers.
29 Membrane Receptor Actions
2
A second messenger molecule is
produced inside a cell once a ligand
binds to its membrane-bound receptor.
A second messenger, such as cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (cAMP),
thenactivatesspecificcellularprocessesin
sidethecell in response to the hormone.
30 G-Protein Activation 1
Many membrane-bound receptors
produce responses through the action of
G proteins, which consist of 3 subunits.
The G proteins are so named because
one of the subunits binds to guanine
nucleotides.
G-proteins, after several sequential
actions, interact with adenylate cyclase,
an enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP
(cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate binds
to protein kinases and activates them.
31 G-Protein Activation 2
Protein kinases are enzymes that, in
turn, regulate the activity of other
enzymes.
protein kinases can increase or decrease
its activity.
Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular
enzyme, breaks down cAMP and thus
results in no further cell stimulation.
32 G-Protein Activation 3 Figure
10.9
33 Cyclic AMP Synthesis Figure
10.10
34 Signal Amplification 1 Small gland in brain
Hormones that stimulate the synthesis Controlled by hypothalamus
of second messengers act quickly and Divided into 2 regions: anterior and
have an amplification effect. posterior

Each receptor produces thousands of Secretes at least 6 hormones

second messengers, leading to a
cascade effect and ultimately 38 Pituitary Gland 2 Figure 10.12
amplification of the hormonal signal.
39 Anterior Pituitary Gland
35 Signal Amplification 2 Actions

With amplification, a single hormone The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes

activates many second messengers,
each of which activates enzymes that
produce an enormous amount of final
product.
The efficiency of this second-
messenger amplification is virtually
unparalleled in the body.
36 Cascade Effect Figure 10.11
37 Pituitary Gland 1
hormones, that is under the control of
the hypothalamus.
Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete
releasing hormones that stimulate the
production and secretion of a specific
hormone. Inhibiting hormones decrease
the secretion of a specific anterior
pituitary hormone
40 Hypothalamus and Anterior
Pituitary Figure 10.13

Small gland in brain 41 Anterior Pituitary Hormones

1
Controlled by hypothalamus
Divided into 2 regions: anterior and Growth Hormone:
posterior Secretes at least 6 hormones
 Target tissues: most
38 Pituitary Gland 2 Figure 10.12  Functions: stimulates growth of
bones,
39 Anterior Pituitary Gland
Actions muscles, and organs
The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes  Abnormalities:
hormones, that is under the control of
the hypothalamus. Too much GH causes giantism
Too little GH causes pituitary
36
dwarfism
Figure 10.11
42 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
37 Pituitary Gland 1 2

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

  Target tissues: thyroid gland Prolactin:
 Functions: regulates thyroid
gland secretions •Targettissues: mammary glands and
 Abnormalities: ovaries

Too much TSH, thyroid gland • Functions: milk production

enlarges
47 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Too little TSH, thyroid gland 6
shrinks
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
43 Regulation of Thyroid (MSH):
Hormone Secretion Figure 10.16
•Targettissues: melanocytesintheskin
44 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
3 • Functions: stimulate melanin
production in melanocytes
Gonadotropin Hormone LH
LH (Luteinizing) for females: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
(ACTH):
 Target tissue: ovaries
• Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex
 Function: promotes ovulation
• Functions: stimulate production of
and progesterone production
certain corticosteroids
LH for males:
• Target tissue: testes 48 Posterior Pituitary Actions
• Function: sperm production The posterior pituitary gland
and testosterone synthesizes and releases hormones
produced by neuroendocrine cells in
45 Anterior Pituitary Hormones 4 the hypothalamus.

Gonadotropin Hormone FSH The two hormones released from the

posterior pituitary are antidiuretic
Follicle-Stimulating for females: hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.
•Targettissue: folliclesinovaries
•Function: 49 Posterior Gland Hormones 1
folliclematurationandestrogensecretion
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
FSH for males:
• Target tissue: seminiferous tubules • Target tissues: kidneys
(testes) • Functions: conserve water
• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
• Function: sperm production
• low ADH
46 Anterior Pituitary Hormones • kidneys to produce large amounts of
5 dilute
• (watery) urine Hypothyroidism:
• can lead to dehydration and thirst • Decreased metabolism
• Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue
50 Posterior Gland Hormones 2
• Low temp. and pulse
Oxytocin: • Dry, cold skin
• Myxedema in adults
• Target tissues: uterus • Cretinism in infants
• Functions: increases uterine
contractions during labor Hyperthyroidism:
• Increased metabolism
51 Hypothalamus and Posterior • Weight loss, increased appetite,
Pituitary Figure 10.14 nervousness

Figure 10.17 • Higher temp. and pulse

• Warm, flushed skin
• Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)

Hypothalamus and Posterior 54 Parathyroid Gland

Pituitary
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
Figure 10.14 • Target tissues: bones and kidneys
• Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels
Thyroid Gland (more than calcitonin)
One of largest glands If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break
Requires iodine to function down bone matrix and less Ca 2+ is lost
Secretes thyroid hormone and in urine.
calcitonin
If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t
Thyroid hormones secreted by
break down bone matrix and more Ca
follicular cells: 2+ is lost in urine.

• Target tissues: most

Regulation of Blood Calcium
•Functions: regulates Levels
metabolicratesandisneededforgrowth
Figure 10.17
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular
Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid
cells:
Glands
• Target tissues: bone and some other
Figure 10.15 (d)©VictorEroschenko
tissues
• Function: reduces blood calcium level
Adrenal Gland Actions
when high
Theadrenalglandsare
Thyroid Hormone Disorders
twosmallglandslocatedsuperiortoeach
kidney Adrenal Gland Hormones 3
Each adrenal gland has an inner part,
called the adrenal medulla, and an outer Cortisol:
part, called the adrenal cortex. • Type of glucocorticoids

The adrenal medulla and the adrenal • Target tissues: most

cortex function as separate endocrine
glands. • Functions: increases breakdown of fat
and
Adrenal Glands • protein for energy uses reduces
inflammatory and immune
Figure 10.18 (c)©VictorEroschenko
Regulation of Aldosterone
Adrenal Gland Hormones 1 Secretion

Adrenal medulla hormones: Figure 10.20

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
Adrenal Gland Hormones 3
•Targettissues:
heart,bloodvessels,liver,fatcells Cortisol:

•Functions: released as part of fight or  Type of glucocorticoids

flight response  Target tissues: most
 Functions: increases breakdown
Regulation of Adrenal Medullary of fat and
Secretions  protein for energy uses reduces
inflammatory and immune
Figure 10.19 responses
Adrenal Gland Hormones 2 Regulation of Cortisol
Secretion
Adrenal cortex hormone:
Figure 10.21
• Aldosterone:
Adrenal Gland Hormones 4
• Type of mineralocorticoids
•Targettissues: kidneys Androgens:
+
• Functions: causes Na and H2O to be • Target tissues: most
retained and K+ to be secreted,
indirectly involved with blood pressure • Functions:
and blood volume
• Males: secondary sexual
Regulation of Aldosterone characteristics
Secretion
• Females: sex drive
Figure 10.20
Pancreas Actions 1
The pancreas is a mixed gland,
with an exocrine portion and an
endocrine portion.
The exocrine portion of the
pancreas secretes digestive
enzymes. The endocrine part of
the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans), which are
dispersed throughout the
exocrine portion of the pancreas.
Pancreas Actions 2
The islets consist of three cell
types, each of which secretes a
separate hormone.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon,
beta cells secrete insulin, and
delta cells secrete somatostatin.
These three hormones regulate
the blood levels of nutrients,
especially glucose
Pancreas Structure
Figure 10.22
©BiophotoAssociates/ScienceSo
urce
Pancreas Hormones 1
Insulin:
•Targettissues:
liver,skeletalmuscle,adiposetissu
e Testosterone:
• Functions:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• after a meal glucose levels are
high and insulin is secreted
• extra glucose is stored in form
of glycogen
70 Insulin Abnormalities
Diabetes mellitus:
 Causes: too little insulin or
faulty insulin receptors
 Symptoms: exaggerated
appetite,excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue
 Type I: insulin dependent (daily
injections required)
 TypeII:
insulinindependent,oftenfoundin
obesepeople,can be treated with
diet but can turn into type I
71 Pancreas Hormones 2
Glucagon:
• Target tissues: liver
• Function:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• between meals glucose levels drop
and glucagon is secreted
• glucagon allows glycogen to be
broken down into glucose
72 Regulation of Blood
Glucose Levels Figure 10.23
73 Testes Hormone
 Target tissues: most
 Functions: aids in sperm and
reproductive
organ development and function
74 Ovarian Hormones
Estrogen/Progesterone:
• Target tissues: most 76 Pineal Gland Hormone

•Functions: Melatonin:
involvedinuterineandmammarygland
development and menstrual cycle Target tissues: hypothalamus
Functions: plays a role in onset of
75 Thymus Gland Hormone puberty and

Thymosin: controls circadian rhythms. Light

• Target tissues: immune system tissues
•Functions:
promotesimmunesystemdevelopmentan
dfunction
affects its function.
•Functions:
involvedinuterineandmammarygland
development and menstrual cycle