Ph.

D Program

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Research Process

Dr.William@ Sui Reng

Liana 1
The Research Process
 Theory

What is Theory?

“A formal, logical explanation of some events that includes

predictions of how things relate to one another.”
(Zikmund, 2010, p39)
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework
• After conducting the interviews, completing a
literature survey, and defining the problem, one
is ready to develop a theoretical framework.
• A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of
how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the
relationships among the several factors that have
been identified as important to the problem.
• This theory flows logically from the
documentation of previous research in the
problem area.
 Theoretical Framework

• A theoretical framework represents your

beliefs on how certain phenomena (or
variables or concepts) are related to each other
(a model) and an explanation on why you
believe that these variables are associated to
each other (a theory).
 Theoretical framework

• Basic steps:
• Identify and label the variables correctly
• State the relationships among the variables:
formulate hypotheses
• Explain how or why you expect these
relationships
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework
• The theoretical framework discusses the
interrelationships among the variables that are deemed
to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being
investigated.
• From the theoretical framework, then, testable
hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the
theory formulated is valid or not.
• The hypothesized relationships can thereafter be tested
through appropriate statistic analyses.
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework
⚫ The theoretical framework offers the conceptual
foundation to proceed with research.
⚫ A theoretical framework is none other then identifying
the network of relationships among the variables
considered important to the study of any given problem
situation,
⚫ It is essential to understand what a variable means and
what the different types of variables are.
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework
❖ There are five basic features that should be incorporated
in any theoretical frame work.

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be

clearly identified and labeled in the discussions.
2. The discussions should state how two or more variables
are related to one another. This should be done for the
important relationships that are theorized to exist
among the variables
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework

3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be

theorized on the basis of the findings of previous research,
then there should be an indication in the discussions as to
whether the relationships would be positive or negative.
 The Need For A Theoretical
Framework
4. There should be a clear explanation of why would
expect these relationships to exist. The arguments
could be drawn from the previous research findings.

5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework

should be given so that the reader can see and easily
comprehend the theorized relationships.
 Hypothesis and Theory

o A prediction about the relationship between two or

more variables.
o Prediction is about what researcher expects to find
in his/her research.
o Hypotheses are more specific than theories.
o A theory could have many different hypotheses.
o If the hypotheses offered by the theory are
confirmed, the theory is supported.
o If the hypotheses offered by the theory are
rejected, the
theory is not supported and should be re-evaluated
 Definition of Hypothesis

⚫ A hypotheses can be defined as a logically

conjectured relationship between two or more
variables expressed in the form of the testable
statement.
⚫ Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the
network of the associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the
research study.
⚫ By testing the hypotheses and confirming the
conjecturable relationship, it is expected the
solution can be found to correct the problem
 Hypothesis
• A proposition that is empirically testable. It is
an empirical statement concerned with the
relationship among variables.

• Good hypothesis:
– Must be adequate for its purpose
– Must be testable

• Can be:
– Directional
– Non-directional
 Hypothesis

Example
⚫ Several testable statements or hypotheses can
be drawn from the theoretical framework
formulated
⚫ If the pilots are given adequate training to
handle midair crowded situations, air-safety
violations will be reduced.
 Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis =H0

• Eg. H0 :There is no link between smoking and cancer.
• Null Hypothesis can never be proven. It can either be rejected or fail to
reject.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

• A hypothesis to be adopted if the Null hypothesis implied to be highly
implausible. ie. The hypothesis to be accepted if the Null hypothesis is
rejected.
• eg. H1 : There is significant link between smoking and cancer.
“Most confusing phrase in research: Fail to reject Null Hypothesis”
 Variable

⚫ A variable is anything that can take on differing or

varying values.
⚫ The values can differ at various times for the same
object or person, or at the same time for different
objects or persons.
 Variable
Example 1
•  Production units:
– one worker in the manufacturing department may
produce one widget per minute, a second might produce
two per minute, a third might produce five per minute.
– It is also possible that the same member could produce
one widget the first minute, and five the next minute.
– In both cases, the number of widgets produced has taken
on different values, and is therefore a variable.
 Variable
Example 2
⚫  Absenteeism:
◦ Today three members in the sales department may be
absent, tomorrow six members may not show up for
work; the day after, there may be no one absent.
◦ The value can thus theoretically range from “zero” to “all”
being absent, on the absenteeism variable.
 Variable
Example 3
•  Motivation:

– The levels of motivation of members to learn in the class

or in a work team might take on varying values ranging
from “very low” to “very high”.

– An individual’s motivation to learn from different

classes or in different work teams might also take on
differing values.
 Variable

• Motivation
• How one measures the level of motivation is an entirely different
matter.
• The factor called motivation has to be reduced from its level of
abstraction and operationalized in a way that it becomes
measurable.
 Variable

Four Main types of variables:

Dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable)
Independent variable (also known as the predictor
variable)
Moderating variable
Mediating variable
 Variable

• Independent Variable: The presumed “cause” in the

theoretical model.

• Dependent Variable: The presumed “effect” in the

theoretical model.

• Moderating Variable: Suspected or known to impact or

influence the Dependent Variable.
 Dependent Variable

⚫ The dependent variable is the variable of primary

interest to the researcher.
⚫ The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the
dependent variable that lends itself for investigation as a
viable factor.
⚫ Through the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e.,
finding what variables influence it), it is possible to find
answers or solutions to the problem.
 Dependent Variable
Example 1

• A manager is concerned that the sales of a new product

introduced after test marketing it does not meet with his
expectations.
• The dependent variable here is sales.
• Since the sales of the product can vary – can be low,
medium, or high – it is a variable; since sales is the main
focus of interest to the manager, it is the dependent
variable.
 Dependent Variable
Example 2

• A vice president is concerned that the employees are not

loyal to the organization, and in fact, seem to switch their
loyalty to other institutions.

• The dependent variable in this case would be

organizational loyalty.
 Independent Variable
⚫ An independent variable is one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.

⚫ When the independent variable is present, the

dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of
increase in the independent variable, there is an increase
or decrease in the dependent variable also.

⚫ The variance in the DV is accounted for by the IV.

 Independent Variable
Example 1
• Cross-cultural research indicates that managerial values
govern the power distance between superiors and
subordinates.
• Here, power distance (i.e., egalitarian interactions
between the boss and the employee, versus the
high-power superior in limited interaction with
low-power subordinate) is the subject of interest and
hence the dependent variable.
• Managerial values that explain the variance in power
distance is the independent variable. This relationship is
 Independent Variable
Figure 1
⚫ Diagram of the relationship between the independent
variable (managerial values) and the dependent variable
(power distance)
 Moderating Variable
Example of Theoretical Model
Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Perceived
Adoption
Usefulness
of IT
Tools

Perceived
Ease of Use

Culture

Moderating Variables