crystals

Review
A Review of Acoustic Metamaterials and
Phononic Crystals
Junyi Liu 1 , Hanbei Guo 2 and Ting Wang 3,4,5, *
1 College of Engineering, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China;
LIUJUNYI@webmail.hzau.edu.cn
2 Wuhan Second Ship Design and Research Institute, Wuhan 430064, China; ghb901127@foxmail.com
3 School of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan 430074, China
4 Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Ship and Deep-Sea Exploration (CISSE),
Shanghai 200240, China
5 Hubei Key Laboratory of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering Hydrodynamic (HUST),
Wuhan 430074, China
* Correspondence: wang_ting@hust.edu.com




Received: 20 March 2020; Accepted: 10 April 2020; Published: 15 April 2020


Abstract: As a new kind of artificial material developed in recent decades, metamaterials exhibit
novel performance and the promising application potentials in the field of practical engineering
compared with the natural materials. Acoustic metamaterials and phononic crystals have some
extraordinary physical properties, effective negative parameters, band gaps, negative refraction, etc.,
extending the acoustic properties of existing materials. The special physical properties have attracted
the attention of researchers, and great progress has been made in engineering applications. This article
summarizes the research on acoustic metamaterials and phononic crystals in recent decades, briefly
introduces some representative studies, including equivalent acoustic parameters and extraordinary
characteristics of metamaterials, explains acoustic metamaterial design methods, and summarizes the
technical bottlenecks and application prospects.

Keywords: acoustic metamaterial; phononic crystal; effective negative parameters; band gaps; research
overview

1. Research Background
Noise is one of the four major public hazards in the world which seriously affect people’s daily life
and work. Noise is caused by the random vibration of objects, mainly mechanical vibrations. Mechanical
vibration itself is also harmful to mechanical structures and engineering equipment, and even more
serious for precision machine tools and instruments. Mechanical vibrations not only cause fatigue and
wear of mechanical equipment and affects its performance, but also greatly shorten the service life
of the equipment. At the same time, noise generated by mechanical equipment will reduce people’s
quality of life, threatening their well-being. The most direct harm to the human body caused by noise is
damage to hearing, and damage to the central nervous system of a person. Low frequency vibrations
and noise are able to travel further, so if captured by the enemy sonar, they can expose and endanger
underwater vehicles. Therefore, in order to improve people’s living environment and survival capability,
it is necessary to develop vibration suppression and noise reduction techniques [1].
There are three main ways to control vibration and noise [2]. The first is to control the source,
design and manufacture products with small noise, low vibration or silent; the second is to control
the propagation path, mainly via isolation, absorption and attenuation, etc.; the third is to protect the
receiver. As people’s requirements for product functions become higher and higher, product structures

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become more and more complex, and it has become increasingly difficult to reduce noise from the
source. Moreover, the receivers are often changing their locations, so techniques to protect the receiver
are not reasonable. Therefore, it is a more sensible choice to try to reduce vibration and noise in the
propagation path. The ways to control noise are divided into active controls and passive controls. Here
we mainly discuss passive control methods. In passive control, various vibration suppression and
sound insulation materials have been developed rapidly in recent years, and people have also designed
various vibration isolators and sound absorbers. There are some limitations in traditional vibration
reduction techniques [3], such as vibration insulation, dynamic vibration absorption and damping
vibration absorption. The equipment must be larger for vibration insulation technology. What’s more,
it shows a narrow frequency band and is greatly affected by the environment. For dynamic vibration
absorption, the disadvantages are that it focuses on a large mass and has a narrow frequency band
too. However, the damping vibration absorption only has an impact on the intermediate and the high
frequencies. In the low frequencies, the effect is poor. Traditional sound insulation materials generally
use rigid plates, in order to isolate low-frequency sound waves of hundreds of Hertz [4]. A concrete
partition with a thickness of 1 m needs to be designed. Traditional sound-absorbing materials are
mostly porous structures, such as organic fiber materials, rock wool, mineral wool, etc. These materials
mainly rely on small holes from the surface to the inside to attenuate sound waves [5]. According to the
frequency range, sound waves can be divided into the following types: low frequency, intermediate
frequency and high frequency. Noise in the low-frequency range has strong penetrating power and
dissipates slowly during propagation, making it difficult to control the sound waves; low-frequency
sound waves can also resonate with certain important organs of the human body, affecting health.
Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the research on low frequency noise and vibration control.
No matter whether the above-mentioned vibration-isolating materials or sound-absorbing materials
are considered, they basically absorb medium and high frequency sound waves, and the effect on
isolating low-frequency noise is not significant. In recent decades, research on artificial composite
materials has become the focus of many scholars, and acoustic metamaterials and phononic crystals
have been discussed in this context.

2. Basic Concept of Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals

2.1. Proposals for Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals

“Metamaterials” refer to a class of materials that are artificially synthesized and have properties
different from those of conventional materials without violating objective physical laws. The concept of
metamaterials first came from electromagnetics. In 1968, Veselago [6], a theoretical physicist in the former
Soviet Union, discovered that the dielectric properties and the permeability of electromagnetic materials
are both negative, which is different from conventional materials with positive material parameters,
and thus theoretically proposed electromagnetic metamaterials. This kind of optical material with
negative dielectric constant and magnetic permeability has a negative refractive index. The incident
and outgoing streams are on the same side of the normal line instead of the opposite side. The wave
vector K, the electric field intensity E, and the magnetic field intensity H constitute a left-handed
relationship. This material is called a left-handed material, also known as a double negative material.
An analog optical metamaterial is designed using a structure much smaller than the sub-wavelength size
to obtain an acoustic metamaterial [7]. The effective parameters of the acoustic metamaterial become
negative within specific frequency ranges, called band gaps (see Figures 1 and 2). For natural materials,
the material parameters such as the mass density, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, are positive in natural
circumstances, while with artificial construction, the effective material parameters may turn negative
within specific frequency ranges. When mechanical waves propagate in this type of structure, due to
the modulation of the structure, the propagation of mechanical waves is hindered, thereby achieving a
sound absorption and vibration isolation effect [8].
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(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 1. A unit cell of a typical acoustic metamaterial plate: (a) front view; (b) perspective view [7].
Figure 1. AFigure 1. A unit
unit cell of acell of a typical
typical acoustic
acoustic metamaterial plate: (a) frontfront
view; (b) perspective view [7].
(a) metamaterial plate: (a) (b) view; (b) perspective view [7].

Figure 1. A unit cell of a typical acoustic metamaterial plate: (a) front view; (b) perspective view [7].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Dispersion(a) (b) (a) dispersion surfaces; (b)
surfaces and band gap of the above metamaterial:
Figure 2. Dispersion
Figure 2. Dispersion
stopband surfaces
(gray surfaces
and
rectangle) and band
[7]. band gapgap
of ofthe
theabove
above metamaterial:
metamaterial: (a) dispersion surfaces;surfaces; (b)
(a) dispersion
Figure (b) stopband
2. Dispersion (gray rectangle)
surfaces [7].
stopband (gray rectangle) [7]. and band gap of the above metamaterial: (a) dispersion surfaces; (b)
In the 1990s, the[7].
stopband (gray concept of a phononic crystal was modeled after the concept of a photonic
In therectangle)
1990s, the concept of a phononic crystal was modeled after the concept of a photonic crystal.
crystal. By artificially designing the structure and defects of the photonic crystal, the propagation of
In the By artificially
1990s,
light wavesthedesigning
concept
can
theof
structure
be controlled
and defects of the photonic
a phononic
[9–11]. Later,crystal was modeled
it was discovered
crystal, the propagation
after
that elastic
of light waves
the propagate
waves concept ofa a photonic
in
In the 1990s,
can be the concept
controlled [9–11]. of a
Later, phononic
it was crystal
discovered that was
elastic modeled
waves after
propagate the
in a concept
periodic of
elastic a photonic
crystal. By artificially
periodic elasticdesigning the structure
composite medium, and
which also defects
produces of theband
a similar photonic crystal,(see
gap phenomenon
composite medium, which also produces a similar band gap phenomenon (see Figure 3) [12]. In 1992,
theFigure
propagation of
crystal. By artificially
light waves designing
3) [12]. In 1992, Sigalas et the
can etbeal. controlled structure
al. [13]
[9–11]. and
buried spherical
Later, it was defects
objects ofin athe
discovered photonic
matrix material crystal,
in a periodicthelattice
propagation inofa
Sigalas [13] buried spherical objects in a matrix material in a periodicthatlatticeelastic
structurewaves propagate
arrangement.
light waves structure
cancompositearrangement.
beaction
controlled Under the action of external sound waves, the composite produced an
periodic Under
elastic the of external[9–11].
sound Later,
waves, itproduces
was discovered
the composite produced that
bandelastic
an acoustic band gap waves
phenomenon, propagate in a
acoustic band gapmedium,
phenomenon, which also
and thus phononic a similar
crystals were theoretically gapsynthesized
phenomenon for the (see Figure
periodic elastic composite
and thus phononicmedium,
crystals were which also
theoretically produces
synthesizedafor similar band
the first time. gap phenomenon
Kushwaha et al. [14] (see Figure
3) [12]. In 1992, Sigalas
first time. et al.et[13]
Kushwaha buried
al. [14] formally spherical
proposed the objects
conceptin of a matrixcrystals
phononic material in that
in 1993, a periodic
is, a lattice
3) [12]. In formally
1992, proposed
Sigalas et the
al.concept
[13] of phononic
buried crystals
spherical in 1993,
objects thatin is,
a a material
matrix with a
material periodic
in aelastic
periodic lattice
material with a periodic elastic
structure arrangement. mediumof structure with sound
a phononic forbidden band. Similarly, produced
by
medium structureUnder the action
with a phononic external
forbidden band. Similarly, waves,
by changing the the composite
internal structure and an
changing the internal
structure arrangement. Under structure
the and defects
action ofofexternal
the phononic crystal, waves,
sound the propagation
the path of the elastic
composite produced an
acoustic band gap
defects
wave canphenomenon,
of the phononic crystal, and thethus
be artificially adjusted, phononic
propagation
thereby achieving crystals
path of the elasticwere wave theoretically
the purpose of vibration
can be artificiallysynthesized
adjusted,
isolation and noise for the
acoustic band gap
thereby
first time. Kushwaha phenomenon,
achieving the purpose and thus
of vibration phononic
isolation andcrystals were
noise reduction theoretically
[15].
et al. [14] formally proposed the concept of phononic crystals in 1993, that is, synthesized for thea
reduction [15].
first time. Kushwaha et al. [14] formally proposed the concept of phononic crystals in 1993, that is, a
material with a periodic elastic medium structure with a phononic forbidden band. Similarly, by
material
changingwith a periodic
the internal elasticand
structure medium
defectsstructure
of the phononicwith a crystal,
phononic theforbidden
propagation band.
pathSimilarly, by
of the elastic
changing
wave canthe be internal
artificiallystructure
adjusted,and thereby
defects ofachieving
the phononic crystal, the
the purpose of propagation
vibration isolation path of and the elastic
noise
wave can be artificially adjusted, thereby achieving the purpose of vibration isolation and noise
reduction [15].
reduction [15].

(a) (b)
Figure3.3.Proposed
Figure Proposedmetamaterial
metamaterialwith
withdefect
defectstates
states[12].
[12].

The biggest difference between a phononic crystal and an acoustic metamaterial is that its
resolution is limited by anisotropy and the lattice constant, but the acoustic metamaterial is basically
unrestricted [16]. Phononic crystals require the lattice size to be the same order of magnitude as the
wavelength in the direction of sound wave propagation, while the acoustic metamaterial is able to
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 4 of 26

The biggest difference between a phononic crystal and an acoustic metamaterial is that its resolution
is limited by anisotropy and the lattice constant, but the acoustic metamaterial is basically unrestricted [16].
Phononic crystals require the lattice size to be the same order of magnitude as the wavelength in the
direction of sound wave propagation, while the acoustic metamaterial is able to restrain the waves
with much larger wavelength than the lattice size. The acoustic metamaterial is composed of many
tiny units with mechanical resonators, and each unit can avoid interference with each other. There
are basically no restrictions on the structure size of the resonator. Moreover, the mechanisms of the
phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials are different. Elastic waves in phononic crystals may be
reflected and scattered at the interfaces of the inner and outer materials and the propagation waves,
reflected waves, and scattered waves interfere, which leads to band gaps. The acoustic metamaterials
absorb the elastic wave energy into the local resonators to block the waves. Therefore, the practical
application range of the acoustic metamaterial is wider.

2.2. Band Structure Calculation Method of Phononic Crystal and Acoustic Metamaterials
The research on forbidden bands in phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials mainly focuses
on the calculation of elastic wave forbidden bands. At present, there are several mature methods for
calculating forbidden bands, such as the transfer matrix method, the plane wave expansion method,
the finite difference time domain method and the multiple scattering method, etc.
The transfer matrix method [17,18] is a method of converting the wave equation into the form of a
transfer matrix equation and solving the eigenvalues. This method starts with the basic equations
including state parameters (stress, particle velocity, etc.) to obtain the transfer equation of a flat solid
medium, then obtains the boundary conditions according to the characteristics of the surrounding
medium and the intermediate medium, and finally obtains the solution of the system. This method
is mainly used for the calculation of band gaps of phononic crystal and acoustic metamaterial in a
one-dimensional model. Because the transfer matrix is generally small and is an analytical solution,
its calculation effort is small.
The plane wave expansion method [14,19–22] is the earliest and most widely used method in
the theoretical analysis of phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials. In this method, the physical
quantities such as displacements and elastic constants in the wave equation are expanded by a Fourier
transform in the form of superposition of plane waves in the inverse lattice space, and then the wave
equation is solved to obtain the dispersion relationship between the characteristic frequency and the
wave vector, that is, the band structure. The plane wave expansion method can be used for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional band structures. In the calculation of solid [14,19,20], liquid-
liquid [21,23,24], and solid-gas [25–28] systems, great success was achieved with the band gaps of
phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials. However, this method has certain limitations, as its
convergence is slow, and it may even diverge during expansion, which makes it impossible to solve.
The finite-difference time-domain method [29,30] discretizes partial differential equations by
discretizing time and space, transforms the partial differential equations into differential equations,
and then uses numerical calculation methods to solve all vibrations at three points during wave propagation.
Parameters are a function of time. This method can simulate a variety of complex periodic structures,
and can accurately simulate the non-uniformity, anisotropy, nonlinear problems and dispersion
characteristics of the medium. At the same time, the method can calculate the characteristics of the
band structure in the periodic structure and the transmission and reflection in the finite structure.
When using this method to calculate the instantaneous nonlinear response of a phononic crystal or an
acoustic metamaterial, attention should be paid to the numerical stability and convergence.
Because the plane wave expansion method cannot solve the problem of solid scatterers in a liquid
matrix, scholars have proposed a multiple scattering method based on the Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker
(KKR) theory in the calculation of the electronic band structure [31]. The theory of multiple scattering
of elastic waves holds that the frequency band structure of a crystal depends on the Mie scattering
between spheres. By calculating the scattering of sound waves from other spheres incident on the
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26

element method. Every method has its own limitations. When analyzing different structural forms of
phononic Crystals
crystal
2020,and
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complexity, the structural dimensions and others to choose the exact one. At the same time, based on
the existing methods,
surface of a singlewesphere,
should thealso developfrequency
characteristic new ones with fast
equation can becalculation
solved [32]. and good convergence
This method is
very suitable for the calculation of
to lay the foundation for the follow-up research. phononic crystals with special structures. For this kind of band
structure, general plane waves cannot give accurate solutions. The multiple scattering method also has
disadvantages. It is complicated to calculate and difficult to use.
3. EquivalentInAcoustic
addition toParameters of Acoustic
the above methods, there are Metamaterials
some other methods to calculate the band structures
of phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials, such as the finite element method and the spectral
Mass density ρ and bulk elastic modulus K are two key parameters of acoustic materials. They
element method. Every method has its own limitations. When analyzing different structural forms of
determinephononic
the propagation characteristics
crystal and acoustic of acoustic
metamaterials, we shouldwaves in the
consider medium.
its structural Both
form, the the sound velocity
structural
and the characteristic impedance
complexity, the structural of a medium
dimensions and othersare expressed
to choose byone.
the exact these twosame
At the parameters: the speed of
time, based on
sound 𝑐 = 𝐾/𝜌and the characteristic impedance of the medium𝑍 = 𝐾𝜌. In conventional
the existing methods, we should also develop new ones with fast calculation and good convergence to materials,
lay the foundation for the follow-up research.
both the mass density ρ and the bulk elastic modulus K are positive and depend on the material
composition and microstructure
3. Equivalent of theofmedia.
Acoustic Parameters AcousticHowever, if local resonance units are introduced into
Metamaterials
the material to enhance
Mass density ρthe
and acoustic-matter
bulk elastic modulusinteraction,
K are two keyitparameters
is possible that the
of acoustic equivalent
materials. They acoustic
determine
parameters the propagation
can become negativecharacteristics of acousticfrequency
within a specific waves in therange
medium. notBoth the sound
found velocity materials.
in natural
and the characteristic impedance of a medium are expressed by these two parameters: the speed
Based on the resonance p mechanism, we can achieve negative equivalent p mass density and equivalent
of sound c = K/ρ and the characteristic impedance of the medium Z = Kρ. In conventional
bulk modulus, as well
materials, as extraordinary
both the mass density ρ andacoustic
the bulkparameters
elastic modulussuch aspositive
K are negativeandrefractive index [33].
depend on the
material composition and microstructure of the media. However, if local resonance units are introduced
4. Typicalinto
Types of Acoustic
the material Metamaterials
to enhance andinteraction,
the acoustic-matter Phononic it isCrystals
possible that the equivalent acoustic
parameters can become negative within a specific frequency range not found in natural materials.
In 2000,
BasedLiu et resonance
on the al. [32] mechanism,
used the we "core-shell
can achievestructure" for themass
negative equivalent first timeand
density toequivalent
make an acoustic
metamaterial. Based as
bulk modulus, onwell
the "core-shell acoustic
as extraordinary structure" concept
parameters such asscholars
negative have further
refractive developed the
index [33].
following4.other structures.
Typical Types of Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals
In 2000, Liu et al. [32] used the “core-shell structure” for the first time to make an acoustic metamaterial.
4.1. Structures Composed of Functional Units with Certain Mechanical Characteristics
Based on the "core-shell structure" concept scholars have further developed the following other structures.
The spring-mass modelofisFunctional
4.1. Structures Composed periodically arranged
Units with on a two-dimensional
Certain Mechanical Characteristics thin plate, which is a
common local resonance model. This model has a simple structure, and the resonance of the vibrator
The spring-mass model is periodically arranged on a two-dimensional thin plate, which is a
is also easy to adjust.
common It is frequently
local resonance usedhas
model. This model in areal life.
simple Thereandare
structure, the three main
resonance of thecomponents
vibrator is of this
structure.also
Component 1 isIt ais mass
easy to adjust. of mass
frequently used in m,real
component 2 three
life. There are is a matrix of mass of
main components M,this
and component 3 is
structure.
Component 1components
a spring connecting is a mass of mass m, component
1 and 2. 2 is a matrix of mass M, and component 3 is a spring
connecting components 1 and 2.
In 2011, Huang et al. [34] proposed two types of mass spring structures with local resonators
In 2011, Huang et al. [34] proposed two types of mass spring structures with local resonators and
and performed
performedequivalent
equivalentsimulations,
simulations, and and found
found thathave
that they theynegative
have negative effective
effective elastic modulus elastic
and modulus
and selective filtering.
selective InIn2016,
filtering. 2016, Zhu
Zhu etetal.al. [35]
[35] periodically
periodically arranged
arranged a spring-vibrator
a spring-vibrator resonance unitresonance
on unit
a stiffened
on a stiffened plateplate to obtainaalocal
to obtain local resonance
resonance stiffened plate plate
stiffened structure (see Figure
structure 4) and
(see simulated
Figure 4) andits simulated
performance. They found that the structure can generate a lower frequency local resonance band gap
its performance. They found that the structure can generate a lower frequency local resonance band
and widen the high frequency Bragg band gap compared to ordinary stiffened plates.
gap and widen the high frequency Bragg band gap compared to ordinary stiffened plates.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the unit cells of a locally resonant stiffened plate [35].
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the unit cells of a locally resonant stiffened plate [35].

The same year, Wu et al. [36] obtained a multi-frequency local resonance type phononic crystal
plate by periodically attaching multiple double cantilever structures on a thin plate (see Figure 5 and
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 6 of 26

The same year, Wu et al. [36] obtained a multi-frequency local resonance type phononic crystal
plate by periodically attaching multiple double cantilever structures on a thin plate (see Figures 5 and 6).
Through their theoretical research, it is found that the structure can generate multiple low-frequency
bending wave forbidden bands, and the bending vibration of the plate is significantly reduced in the
band
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(a)(a) (b)(b)
Figure 5. 5.
Figure
Figure Schematic
5.Schematic diagram
Schematic (a)
diagram
diagram of of
a amulti-frequency
of amulti-frequency
multi-frequency locally
locally resonant
resonant
locally phononic
phononic
resonant phononicplate:
(b)plate: (a)(a)
Schematic
(a) Schematic
plate: Schematic
diagram
diagramof of
diagram the phononic
ofthe
thephononicplate
phononic with
plate
plate withseveral
withseveral
severalperiodic
periodic unit
unit
periodic cells;(b)
cells;
unit schematic
(b) schematic
cells;(b) diagram
diagram
schematic of of
of the
diagram the attached
attached
the attached
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a multi-frequency locally resonant phononic plate: (a) Schematic
double
double -cantilever
-cantilever beams
beams [36].
[36].
double -cantilever beams [36].
diagram of the phononic plate with several periodic unit cells;(b) schematic diagram of the attached
double -cantilever beams [36].

(a)(a) (b)
(a) (b) (b)
Figure 6. 6.
Figure
Figure Simplified
Simplifiedmodel
6. Simplified model
model ofthe
of the proposed
proposed multi-frequency
multi-frequency locally
locally resonant resonant
phononic phononic
plate: plate: (a)(a)
(a) Schematic
Figure 6. Simplified modelofofthe the proposed multi-frequency
proposed multi-frequency locally
locally resonant
resonant phononic
phononic plate:plate:
(a)
diagram
Schematic of the simplified
diagram of the model with
simplified several
model periodic
with unit
several cells; (b)unit
periodic The cells;
low-frequency
(b) The equivalent
low-frequency
Schematic diagram
Schematic diagramof of
the thesimplified
simplified model with several
model with severalperiodic
periodic unit
unit cells;
cells; (b) (b)
TheThe low-frequency
low-frequency
“mass-spring-mass”
equivalent system ofsystem
“mass-spring-mass” the attached
of thedouble-cantilever
attached beams [36]. beams [36].
double-cantilever
equivalent “mass-spring-mass”
equivalent “mass-spring-mass” system
system of
of the attached
attached double-cantilever
double-cantilever beams
beams [36].[36].
In 2019, Ma et al. [37] proposed a damping structure with multi-band gap characteristics based on
In 2019, MaMa
In 2019,etMa
al.al.
[37]
et al. proposed
[37] proposeda damping
adamping
damping structure
structure with
with multi-band
multi-band gap
gap characteristics
characteristics based
based
theIn 2019, et
spring-vibrator [37]
resonance proposed
unit (see aFigure 7), andstructure with
found that the multi-band
structure has gap
the characteristics
characteristics of based
onontheon spring-vibrator
the spring-vibrator
thefrequency
low spring-vibrator resonance
band and low resonance
resonance unit
frequency (see
unit
unit (seeFigure
Figure 7),
7), and
and found
found that
that the
the structure
structure
(see Figure 7), and found that the structure has
limit. has
has thethethe
characteristics
characteristics of lowoffrequency
low frequency bandband
andandlow low frequencylimit.
frequency limit.
characteristics of low frequency band and low frequency limit.

Figure Schematic
7. 7.
Figure diagram
Schematic of of
diagram thethe
suppressors periodically
suppressors arranged
periodically onon
arranged thethe
base beam
base [37].
beam[37].
Figure
Figure
AtAt 7. Schematic
present, 7. Schematicdiagram
diagramof the suppressors
of “local
the suppressors periodically
periodically arranged
arrangedononthethe
base beam[37].
base beam[37].
present,referring
referringtotothe idea
the idea “localresonance
resonancephononic
phononiccrystals”,
crystals”,a akind
kindofof
local
localartificial
artificial
periodic
periodic structure can be constructed by periodically attaching spring-mass units totraditional
structure can be constructed by periodically attaching spring-mass units to traditional
AtAtpresent,
present, referring
referring to to
the idea
asthe idea“local
“localresonance
resonance phononic
phononic crystals”,
crystals”,aabove
kind
a above
kind ofnot
local
of artificial
engineering
engineering structures
structuressuch
such rods,
as beams
rods, beams and plates.
and The
plates. structures
The described
structures described do dolocal
need artificial
to
not need
periodic structure
destroy
periodic can
the uniformity
structure be
canand constructed
be integrity
constructed by
of the byperiodically
substrate attaching
structure,structure, spring-mass
which haswhich units
wide applicability to traditional
in practical
to destroy the uniformity and integrity of periodically
the substrate attaching spring-mass
has wideunits to traditional
applicability in
engineering
engineering structures
practical engineering. such
structures such as rods, beams
as rods,the
Afterwards, beams and
research plates.
andwill The
plates.
focusThe structures
on the structures described
described
constitution above
above
of more local do notnot
do
resonance need
need
to to
destroy
destroy the
commonthe uniformity
uniformity
engineering and integrity
and integrity
structures, of
and studythe
of thesubstrate
substrate
their structure,
bandgapstructure, which has
whichand
characteristics wide applicability
hasvibration reduction in in
wide applicability
practical engineering.
characteristics,
practical engineering. toAfterwards,
provide more
Afterwards, theideas
research
the for the
research will focus
vibration
will on
focus thethe
constitution
reduction
on design ofofcommon
constitution more
of morelocal resonance
engineering
local resonance
common engineering
structures. structures, and study their bandgap characteristics
common engineering structures, and study their bandgap characteristics and vibration reduction and vibration reduction
characteristics, to to
characteristics, provide more
provide ideas
more forfor
ideas thethe
vibration reduction
vibration design
reduction of of
design common engineering
common engineering
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 7 of 26

engineering. Afterwards, the research will focus on the constitution of more local resonance common
engineering structures, and study their bandgap characteristics and vibration reduction characteristics,
to provide more ideas for the vibration reduction design of common engineering structures.

4.2. Helmholtz Resonator Periodic Arrangement Structures

Helmholtz resonance refers to the resonance phenomenon of air in a cavity. A container made
using this phenomenon is called a Helmholtz resonance cavity. It comprises a rigid container with a
known
Crystals 2020,volume
10, x FORandPEERa shape
REVIEW close to a sphere. The container has a narrow opening at one end and a 7 of 26
small opening at the other end. Helmholtz resonators can filter sounds of specific frequencies.
In 2006,
In 2006, Fangetet al. [38] firstly proposed an acoustic metamaterial composed ofcomposed
a periodic one-dimensional
Crystals 2020,Fang
10, x FOR al.
PEER[38] firstly
REVIEW proposed an acoustic metamaterial of a periodic one-
7 of 26
Helmholtz resonator cavity with acoustic inductance and capacitance (see Figure 8). Experiments have
dimensional Helmholtz resonator cavity with acoustic inductance and capacitance (see Figure 8).
proved In that
2006, this
Fangmaterial can firstly
et al. [38] achieveproposed
negative anelastic modulus. They research foundofthat when the
Experiments have proved that this material canacoustic
achievemetamaterial composed
negative elastic modulus. a periodic one-
They research
frequency
dimensional of the acoustic
Helmholtz wave
resonatoris close to
cavity the resonance
with acoustic frequency,
inductance the
and frequency at
capacitance the exit
(see of the8).
Figure
found that when
resonant cavity
the frequency
willproved
be opposite
of thetheacoustic wave is close to the resonance frequency, the frequency
Experiments have that to frequency
this material canofachieve
the external acoustic
negative wave,
elastic therebyThey
modulus. achieving a
research
at the exit of the
transmission band gap.resonant cavity will be opposite to the frequency of the external acoustic wave,
found that when the frequency of the acoustic wave is close to the resonance frequency, the frequency
thereby achieving a transmission band gap.
at the exit of the resonant cavity will be opposite to the frequency of the external acoustic wave,
thereby achieving a transmission band gap.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. The
Figure schematic
8. The schematicdiagram
diagramof
of proposed structures:(a)(a)
proposed structures: One-dimensional
One-dimensional Helmholtz
Helmholtz resonator;
resonator;
Figure
(b) 8. The
(b) Helmholtz
Helmholtz schematic
resonator diagram of
composed
resonator composed of proposed structures: (a)[38].
periodicarrangements
periodic arrangements One-dimensional
[38]. Helmholtz resonator;
(b) Helmholtz resonator composed of periodic arrangements [38].
In 2017,
In 2017, Jiang
Jiang etetal.al.[39]
[39]adopted
adopted aa double-opening
double-opening internal
internalandandexternal cavitycavity
external designdesign
to obtain
to aobtain
In 2017, Jiang
double-opening et al. [39]periodic
Helmholtz adoptedstructure
a double-opening
(see Figureinternal
9). It is and
foundexternal cavity
that the design
structure hastogood
obtain
a double-opening Helmholtz periodic structure (see Figure 9). It is found that the structure has good
a double-opening
low-band Helmholtz periodic
gap characteristics, structure
and its lowest (see Figure
band-gap section9). is
It is found that
86.9–138.2 theAt
Hz. structure
a certainhas good
outer
low-band gap
low-bandthe characteristics,
gaplow-band
characteristics, and its lowest
and itsbylowest band-gap
band-gap section is 86.9−138.2 Hz. At a certain outer
diameter, gap is affected the arc length ofsection is 86.9−138.2
the cavity, Hz.
the internal andAtexternal
a certain outer
cavity
diameter,
spacing,
the
diameter, low-band
the
and low-band
the
gapbetween
spacinggap
is is
affected
affected by the arc length of the cavity, the internal and external cavity
cells. by the arc length of the cavity, the internal and external cavity
spacing, andand
spacing, thethespacing
spacing between
betweencells.cells.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure9.9. The
Figure Theschematic
schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
thedouble-opening
double-openingHelmholtz
Helmholtzperiodic
periodic structure:
structure: (a)(a)
TheThe unit
unit
Figure 9. The schematic diagram of the double-opening Helmholtz periodic structure: (a) The unit
structure’scross
structure’s crosssection
sectionofofthe
thedouble-split
double-split Helmholtz
Helmholtz resonant
resonant structure;
structure; (b) (b)
TheThe finite
finite structure
structure withwith
5
structure’s
5 cells
crossdouble-split
section of the double-split Helmholtz resonant structure; (b) The finite structure with
cells of of
thethe Helmholtz
double-split Helmholtz resonant
resonant structure
structure [39].[39].
5 cells of the double-split Helmholtz resonant structure [39].
In
In2018,
2018,Yu Yuetetal.al.
[40] changed
[40] changed thethe
rigidity of Helmholtz
rigidity of Helmholtz resonators (HRs)(HRs)
resonators and designed a tube with
and designed a tube
In 2018,
awith Yu
periodically et al. [40]
arranged changed
elastic HR the
(see rigidity
Figure of
10). Helmholtz
Their research resonators
found that
a periodically arranged elastic HR (see Figure 10). Their research found that for a single (HRs)
for a and
single designed
Helmholtz a tube
withcavity
a periodically
unit of
Helmholtz cavity arranged
the same
unit size,
of thetheelastic
same HRthe
resonant
size, (see
frequencyFigure
resonant 10).
offrequency
the Their
elastic HR
of research
is elastic
the much lowerfound
HR that
is than
much thatfor athan
of the
lower single
Helmholtz cavity
that of the rigidunit
HR.of the samethe
Secondly, size, thedetermining
factor resonant frequency
the elasticofHR
theresonance
elastic HR is muchislower
frequency the topthan
thatplate,
of thenot the HR.
rigid cavity size. For periodic
Secondly, the factorpipelines, periodic
determining theelastic HR
elastic HRis more conducive
resonance to generating
frequency is the top
low-frequency
plate, not the cavityand wide-band
size. gaps. pipelines, periodic elastic HR is more conducive to generating
For periodic
Helmholtz resonators
low-frequency and wide-band gaps. take advantage of the resonance characteristics of air, and they have good
advantages in light weight and low frequency design only by structural design without additional
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 8 of 26

rigid HR. Secondly, the factor determining the elastic HR resonance frequency is the top plate, not the
cavity size. For periodic pipelines, periodic elastic HR is more conducive to generating low-frequency
and wide-band gaps.
Helmholtz resonators take advantage of the resonance characteristics of air, and they have good
advantages in light weight and low frequency design only by structural design without additional
mass, which has been a great basic model to create acoustic metamaterials recognized by many scholars.
Up to now, metamaterials made from Helmholtz resonators have been widely used in the engineering
field, like for pipe sound absorption. Nevertheless, in the periodic structure design of Helmholtz
resonators, the local resonance region is small due to the number and the depth of openings, which
results
Crystals in10,
2020, the needPEER
x FOR for aREVIEW
large volume to obtain low-frequency characteristics. 8 of 26

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure10.10.
Schematic diagram
Schematic diagramofofthe
theproposed structure:(a)
proposed structure: (a)Sketch
Sketchofofanan elastic
elastic HR;
HR; (b)(b) Sketch
Sketch of an
of an
infinite periodic
infinite pipe
periodic pipewith
withelastic
elasticHRs
HRs [40].
[40].

4.3. Thin Film Acoustic Metamaterials

4.3. Thin Film Acoustic Metamaterials
The film-type acoustic metamaterial unit is a film that is tensioned and fixed on the peritoneal
The film-type acoustic metamaterial unit is a film that is tensioned and fixed on the peritoneal
ring, and then a rigid mass unit is fixed on the circular film [41,42]. The working mechanism of the thin
ring,
filmand then ametamaterial
acoustic rigid mass unit is fixed the
is to increase on the
energycircular
densityfilm [41,42]. The working
of low-frequency mechanism
sound waves of the
inside the
thinmetamaterial
film acoustic metamaterial is to increase the energy density of low-frequency
by increasing the resonance mode. When the metal sheet is beaten, the contact boundary sound waves inside
thewith
metamaterial
the thin filmby increasing
contains enhancedthe resonance mode.
elastic curvature When
energy, andthethemetal sheet
coupling is beaten,
effect with the the contact
acoustic
boundary
wave is with the thin
cancelled film contains
to achieve Resonant enhanced
cavity-likeelastic
soundcurvature
absorption energy,
purposesand[43].
the coupling effect with
the acoustic wave is cancelled to achieve Resonant cavity-like sound
In 1991, Hashimoto et al. [44] first proposed a membrane structure with additional absorption purposes masses,
[43].
theInso-called
1991, Hashimoto
membraneetwith al. [44] first proposed
additional a membrane
weights (MAW), structure
and found with
that this additional
structure masses, the
can improve
sound insulation
so-called membraneinwith the low frequency
additional range through
weights (MAW),sound and insulation
found thatexperiments
this structureunder cannormal
improve
incidence
sound effects.
insulation in In
the2008,
lowYang and Mei
frequency of The
range Hong Kong
through soundUniversity
insulationofexperiments
Science and Technology
under normal
incidence effects. In 2008, Yang and Mei of The Hong Kong University of Science andcomposed
formally proposed the concept of "thin film acoustic metamaterial", and pointed out that it is Technology
of an elastic
formally film, an
proposed theadditional
concept mass,of "thin andfilm
a supporting
acousticstructure of a fixed
metamaterial", film.
and The structure
pointed out that wasit is
found to of
composed have
ananelastic
acoustic band
film, angap in the frequency
additional mass, and rangea of 200–300 Hzstructure
supporting [45]. Later,ofit was
a fixedfound thatThe
film.
the structure composed of four layers of thin film materials with different sound insulation frequency
structure was found to have an acoustic band gap in the frequency range of 200–300 Hz [45]. Later, it
bands and different mass masses can achieve 50–1000 Hz wide-band sound insulation, and its sound
was found that the structure composed of four layers of thin film materials with different sound
insulation is as high as 40 dB [46]
insulation frequency bands and different mass masses can achieve 50–1000 Hz wide-band sound
In 2019, He et al. [47] designed a new type of thin film acoustic metamaterial by embedding a
insulation, and its sound insulation is as high as 40 dB [46]
piezoelectric mass connected to an external circuit into a tensioned elastic membrane and fixed on a
In 2019,
metal frameHe et Figure
(see al. [47]11).
designed
They found a new type
that theof thin film
structure hasacoustic
good soundmetamaterial
insulationby embedding a
performance
piezoelectric
in the 20–1200 massHz connected
frequencytoband an external
and there circuit
are two into a tensioned
sound insulation elastic
peaksmembrane
above 50 dB andandfixed
oneon a
metal frame (see Figure 11.). They found that the structure has good sound
adjustable sound insulation peak. Secondly, by adjusting the circuit parameters, the tunability of the insulation performance
in the
sound20–1200 Hz frequency
insulation performance bandof theand there can
material are betwo sound insulation peaks above 50 dB and one
achieved.
adjustable sound insulation peak. Secondly, by adjusting the circuit parameters, the tunability of the
sound insulation performance of the material can be achieved.
 In 2019, He et al. [47] designed a new type of thin film acoustic metamaterial by embedding a
piezoelectric mass connected to an external circuit into a tensioned elastic membrane and fixed on a
metal frame (see Figure 11.). They found that the structure has good sound insulation performance
in the 20–1200 Hz frequency band and there are two sound insulation peaks above 50 dB and one
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 9 of 26
adjustable sound insulation peak. Secondly, by adjusting the circuit parameters, the tunability of the
sound insulation performance of the material can be achieved.

Figure
Figure 11. The
The structural sketch[47].
structural sketch [47].

TheThelateral
laterallocal
localresonance
resonance metamaterial
metamaterial structure
structure proposed
proposed by byWang
Wangetetal.al.[48,49] cancan
[48,49] alsoalso
suppress
suppress low frequency noise (see Figure 12). By analyzing the energy band structure
low frequency noise (see Figure 12). By analyzing the energy band structure diagram9 of diagram of the
of26the
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
metamaterial,they
metamaterial, theyfound
found that
that the
the metamaterial
metamaterialplate could
plate couldgenerate twotwo
generate low-frequency
low-frequency bandband
gaps by gaps
the equivalent mass. The vibration power flow of metamaterial plate was obtained by
by the equivalent mass. The vibration power flow of metamaterial plate was obtained by using the using the finite
element
Crystals 2020, method
10, x FORandPEERthe energy flow method, so as to reveal its vibration suppression mechanism.
REVIEW 9 of 26
finite element method and the energy flow method, so as to reveal its vibration suppression
mechanism.

Figure 12. The unit cell of the metamaterial plate: (a) front view, (b) perspective view [48]

In 2020, Zhou et al. [50] proposed a polymorphic anti-resonance cooperative thin-film acoustic
metamaterial
Figure
Figure(see
12. The
12. Figure
Theunit
unit 13).
cellofThe
cell thematerial
ofthe consists
metamaterial
metamaterial plate:of(a)
plate: four
(a) frontmetal
front view,foils
view, and a cross-shaped
(b)perspective
(b) perspective view
view [48] flexible
[48].
ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) material swing arm attached to the surface of a polyimide (PI) film, and
uses EVA
In In material
2020,
2020, ZhouZhou as
et et a[50]
al.al.frame. The study
[50]proposed
proposed found that the
aapolymorphic
polymorphic material has cooperative
anti-resonance
anti-resonance achieved
cooperativewidening
thin-film
thin-filmofacoustic
the low
acoustic
frequency
metamaterialsound
(see insulation
Figure 13). band
The and improvement
material consists of of
four sound
metal insulation.
foils and a
metamaterial (see Figure 13). The material consists of four metal foils and a cross-shaped flexiblecross-shaped flexible ethylene-
vinylThe
ethylene-vinyladvantage
acetate acetate of this type
(EVA) material
(EVA) swing
material of arm
acoustic
swing metamaterials
attached
arm to the surface
attached tois the
that athe band
of surface of agap
polyimide (PI)frequency
film, and
polyimide domain
(PI)uses EVA
film, is
and
very low,
material aswhich
a means
frame. The that
study they can
found suppress
that the low-frequency
material has elastic
achieved
uses EVA material as a frame. The study found that the material has achieved widening of the low wave
widening propagation.
of the low However,
frequency
the structure
sound
frequency soundisinsulation
insulation too
band thin
andwith lowandstiffness
improvement
band to bear
of sound
improvement weight,
soundwhich
insulation.
of limits its application in practical
insulation.
engineering.
The advantage of this type of acoustic metamaterials is that the band gap frequency domain is
very low, which means that they can suppress low-frequency elastic wave propagation. However,
the structure is too thin with low stiffness to bear weight, which limits its application in practical
engineering.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. A
A small
small size
size MAM
MAM experimental
experimental sample
sample [50].
[50].

The advantage
4.4. Space of this type of acoustic metamaterials is that the band gap frequency domain is very
Coiling Structures
low, which means that they can suppress low-frequency elastic wave propagation. However, the structure
Research on local resonance acoustic metamaterials has made great progress, but it has
is too thin with low stiffness to13.
Figure bearA weight,
small size which
MAM limits its application
experimental sample in[50].
practical engineering.
disadvantages such as narrow frequency band and difficult design and manufacture. In response to
the Space
abovementioned shortcomings, scholars have introduced the coiled space type structure into
4.4.4.4. Coiling
Space Coiling Structures
Structures
acoustic metamaterials, and designed coiled space type acoustic metamaterials. The sound
Research on local resonance
absorption acoustic metamaterials hasallow
madesound
great progress,to but it has disadvantages
Research mechanism of the curly
on local resonance space
acousticstructure is to
metamaterials has made waves greatpropagate
progress, in the
butcoiled
it has
such
space,as narrow
increasingfrequency
the band and
propagation difficult
time and design and
reducing manufacture.
the effective In response
phase velocityto the abovementioned
[51,52].
disadvantages such as narrow frequency band and difficult design and manufacture. In response to
shortcomings,
In 2015, Li scholars have introduced
et al.shortcomings,
[53] designed the space
ascholars
curly coiledstructure
space type structure
composed ofinto acousticcross
a Jerusalem metamaterials,
groove air
the abovementioned have introduced the coiled space type structure into
and designed
matrix coiled
periodically space type
arranged acoustic
in a squaremetamaterials.
lattice. It is The
found sound
that absorption
the structuremechanism
can of thea curly
generate large
acoustic metamaterials, and designed coiled space type acoustic metamaterials. The sound
band gapmechanism
absorption in low frequency mode,space
of the curly and the band gap
structure is toformation mechanism
allow sound waves is to the resonance
propagate mode
in the of
coiled
the increasing
space, internal cavity the of the cross groove
propagation time and structure.
reducing the effective phase velocity [51,52].
The same year, Wang et al. [54] designed an S-shaped groove structure in a square lattice (see
In 2015, Li et al. [53] designed a curly space structure composed of a Jerusalem cross groove air
Figure 14). They found that the structure can produce a more complete and larger band gap in the
matrix periodically arranged in a square lattice. It is found that the structure can generate a large
lower frequency range compared to a Jerusalem cross groove structure with the same lattice
band gap in low frequency mode, and the band gap formation mechanism is the resonance mode of
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 10 of 26

space structure is to allow sound waves to propagate in the coiled space, increasing the propagation
time and reducing the effective phase velocity [51,52].
In 2015, Li et al. [53] designed a curly space structure composed of a Jerusalem cross groove air
matrix periodically arranged in a square lattice. It is found that the structure can generate a large band
gap in low frequency mode, and the band gap formation mechanism is the resonance mode of the
internal cavity of the cross groove structure.
The same year, Wang et al. [54] designed an S-shaped groove structure in a square lattice (see
Figure 14). They found that the structure can produce a more complete and larger band gap in the lower
frequency
Crystals 2020, 10,range
x FORcompared to a Jerusalem cross groove structure with the same lattice parameters. 10 of 26
PEER REVIEW

Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26

(a) (a) (b)(b)

Figure 14.14.
Figure Schematic
Figure Schematic diagram
diagram
14. Schematic of
diagramof proposed
proposed
of proposed structures:
structures: (a)
structures:(a) The
(a) The
The unit
unit
unit cellcell
cell of ofS-shape
ofan
an an S-shape
S-shape slot slot phononic
slot phononic
phononic
crystal (PC);
crystal(PC); (b) Schematic
(b) Schematic
crystal(PC); view
view
(b) Schematic of the
of the
view cross-section
cross-section
of the of
cross-section ofthe two-dimensional
thetwo-dimensional
of the two-dimensional PC [54].
PC PC
[54].[54].

In 2017, Xia et al. [55] designed a spatially coiled acoustic metamaterial based on the Hilbert fractal
In Xia
2017,etXia
In 2017, al.et[55]
al. [55] designed
designed a spatially coiled
a spatially coiled acoustic
acousticmetamaterial
metamaterial based on the
based onHilbert
the Hilbert
structure
fractal(see Figure (see
structure 15). It is found
Figure 15). through research
It is found thatresearch
through the high-order
that theHilbert fractalHilbert
high-order structure can
fractal
fractal structure (see Figure 15). It is found through research that the high-order Hilbert fractal
effectively realize
structure can sub-wavelength
effectively realize filtering, and as thefiltering,
sub-wavelength fractal order
and increases, the number
as the fractal of band gaps
order increases, the
structure
of the can effectively
number
metamaterial gaps realize
of band increasesof theand sub-wavelength
metamaterial
the total band gapfiltering,
increases and the
width andband
total
gradually asbecomes
the width
gap fractal order becomes
gradually
larger. increases, the
numberlarger.
of band gaps of the metamaterial increases and the total band gap width gradually becomes
larger.

Figure 15. Space

Figure coiled
15. Space acoustic
coiled metamaterials
acoustic basedbased
metamaterials on Hilbert fractals:
on Hilbert first-order
fractals: fractal,
first-order second-order
fractal, second-
order
fractal, andfractal, and third-order
third-order fractal [55].
fractal [55].

In 2019,
Figure In Dong
15.2019,
Space Donget al.et[56]
coiled proposed
acoustic
al.[56] a new structure
metamaterials
proposed a new basedwith
structure broadband
onwith
Hilbert double-negativity
fractals:
broadband based
first-order fractal,
double-negativity on on
the
second-
based
thestructure
cavity
order cavity and
fractal, structure
and spatialand
third-order spatial
curling curling revealing
mechanism,
fractal [55]. mechanism, the revealing
most usefulthe most useful
topological topological
characteristics of
characteristics
metamaterials basedofonmetamaterials based and
the above structures, on the
two above
typical structures,
The negative and two typical
refraction The negative
and sub-wavelength
In refraction
imaging
2019, theand
of Dong etsub-wavelength
structure
al.[56]wereproposed imaging
detailed of the
numerically
a new structure
simulated.
structure were
with The detailed numerically
same year,
broadband Wu et al.simulated. The
[57] proposed
double-negativity based on
a sameacoustic
hybrid year, Wumetamaterial
et al. [57] proposed
composed a hybrid
of acoustic metamaterial
micro-perforated plates composed
(MPP) and of micro-perforated
curled Fabry-Perot
the cavity structure and spatial curling mechanism, revealing the most useful topological
(FP) plates
channels
characteristics
(MPP)
of
and curled
(seemetamaterials
Figures 16Fabry-Perot
and 17), and(FP)
based
channels
found
on the
(seematerial
thatabove
the Figure 16 and Figure
works
structures, at
and
17), and greater
a frequency
two
found that
thanthe
typicalfrequency
The 30
negative
material works at a frequency greater than 30 times the total thickness. At the
times the total thickness. At the resonance frequency (<500 Hz), the sound absorption effect can reach resonance
refraction and
(<500 Hz),sub-wavelength imaging
the sound absorption effectofcan
thereach
structure
99%. Thewere detailed
sound numerically
absorption performancesimulated.
of this The
same year, Wuisetmainly
material al. [57] proposed
caused a hybrid
by the frictional acoustic
loss of soundmetamaterial
wave energy incomposed
MPP. of micro-perforated
plates (MPP) This
and resonance from the folded
curled Fabry-Perot space
(FP) produces
channels a very
(see wide16
Figure band
andrefractive indexand
Figure 17), with a small
found that the
absorption loss and a negative broadband response. Meanwhile, this kind of structure
material works at a frequency greater than 30 times the total thickness. At the resonance frequency has a high
requirement for manufacturing which may make them very expensive. Later, we can adopt a proper
(<500 Hz), the sound absorption effect can reach 99%. The sound absorption performance of this
strategy to design acoustic metamaterials with new geometric structures.
material is mainly caused by the frictional loss of sound wave energy in MPP.
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 11 of 26

99%. The sound absorption performance of this material is mainly caused by the frictional loss of sound
wave energy in MPP.
This resonance from the folded space produces a very wide band refractive index with a small
absorption loss and a negative broadband response. Meanwhile, this kind of structure has a high
requirement for manufacturing which may make them very expensive. Later, we can adopt a proper
strategy to design
Crystals 2020, 10, x FORacoustic metamaterials with new geometric structures.
PEER REVIEW 11 of 26
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)(c)
Figure
Figure
Figure 16.16.
16. Schematic
Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram
diagram of proposed
of proposed
of proposed structure:
structure:
structure: (a)
(a) The(a) The
topThe top
topmicro-perforated
micro-perforated
micro-perforated panel;
panel; (b) (b) (b)
panel;
Schematic
of Schematic
Schematic ofofthe
the hybrid thehybrid
hybridmetamaterial
metamaterial metamaterial absorber;
Diagram(c)
absorber;
absorber; (c) ofDiagram
(c) Diagram ofofone
one coiled-up onecoiled-up
FP FPFP
coiled-up
channel channel [57].
channel
[57]. [57].

Figure 17. An approximate analytical two-dimensional (2D) model of a unit cell of a space-coiled
Figure
Figure 17. An approximate
17.
metamaterial [57]. analytical two-dimensional (2D) model of a unit cell
cell of
of aa space-coiled
space-coiled
metamaterial [57].
metamaterial [57].
4.5. Other Structures
4.5.
4.5. Other
Other Structures
Structures
In addition to the above four structures, some other acoustic metamaterial structures have also
beenIn
In addition
developed.
addition to
to the
the above
Here four
four structures,
we discuss
above some other
structures, some
some other
types.
other acoustic
Based metamaterial
on soft
acoustic technology,
metamaterial structures
a class of
structures have also
local
have also
been developed.
resonance Here
ultrasonic we discuss
super-liquids some other
composed types.
of Based
macroporous on
been developed. Here we discuss some other types. Based on soft technology, a class of localsoft technology,
microsphere a class
concentrated of local resonance
suspensions
ultrasonic
resonance super-liquids
were designed.
ultrasonic composed
The super-liquids
negative indexofcomposed
macroporous
of metamaterials microsphere
is derivedconcentrated
of macroporous suspensions
from the low-frequency
microsphere concentrated were designed.
resonance of
suspensions
The
were negative
subwavelength index
designed. The of metamaterials
particles.
negativeIn 2015,
indexOuyangis derived from
et al. [58] used
of metamaterials the low-frequency
elastic membranes
is derived resonance of
to make hollow
from the low-frequency subwavelength
spheres. of
resonance
particles.
The In
interior2015,
of theOuyang
sphere et
is al. [58]
filled used
with air elastic
to obtainmembranes
a soft to
resonance
subwavelength particles. In 2015, Ouyang et al. [58] used elastic membranes to make hollow make hollow
unit. The spheres.
resonance The interior
frequency is of
spheres.
thearound
sphere 860
is Hz,
filled and
with the propagation
air to obtain a loss
soft of sound
resonance waves
unit. is
The11 dB. A
resonance
The interior of the sphere is filled with air to obtain a soft resonance unit. The resonance frequency band gap is
frequency generated
is around near the
860 Hz,is
andresonance
the frequency.
propagation loss Good
of sound sound
waves insulation.
is 11 dB. AThe
band same
gap year,
is Leroy et
generated al. the
near [59]resonance
studied frequency.
bubble
around 860 Hz, and the propagation loss of sound waves is 11 dB. A band gap is generated near the
resonators,
Good which are single-layer
soundfrequency.
insulation. The same gasLeroy
year, inclusions
et al. in soft
[59] solids.bubble
studied This bubble ultrafiltration
resonators, membrane
resonance Good sound insulation. The same year, Leroy et al. which are
[59] studied single-layer
bubble
gascan be used as
inclusions in an
softultra-thin
solids. coating
This to achieve
bubble acousticmembrane
ultrafiltration super absorption
can be over
used aas
wide
an frequencycoating
ultra-thin range. to
resonators, which are single-layer gas inclusions in soft solids. This bubble ultrafiltration membrane
achieve Inacoustic
2016, Wang et al. [60] proposed an frequency
acoustic metamaterial with periodic spindle-shaped
can be used as ansuper absorption
ultra-thin coating over a wide
to achieve acoustic super range. absorption over a wide frequency range.
inclusions
In embedded in a rubber matrix (see Figure 18). This structure can generate a large complete
In2016,
2016,Wang Wang et al.
et [60]
al. proposed
[60] proposed an acoustic metamaterial
an acoustic with periodic
metamaterial with spindle-shaped inclusions
periodic spindle-shaped
band gap in the range of 163–222 Hz, and the generation of the forbidden band is mainly due to the
embedded
inclusions in a rubber
embedded matrix (see Figure 18). This structure can generate a large complete band gap in
recirculation motion in anda rubber matrixof(see
shear motion the Figure 18). Thisthe
matrix around structure
inclusions. can generate a large complete
the
band range
gap of 163–222 Hz, and the generation ofgeneration
the forbidden band is mainly dueistomainly
the recirculation
Thein the range
acoustic black ofhole
163–222 Hz, and is
phenomenon the
a promising of the
method forbidden
for controllingband vibration, which due has
to the
motion and
recirculation shear
motion motion
and of the
shear matrix
motion around
of the the
matrix inclusions.
around the inclusions.
attracted more and more attention of scholars in recent years. The black hole phenomenon originates
The
The acoustic
acoustic blackblack hole phenomenon is
is aaregion
promising method for
for controlling vibration, which
which has
from astrophysics andhole
refersphenomenon
to a space-time promising methodmass
of sufficient controlling
that can absorbvibration,
any material has
attracted
attracted more and more attention of scholars in recent years. The black hole phenomenon originates
outside more and more
the region, attention
and the absorbed of scholars in recent years.
material (including photons)Thecannot
black holeescape.phenomenon originates
from astrophysics and refers to a space-time region of sufficient mass that can absorb any material
outside the region, and the absorbed material (including photons) cannot escape.
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 12 of 26

from astrophysics and refers to a space-time region of sufficient mass that can absorb any material
Crystals
outside 2020, 10,
the10, x FOR PEER
region, REVIEW
and REVIEW
the absorbed material (including photons) cannot escape. 12 of 26
Crystals 2020, x FOR PEER 12 of 26

(a)
(a) (b) (b)
Figure
Figure18.
18.(a)
(a)The
Theunit
unitcell
cellwith
withspindle-shaped
spindle-shapedinclusion; (b) Schematic view ofofproposed PC
PC[60].
Figure 18. (a) The unit cell with spindle-shapedinclusion;
inclusion;(b)
(b)Schematic view
Schematic view proposed
of proposed [60].[60].
PC

InIn1988,
1988,Mironov
Mironovfoundfoundaasimilar
similarphenomenon
phenomenonininaawedge-shaped
wedge-shapedstructure.
structure.When
Whenthe thethickness
thickness
In 1988, Mironov found a similar phenomenon in a wedge-shaped structure. When the thickness
ofofthe
thethin
thinplate
platestructure
structureisisreduced
reduced as as aa power
power function (h(x) ==Ax
function (h(x) m
Ax , ,mm≥≥2),
m 2),the
thewave
wavevelocity
velocityofofthethe
of the thin plate structure is reduced as a power function (h(x) = Axm, m ≥ 2), the wave velocity of the
bendingwave
bending wave will gradually
graduallydecrease
decreasewith
withthe decrease
the decrease of the thickness.
of the thickness.Under
Underideal conditions,
ideal the wave
conditions, the
bending wave will gradually decrease with the decrease of the thickness. Under ideal conditions, the
velocity
wave can becan
velocity reduced. WaveWave
be reduced. reflections as small
reflections as zero
as small asare achieved
zero [61,62].[61,62].
are achieved In 2019,
In Liu
2019,et Liu
al. [63]
et
wave
designed
velocity can be superstructure
an acoustic
reduced. Wavebyreflections
embedding
asmultiple
small asacoustic
zero are achievedunits
black hole
[61,62].
in an
Inarray
2019,onLiu et
al. [63] designed an acoustic superstructure by embedding multiple acoustic black hole units in ana
al. [63]
10 mm
array designed
onthin
a 10plate
mm thinan acoustic
(see Figure superstructure
19).Figure
plate (see It was 19).
found by
through
It was embedding
found experimentsmultiple acoustic
that the average
through experiments black
sound
that the hole units
insulation
average soundofin an
array on
insulation a
the structure 10 mm
in the
of the thin plate
frequency
structure (see
band
in the Figure 19).
of 50–160band
frequency It was
Hz can found through
reach nearly
of 50–160 Hz can experiments
30reach
dB, and that
the average
nearly the
sound
30 dB, and average
theinsulation
average sound
insulation of
in the insulation
sound the structure
frequency band in the
in theoffrequency frequency
100–600 Hz canofreach
band band of
40 dB.
100–600 50–160 Hz can
Hz can reach 40 dB. reach nearly 30 dB, and the average
sound insulation in the frequency band of 100–600 Hz can reach 40 dB.

Figure 19. The diagram of the ideally designed acoustic black hole superstructure [63].
Figure19.
Figure The diagram
19. The diagram of
of the
the ideally
ideallydesigned
designedacoustic
acousticblack hole
black superstructure
hole [63].[63].
superstructure
Only some common configurations are listed here, and there are many other acoustic
metamaterial
Only some configurations, all of which
common configurations arecan produce
listed here, andband gaps
there areto suppress
many elastic propagation.
other acoustic metamaterial
Only some common configurations are listed here, and there are many other acoustic
However,
configurations, all of which can produce band gaps to suppress elastic propagation. However,to
acoustic metamaterials with lower frequency band and wider frequency range meet
acoustic
metamaterial configurations, all of which can produce band gaps to suppress elastic propagation.
engineering
metamaterials needs arelower
with still needed.
frequency band and wider frequency range to meet engineering needs are
However, acoustic metamaterials with lower frequency band and wider frequency range to meet
still needed.
engineering needs areProperties
5. The Extraordinary still needed. of Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals
5. The Extraordinary Properties of Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals
5. The InExtraordinary
physics, dielectric constant
Properties of and permeability
Acoustic are twoand
Metamaterials basic parameters
Phononic that describe the
Crystals
In physics,
properties dielectric constant
of electromagnetic and in
fields permeability
a homogeneousare two medium.
basic parameters that years,
In recent describe the properties
scholars have
of In physics,
electromagnetic dielectric
fields in constant
a and
homogeneous permeability
medium. In are two
recent basic
years, parameters
scholars
designed many electromagnetic metamaterials with negative permittivity and negative permeability. have that describe
designed many the
properties
These of electromagnetic
electromagnetic metamaterials
electromagnetic with
metamaterialsfields in apermittivity
negative
have homogeneous medium.
and negative
special properties asInnegative
recentThese
permeability.
such years, scholars
effect,have
electromagnetic
refractive
designed many
metamaterials electromagnetic
have special metamaterials
properties such as with
negativenegative
refractive permittivity
effect,
perfect lens effect, anomalous Cherenkov radiation, and anomalous Doppler effects. Based on the and
perfect negative
lens effect, permeability.
anomalous
Cherenkov
These
similarity ofradiation,
electromagnetic andmetamaterials
electromagneticanomalous
wavesDoppler
andhave effects. Based
special
acoustic onacoustic
the similarity
properties
waves, such of
aselectromagnetic
negative
metamaterials waves and
haverefractive
become effect,
an
acousticlens
perfect
emerging waves,
researchacoustic
effect, metamaterials
anomalous
hotspot. Acoustic have become
Cherenkov
metamaterials anwith
radiation,emerging
and research
bulkhotspot.
anomalous
negative Doppler
modulus Acoustic metamaterials
effects.
and Based
negative on the
mass
density also
similarity exhibit unusual waves
of electromagnetic characteristics different
and acoustic fromacoustic
waves, natural metamaterials
materials such have as negative
become an
refraction,research
emerging anomalous Doppler
hotspot. effect, metamaterials
Acoustic amplified evanescent wave, and
with negative bulkperfect
modulus sound
and absorption
negative mass
effect [16,64,65].
density also exhibit unusual characteristics different from natural materials such as negative
refraction, anomalous Doppler effect, amplified evanescent wave, and perfect sound absorption
5.1. Negative Refraction Effect of Acoustic Waves [66]
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 13 of 26

with negative bulk modulus and negative mass density also exhibit unusual characteristics different
from natural materials such as negative refraction, anomalous Doppler effect, amplified evanescent wave,
and perfect sound absorption effect [16,64,65].

5.1. Negative Refraction Effect of Acoustic Waves [66]

Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 26
Optical metamaterials have negative refractive indices related with the permittivity and permeability,
whileOptical
the acoustic metamaterials’
metamaterials negative
have refraction
negative is determined
refractive indices by the effective
related masspermittivity
with the density and bulk
and
modulus. Sound waves have the nature of waves, and reflection and refraction
permeability, while the acoustic metamaterials' negative refraction is determined by occur at the
the interface
effective
between two media.
mass density and bulkAnd negative
modulus. refraction
Sound waves occurs
have when acoustic
the nature wavesand
of waves, scatter at the surfaces
reflection in the
and refraction
phononic crystals, leading to strong deformation [66]. Sound waves follow Snell’s law
occur at the interface between two media. Sound waves follow Snell's law when they are refracted, when they are
refracted, that is, they satisfy the following
that is, they satisfy the following equations: equations:

sinθ11 =
nn11sin sinθ22
 n22 sin (1)
(1)

where n1n1and
where andn2 nare
2 are
thethe refractive
refractive indices
indices of the
of the twotwo media,
media, θ1 and1 and
θ2 are2 the
areangles
the angles of incidence
of incidence and
and refraction,
refraction, respectively.
respectively. The material
The material properties
properties on both
on both sidessides of interface
of the the interface are different,
are different, and and
the
the nature
nature of refraction
of refraction is alsoisdifferent.
also different.
WhenWhen bothare
both sides sides are regular
regular materials,
materials, both
both sides sides
have have a
a positive
positive refractive
refractive index andindex andrefraction
positive positive occurs;
refraction occurs;
when when
one side is aone side medium
normal is a normal
andmedium
the otherand
sidethe
is
aother side
special is a special
medium with medium
a negative with a negative
refractive refractive
index, negativeindex, negative
refraction refraction
will occur will occur
(see Figure 20). (see
Figure 20).

Figure 20.
Figure 20. Negative refraction effect
effect [63].
[63].

A
A lot
lotof
ofresearch
researchhashasbeen
beendone
done ononthethe
negative refraction
negative refractioneffect of phononic
effect crystals.
of phononic YangYang
crystals. et al.et[67]
al.
studied a phononic focusing phenomenon in the passband over a complete
[67] studied a phononic focusing phenomenon in the passband over a complete band gap in a 3D band gap in a 3D phononic
crystal
phononicandcrystal
foundandthatfound
the wave
that propagation depends largely
the wave propagation depends onlargely
the frequency and the direction
on the frequency and the
of incidence,
direction and due to
of incidence, andthe
dueanisotropy of the propagation,
to the anisotropy very large
of the propagation, verynegative refraction
large negative occurs.
refraction
In 2019, Mokhtari et al. [68] proposed the metamaterial properties of a two-phase
occurs. In 2019, Mokhtari et al. [68] proposed the metamaterial properties of a two-phase unit cell unit cell traditionally
considered
traditionally to considered
be a non-local to resonance
be a non-localtype,resonance
and demonstrated
type, and a hexagonal
demonstrated unit acell composed
hexagonal of two
unit cell
materials. They found that within the appropriate frequency range, the effective
composed of two materials. They found that within the appropriate frequency range, the effective shear modulus and
density are both and
shear modulus negative andare
density canboth
produce negative
negative andrefraction.
can produce That same year,
negative Nemat-Nasser
refraction. That sameet al.year,
[69]
proved through et
Nemat-Nasser experiments that thethrough
al. [69] proved simple two-dimensional
experiments thatphononic
the simple crystals composed of aluminum
two-dimensional phononic
matrix
crystalsand circular of
composed flexible inclusions
aluminum matrix with
andsquare patterns
circular flexiblehave negative
inclusions refractive
with squarecharacteristics
patterns have
in the shear
negative mode characteristics
refractive and longitudinal mode.
in the shearDong
modeetandal. longitudinal
[56] proposed a space-curled
mode. Dong et al. metamaterial
[56] proposed
based on a broadband
a space-curled double-negative
metamaterial based on aresonator
broadband and spatial windingresonator
double-negative mechanism, and and verified
spatial winding the
double-negative characteristics and negative refraction of the material through
mechanism, and verified the double-negative characteristics and negative refraction of the material a large number of
numerical simulations.
through a large number of numerical simulations.

5.2.
5.2. Anomalous
Anomalous Doppler
Doppler Effect
Effect
The
The Doppler
Doppler effect
effect of
of natural
natural materials
materials is
is described
described as:
as: the
the wave
wave receiving
receiving frequency
frequency becomes
becomes
higher when the wave source moves toward the observer, and the wave receiving frequency
higher when the wave source moves toward the observer, and the wave receiving frequency becomes becomes
lower
lower when
when the
the wave
wave source
source moves
moves away
away from
from the
the observer.
observer. In
In aa metamaterial
metamaterial with
with aa negative
negative
refractive index, an anomalous Doppler effect occurs. When the wave source faces
refractive index, an anomalous Doppler effect occurs. When the wave source faces the observer, thethe observer,
the frequency
frequency received
received by the
by the observer
observer decreases,
decreases, andand
vicevice versa.
versa.
In 1968, Veselago [6] first theoretically predicted that metamaterials with negative refractive
indices could produce anomalous Doppler phenomena. In 2010, Lee et al. [70] used one-dimensional
long-period tubes to periodically arrange thin films and open holes on the side to prepare one-
dimensional double-negative acoustic composites. The abnormal Doppler phenomenon was tested
with a moving sound source. In 2015, Zhai et al. [71] designed an acoustic metamaterial with seven
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 14 of 26

In 1968, Veselago [6] first theoretically predicted that metamaterials with negative refractive
indices could produce anomalous Doppler phenomena. In 2010, Lee et al. [70] used one-dimensional
long-period tubes to periodically arrange thin films and open holes on the side to prepare one-
dimensional double-negative acoustic composites. The abnormal Doppler phenomenon was tested
with a moving sound source. In 2015, Zhai et al. [71] designed an acoustic metamaterial with seven
flute-like binary molecular clusters. Their research found that this metamaterial has both local elastic
modulus and local density of mass density, and can achieve negative refraction over a wide frequency
Crystalsand
range, 2020,also
10, x exhibit
FOR PEER REVIEW
broadband reverse Doppler effect. In 2017, Liu et al. [72] further studied14this of 26
structure and designed a test device to measure the Doppler effect. The experimental results show
structure
that in the and designed
negative a testregion
refraction deviceoftothe measure
acoustic the Doppler effect.
metamaterial, whenThetheexperimental
sound source results show
frequency
isthat
2000 in Hz:
the negative
when the refraction regionisofclose,
sound source the acoustic
the ratiometamaterial, whendetected
of the frequency the sound bysource frequency
the detector to
is 2000 Hz: when the sound source is close, the ratio of the frequency
the sound source is reduced by 0.73 Hz; when the sound source is far away, the detector detects detected by the detector to the
it
sound source
compared to theisincrease
reduced of by
0.680.73
Hz. Hz; when
In 2018, Zhaitheetsound
al. [73]source is anomalous
reported far away, the detector
Doppler detects
effects foundit
incompared
two commonly to the used
increase
windofinstruments
0.68 Hz. Inbased2018,on Zhai et al. [73]
flute-type reported
acoustic anomalousThey
metamaterials. Doppler
found effects
that
found in two commonly used wind instruments based on flute-type
both wind instruments can observe anomalous Doppler effects in the frequency range of two differentacoustic metamaterials. They
found and
speeds that ascending
both wind scales.
instruments can observe anomalous Doppler effects in the frequency range of
two different speeds and ascending scales.
5.3. Enlargement of the Evanescent Wave
5.3. Enlargement of the Evanescent Wave
When sound waves propagate in both media, evanescent waves and propagating waves that
carry Whensoundsound waves propagate
wave information in both media,
are generated. Because evanescent waves and propagating
of the characteristic that evanescentwaves that
waves
carry sound
disappear wavewith
rapidly information
increasing aredistance
generated. Because
during of the characteristic
propagation, the accuracy that
of evanescent waves
acoustic imaging
disappear
cannot rapidly with
be achieved increasing distance
at sub-wavelength size. In during
order propagation,
to break through the the
accuracy of acousticimaging
sub-wavelength imaging
cannot beit achieved
problem, is necessary at sub-wavelength
to realize that the size. In order
acoustic waveto break throughofthe
information thesub-wavelength
evanescent wave imaging
is not
problem,
lost. In theitfield
is necessary to realize that
of electromagnetics, basedthe acoustic wave information
on the left-handed materialof theaevanescent
with wave of
refractive index is not
−1
lost. In the field of electromagnetics, based on the left-handed material with
proposed by Veselago [6], the flat lens effect can be achieved. Pendry [74] proposed that metamaterials a refractive index of −1
proposed by Veselago [6], the flat lens effect can be achieved.
can be designed by using metamaterials so that the evanescent wave is amplified by the superlens Pendry [74] proposed that
metamaterialsWhen
propagation. can be thedesigned
evanescent by using
wavemetamaterials
leaves the perfect so that theitevanescent
lens, wave is
begins to reduce amplified
rapidly to theby
the superlens propagation . When the evanescent wave
original level, and theoretically a perfect image can be formed (see Figure 21). leaves the perfect lens, it begins to reduce
rapidly to the original level, and theoretically a perfect image can be formed (see Figure 21).

(a) (b)
Figure21.
Figure 21. (a)
(a)Wavenumber-frequency
Wavenumber-frequencyrepresentation
representation
of of
thethe signals
signals measured
measured under
under the the grating
grating for
for an
excitation frequency belonging to the gap; (b) Amplitude versus wavenumber at a frequency f = 396 kHz [75].
an excitation frequency belonging to the gap; (b) Amplitude versus wavenumber at a frequency
f=396kHz [75].
According to the analogy of optical super-lens research, it can be found that the method to achieve
acoustic sub-wavelength
According imaging
to the analogy of is to enlarge
optical the evanescent
super-lens wave
research, it can so
be that thethat
found evanescent wave
the method to
achieve acoustic sub-wavelength imaging is to enlarge the evanescent wave so that the evanescent
wave propagating in the near field can propagate to the far field imaging. In 2007, an acoustic
metamaterial with negative equivalent mass density was proposed by Ambati et al. [76] that can
amplify evanescent waves. Based on the above theory, in 2011, Park et al. [77] designed a
metamaterial plate that can amplify evanescent waves. Park et al. believe that expanding the
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 15 of 26

propagating in the near field can propagate to the far field imaging. In 2007, an acoustic metamaterial
with negative equivalent mass density was proposed by Ambati et al. [76] that can amplify evanescent
waves. Based on the above theory, in 2011, Park et al. [77] designed a metamaterial plate that can
amplify evanescent waves. Park et al. believe that expanding the evanescent wave must reduce its loss,
and requires that the imaginary part of its equivalent mass density is much smaller than the real part.
They improved the negative mass density material composed of a fluid that can be embedded with a
floating double
Crystals 2020, resonator,
10, x FOR and used a structure to cover the double resonator with a thin film to 15
PEER REVIEW avoid
of 26
losses. After the double resonator is covered with a thin film, the thin film blocks the liquid, allowing
thereby
the liquid reducing
to movelosses.
with theThis structure
entire also has the
dual resonator, advantage
thereby that the
reducing thinThis
losses. filmstructure
can support
alsothe
hasdual
the
resonator and
advantage thatmake
the thinit in a suitable
film position.
can support Further
the dual research,
resonator andtaking
make outit inthe dual resonator
a suitable position.from this
Further
structure,taking
research, still canoutobtain
the dualthe resonator
material with
fromnegative mass density.
this structure, still canAt this time,
obtain the structure
the material made of
with negative
aCrystals
mass 2020, film
stretched
density. 10,At
x FOR
thisPEER
can still REVIEW
time,amplify the evanescent
the structure made of awave. There
stretched filmarecan16still
thin film structures
amplify 15 ofin
arranged
the evanescent wave. 26

the x are
There direction
16 thinandfilmeight arranged
structures in the
arranged in zthe
direction
x directionto form a metamaterial
and eight arranged in the system with negative
z direction to form
thereby reducing losses. This structure also has the advantage that the thin film can support the dual
amass density (see
metamaterial Figure
system 22 (d)).
with Aftermass
negative calculation,
densitythe(seeimaginary
Figure 22d).partAfter
of thecalculation,
mass density theisimaginary
about 4%
resonator and make it in a suitable position. Further research, taking out the dual resonator from this
of the
part realmass
of the part,density
the energy loss4%
is about is of
very
the small, and
real part, thethe net amplitude
energy loss is verygainsmall,of and
the the
evanescent wave
net amplitude
structure, still can obtain the material with negative mass density. At this time, the structure made of
emerging
gain of thefrom the surface
evanescent waveofemerging
the metamaterial
from the system
surface reaches 17 times.
of the metamaterial system reaches 17 times.
a stretched film can still amplify the evanescent wave. There are 16 thin film structures arranged in
In 2019, Zhang et al. [78] proposed an acoustic metamaterial composed of rubber cylinders arranged
the x direction and eight arranged in the z direction to form a metamaterial system with negative
in a cubic lattice manner in an aqueous medium (see Figure 23). Using the finite-difference time-domain
mass density (see Figure 22 (d)). After calculation, the imaginary part of the mass density is about 4%
method (FDTD), they found that this interface mode can be used to enhance the transmission of
of the real part, the energy loss is very small, and the net amplitude gain of the evanescent wave
evanescent waves and achieve subwavelength imaging.
emerging from the surface of the metamaterial system reaches 17 times.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure 22. (a–c) Evolution of a floating double resonator to a thin film structure; (d) Negative mass
density system; (e) Amplified evanescent wave [77].

In 2019, Zhang et al. [78](d)proposed an acoustic metamaterial (e) composed of rubber cylinders
arranged in a cubic lattice manner in an aqueous medium (see Figure 23). Using the finite-difference
Figure22.
Figure
time-domain 22.method
(a–c)Evolution
(a–c) Evolution ofaathey
of
(FDTD), floating
floating double
double
found resonator
resonator
that totoaathin
this interfacethinmode
filmstructure;
film structure;
can be (d)(d)Negative
usedNegative mass the
mass
to enhance
density
transmission system;
density system; (e) Amplified
(e) Amplified
of evanescent evanescent
evanescent
waves wave [77].
wave subwavelength
and achieve [77]. imaging.

In 2019, Zhang et al. [78] proposed an acoustic metamaterial composed of rubber cylinders
arranged in a cubic lattice manner in an aqueous medium (see Figure 23). Using the finite-difference
time-domain method (FDTD), they found that this interface mode can be used to enhance the
transmission of evanescent waves and achieve subwavelength imaging.

Figure 23.
Figure 23. Supercell
Supercell for
for calculations
calculations of
of interface
interface modes
modes [78].
[78].

5.4. Perfect Sound Absorption Effects

The near-perfect sound absorption effect exhibited by acoustic metamaterials has attracted the
interest of a large number of23.
Figure researchers,
Supercell forand the useofofinterface
calculations its sound absorption
modes [78]. characteristics to
manufacture sound-absorbing materials has also become a research focus in recent years. In 2010, Pai
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 16 of 26

5.4. Perfect Sound Absorption Effects

The near-perfect sound absorption effect exhibited by acoustic metamaterials has attracted the
interest of a large number of researchers, and the use of its sound absorption characteristics to manufacture
sound-absorbing materials has also become a research focus in recent years. In 2010, Pai [79] reported that
humans absorbed electromagnetic waves more than electromagnetic metamaterials, and theoretically
proposed a wide-band elastic wave absorber to make it possible to use acoustic metamaterials to absorb
sound waves.
For the difficult problem of low frequency sound attenuation, Mei et al. [80] designed a structure
with a thin semi-circular metal plate attached to the film (see Figure 24). The structure is geometrically
open, similar to a cavity system. This structure achieves wide-band sound absorption in the low frequency
range of 100–1000 Hz, and the sound absorption rate reaches 86% at a frequency of 172 Hz. When the
structure is made into a double-layer film structure, the sound absorption rate can reach 99% at the
lowest resonance
Crystals frequency.
2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26

(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

(f)
Figure
Figure 24.24. (a) Film
(a) Film structure
structure diagram
diagram with a semi-circular
with a semi-circular metal
metal sheet; sheet; (b) sound
(b) Broadband Broadband sound
absorption
absorption
diagram; (c–e)diagram; (c–e) Sound
Sound absorption absorption
spectra spectra
at 172 Hz, at 172
340 Hz, 813Hz, 340 Hz,
Hz and 813 Hz and
displacement displacement
relationship of
relationship
the film system; of(f)
theGraph
film system; (f)absorption
of sound Graph of sound absorption and
and displacement [80].displacement [80].

InFor
2018,
the Zhao et al.
difficult [81] designed
problem an ultra-thin
of low frequency soundsub-wavelength
attenuation, Meiabsorber
et al. [80]based on aa regular
designed structure
coupling array that can achieve low-frequency absorption. They used a differential evolution algorithm
with a thin semi-circular metal plate attached to the film (see Figure 24). The structure is geometrically
toopen,
optimize the geometry
similar to a cavityof system.
the coupled
Thismicroslit,
structureand improved
achieves the absorption
wide-band sound of the microslit
absorption in the
in the low
300–800 Hz frequency band under different conditions. The ratio of the absorption thickness
frequency range of 100−1000 Hz, and the sound absorption rate reaches 86% at a frequency of 172 Hz. to the
wavelength
When the at the absorption
structure is madepeakinto was less than 3.4%,
a double-layer filmwhich proved
structure, the that
soundtheabsorption
absorptionrate
peakcan
was in
reach
the deep
99% Asia.
at the The role
lowest of the wavelength
resonance frequency. region.
In 2018, Zhao et al. [81] designed an ultra-thin sub-wavelength absorber based on a regular
coupling array that can achieve low-frequency absorption. They used a differential evolution
algorithm to optimize the geometry of the coupled microslit, and improved the absorption of the
microslit in the 300–800 Hz frequency band under different conditions. The ratio of the absorption
thickness to the wavelength at the absorption peak was less than 3.4%, which proved that the
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 17 of 26

In 2019, Wu [82] proposed an acoustic metamaterial for low-frequency sound absorption consisting
of three nested square-opened tubes and opposite opening directions (see Figure 25). The research
found that the sound absorption at the sound absorption peak exceeds 90%, and the sound absorption
frequency can be effectively adjusted by adjusting the geometric parameters of the sound absorber.
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26

Figure25.
Figure 25.The
Thediagram
diagramofofthe
theproposed
proposedstructure
structure[82].
[82].

InIn2020,
2020,JiJietetal.al.[83]
[83]compared
comparedthe theporous
porousacoustic
acousticmetamaterial
metamaterialwith withananinverted
invertedwedge
wedgeshapeshape
on the plane interface with a uniform melamine layer and a classic wedge-shaped
on the plane interface with a uniform melamine layer and a classic wedge-shaped sound absorption sound absorption
materialofof
material thethe
same same quality.
quality. BetterBetter
soundsound absorption
absorption at aofrange
at a range of frequencies
frequencies and anglesand angles of
of incidence.
incidence.
The above properties demonstrate the uniqueness of acoustic metamaterials. It’s these extraordinary
The ofabove
properties acousticproperties
metamaterials demonstrate
as well that the
lay a uniqueness
solid foundation of for
acoustic metamaterials.
its special It’s these
engineering application.
extraordinary
These properties
characteristics fill the of acoustic
gap metamaterials
in existing conventional asmaterial
well thatandlaypoint
a solid
outfoundation forfor
the direction itsfurther
special
research. Some applications of acoustic metamaterials and phononic crystals are described below. point
engineering application. These characteristics fill the gap in existing conventional material and
out the direction for further research. Some applications of acoustic metamaterials and phononic
6.crystals
Application of Acoustic
are described Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals
below.

6.1. Acoustic Stealth

6. Application Cloaks Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals
of Acoustic
In the field of electromagnetics, Leonhardt [84] and Pendry [85] et al. proposed in 2006 the use
of6.1. Acoustic optics
conversion StealthtoCloaks
achieve stealth. Using the method of conversion optics, the electromagnetic
parameters
In theof metamaterials
field are reasonably
of electromagnetics, Leonhardtdesigned so that
[84] and Pendryelectromagnetic waves do
[85] et al. proposed not scatter
in 2006 the use
when they pass through the hidden area, and guide the light around the object. After
of conversion optics to achieve stealth. Using the method of conversion optics, the electromagnetic bypassing the
metamaterial,
parameters ofthe electromagnetic
metamaterials wave then designed
are reasonably travels along its original
so that route. Due
electromagnetic waves to the existence
do not scatter
ofwhen
the cloak,
they pass through the hidden area, and guide the light around the object. After bypassingthe
electromagnetic waves are transmitted or reflected on the cloak, and do not enter the
area covered
metamaterial, bythe
theelectromagnetic
cloak. When anwave objectthen
is placed inside
travels alongtheitscloak,
originaltheroute.
light will
Duenot spread
to the insideof
existence
the
thecloak,
cloak,and the object will
electromagnetic not be
waves arescattered,
transmittedthereby achieving
or reflected thecloak,
on the effect and
of stealth.
do not In summary,
enter the area
the working principle of the cloak is to construct a virtual space, that is, a wave-free
covered by the cloak. When an object is placed inside the cloak, the light will not spread inside the space.
Based
cloak, andonthethe principle
object of conversion
will not be scattered, optics, Cummer
thereby et al.the
achieving [86] determined
effect the
of stealth. Inexistence
summary, ofthe
a
two-dimensional equation solution of transform acoustics with anisotropic mass
working principle of the cloak is to construct a virtual space, that is, a wave-free space. in cylindrical coordinates,
and theoretically discussed the possibility of acoustic stealth (see Figure 26). The acoustic transformation
formula they proposed for the two-dimensional stealth cloak is as follows:
!2
r r − R1 −1 R2 r − R1
ρr = , ρφ = ,λ = (2)
r − R1 r R2 − R1 r

where R1 is the radius of the stealth area and R2 is the outer radius of the stealth shell.
Based on the above two-dimensional theory, Chen et al. [87] used the expansion of the Bessel
function series in spherical coordinates to solve the scattering problem. In 2008, Cummer et al. [88]
verified the existence of a 3D acoustic wave stealth solution in fluids and the invariance of acoustic
(a) (b)
wave coordinate transformation, which established a theoretical basis for the proposed 3D stealth
cloak. Figure
Cheng26.
et (a)
al. Schematic
[89] used diagram
homogeneous andcloak
of a stealth isotropic
of 2Dmaterials to achieve
electromagnetic (b)Schematic
two-dimensional
metamaterials; acoustic
diagram of a stealth cloak of 3D electromagnetic metamaterials [86].

Based on the principle of conversion optics, Cummer et al. [86] determined the existence of a
two-dimensional equation solution of transform acoustics with anisotropic mass in cylindrical
coordinates, and theoretically discussed the possibility of acoustic stealth (see Figure 26). The acoustic
transformation formula they proposed for the two-dimensional stealth cloak is as follows:
 In the field of electromagnetics, Leonhardt [84] and Pendry [85] et al. proposed in 2006 the use
of conversion optics to achieve stealth. Using the method of conversion optics, the electromagnetic
parameters of metamaterials are reasonably designed so that electromagnetic waves do not scatter
when they pass through the hidden area, and guide the light around the object. After bypassing the
Crystals 2020, 10, 305the electromagnetic wave then travels along its original route. Due to the existence
metamaterial, 18 of of
26

the cloak, electromagnetic waves are transmitted or reflected on the cloak, and do not enter the area
covered by the cloak. When an object is placed inside the cloak, the light will not spread inside the
stealth of concentric alternating layered structure. Torrent et al. [90] used two-dimensional composite
cloak, and the object will not be scattered, thereby achieving the effect of stealth. In summary, the
cylindrical structure to achieve two-dimensional acoustic stealth.
working principle of the cloak is to construct a virtual space, that is, a wave-free space.

Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26
2
r r  R1 -1  R2  r  R1
r  ,  = , = 2 (2)
r r R1 r r R1 -1  R2R2 R1  r r R1
r  ,  = , =  (2)
r  R1 r  R2  R1  r
where R1 is the radius of the stealth area and R2 is the outer radius of the stealth shell.
whereBased
R1 is on
thethe above
radius two-dimensional
of the stealth area and theory, Chen
R2 is the et al.
outer [87] of
radius usedthe the expansion
stealth shell. of the Bessel
function
Based series
on the in spherical coordinates to solve
above two-dimensional theory,theChen
scattering problem.
et al. [87] used the In 2008, Cummer
expansion et al.
of the [88]
Bessel
verified the existence of a 3D acoustic
(a) wave stealth solution in fluids
(b) and
function series in spherical coordinates to solve the scattering problem. In 2008, Cummer et al. [88] the invariance of acoustic
wave coordinate
verified the 26.
existencetransformation,
of a 3D which
acoustic established
wave stealth a theoretical
solution basis
in fluids andforthe
theinvariance
proposed of 3Dacoustic
stealth
Figure
Figure 26. (a)(a)Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof ofaastealth
stealth cloak
cloak of
of 2D
2D electromagnetic metamaterials; (b)Schematic
electromagnetic metamaterials; (b)Schematic
cloak. coordinate
wave Cheng et al. [89] used homogeneous and isotropic materials
basis to forachieve two-dimensional
diagram
diagram ofof a transformation,
stealthcloak
a stealth cloakofof3D which established
3Delectromagnetic
electromagnetic a theoretical
metamaterials
metamaterials [86].
[86].
the proposed 3D stealth
acoustic
cloak. stealthetofal.concentric
Cheng [89] usedalternating
homogeneous layered andstructure.
isotropicTorrent
materialset al.to[90] used two-dimensional
achieve two-dimensional
composite
acoustic
The cylindrical
stealth
above
Based on arethe structure
of concentric
theoretically
principle of to achievelayered
alternating
achieved
conversion two-dimensional
optics,structure.
acoustic stealth, in
Cummer acoustic
Torrent etstealth.
etcontrast,
al. [86] al.
to[90] used acoustic
achieve
determined two-dimensional
stealth
the existence ofin
a
The
composite
experiments above
is are
cylindrical theoretically
relativelystructure
hard. toachieved
achieve
Stealth cloaksacoustic stealth,
two-dimensional
usually requirein contrast,
acoustic
the to
stealth.
production
two-dimensional equation solution of transform acoustics with anisotropic mass in cylindrical achieve
of acoustic
anisotropic stealth in
materials.
Ifexperiments
oneThe
wantsabove
coordinates, isand
to relatively
are
achieve hard. discussed
theoretically
acoustic
theoretically Stealth
achieved
stealth cloaks
inthe usually
acoustic
reality, one
possibilityrequire
stealth,
must inthe
find production
contrast,
another
of acoustic stealthtoway.
(seeofIn
achieveanisotropic
acoustic
2017,
Figure Chen
26). materials.
stealth
The in
etacoustic
al. [91]
If one
proposed wants
experiments to achieve
is relatively
a ring-shaped
transformation acoustic
hard.
formulaunderwater stealth
Stealth
they proposed in reality,
cloaks
acoustic one
usually
cape
for the must find
requiremade
structure
two-dimensional another
the production way.
of aluminum
stealth cloak In 2017, Chen
ofisanisotropic
blocks et al. [91]
(see materials.
as follows: Figure 27),
proposed
If one wantsa ring-shaped
to achieve underwater
acoustic stealthacoustic
in cape
reality, structure
one must
achieving an average reduction of −6.3 dB in the frequency range of 9–15 kHz. made
find of aluminum
another way. In blocks(see
2017, Chen Figure 27),
et al. [91]
achieving aan
proposed average reduction
ring-shaped underwaterof −6.3 dB in cape
acoustic the frequency
structure range
made of of aluminum
9–15 kHz. blocks(see Figure 27),
achieving an average reduction of −6.3 dB in the frequency range of 9–15 kHz.

(a) (b)
Figure27.
27.(a)(a)Image
Image (a) machined from an aluminum (b)
Figure of of
thethe cloak
cloak machined from an aluminum block;block; (b) Enlarged
(b) Enlarged view ofview of one
one segment,
segment, highlighted
Figure 27. in
highlighted (a)(a)Image in (a) [91].
[91]. of the cloak machined from an aluminum block; (b) Enlarged view of one
segment, highlighted in (a) [91].
Thesame
The sameyear,
year,Bi
Bietetal.
al.[92]
[92]designed
designed an
an underwater
underwater carpet cape
cape composed
composedof ofmultilayer
multilayerbrass
brass
platesThe
plates bybyintroducing
introducing
same aascale
year, Bi scale
et factor
al. factor and sacrificing
and
[92] designed impedance
an underwater matching
matching
carpet (see
(see Figure
Figure
cape composed of28).
28).Experimental
Experimental
multilayer brass
resultsshowed
results
plates showed
by thatthe
that
introducing the stealth
stealth
a scale carpet
carpet
factor andcan uneven
uneven information
hide theimpedance
sacrificing information on
onthe
matching (see the reflective
reflective
Figure surface
surfaceininaa
28). Experimental
widefrequency
wide
resultsfrequency range.
showed range.
that the stealth carpet can hide the uneven information on the reflective surface in a
wide frequency range.

Figure 28. Experimental prototype of the carpet cloak [92].

Figure 28.
Figure 28. Experimental
Experimental prototype
prototype of
of the
the carpet
carpet cloak
cloak[92].
[92].
In 2019, He et al. [93] proposed an ultra-thin planar stealth structure based on a periodic sound
gridInstructure(see
In 2019,
2019,He
Heet Figure
etal.
al.[93] 29.). Through
[93]proposed
proposed an softwareplanar
an ultra-thin
ultra-thin simulation
stealthresults,
stealth it was
structure
structure found
based
based that when
onaaperiodic
on periodic the
sound
sound
incident
grid frequency
structure (see was
Figure 300
29).kHz, the
Through acoustic
software target intensity
simulation decreased
results, it was (TSR)
found −5.425
that dB.
when
grid structure(see Figure 29.). Through software simulation results, it was found that when the the incident
incident frequency
frequency was 300
was 300 kHz, kHz, the target
the acoustic acoustic target intensity
intensity decreaseddecreased (TSR)dB.
(TSR) −5.425 −5.425 dB.
 Crystals2020,
Crystals 10,x305
2020,10, FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of1926of 26
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 26

Figure 29. Acoustic metamaterialfor

Acousticmetamaterial
metamaterial for ultrasoundcloaking
cloaking [93].
Figure29.
Figure 29.Acoustic for ultrasound
ultrasound cloaking[93].
[93].
6.2.Extraordinary
6.2. ExtraordinaryAcoustic
Acoustic Abnormal
Abnormal Transmission
TransmissionEffects
Effects
6.2. Extraordinary Acoustic Abnormal Transmission Effects
InIn1998,
1998, Ebbesen
Ebbesenetet al. al.
[94][94]
realized the phenomenon
realized the phenomenon of opticalofextraordinary transmissiontransmission
optical extraordinary through a
In 1998, Ebbesen
subwavelength hole et al.
array. [94] realized
Inspired by the Lu
Ebbesen, phenomenon
et al. [95] of optical
found that the extraordinary
sound wave’s transmission
extraordinary
through a subwavelength hole array. Inspired by Ebbesen, Lu et al. [95] found that the sound wave's
through a subwavelength
transmission behavior hole array.
through Inspired by Ebbesen,
a one-dimensional Lu et al.a[95] found that the sound wave's
extraordinary transmission behavior through grating achieves
a one-dimensional sound transmittance
grating achieves close
a to 1.
sound
extraordinary
He et al. [96] transmission
sculpted periodical behavior
air grooves through
on both a
sides one-dimensional
of a copper plate, andgrating
also achieves
achieved a sound
extraordinary
transmittance close to 1. He et al. [96] sculpted periodical air grooves on both sides of a copper plate,
transmittance
sound close to 1. He et al. [96] sculpted periodical air grooves on both sides of a copper plate,
and alsotransmission.
achieved extraordinary sound transmission.
and also By changingextraordinary
achieved sound transmission.
the structural parameters, the curled space structure can also achieve the characteristics
By changing the structural parameters, the curled space structure can also achieve the
of By changing the
metamaterials suchstructural
as zero mass parameters,
density, so thethecurled
curledspace
space structure
structure can can also
alsoachieve
achievethethe
characteristics of metamaterials such as zero mass density, so the curled space structure can also
characteristics
extraordinaryof metamaterials
acoustic transmission sucheffect.
as zero massCheng
In 2015, density,
et al.so[97]
thedesigned
curled space structure system
a Mie resonance can also
achieve the extraordinary acoustic transmission effect. In 2015, Cheng et al. [97] designed a Mie
achieve
with a the
curly extraordinary
space structure, acoustic
as shown transmission
in Figure 30a. effect. In 2015,
This Mie Cheng
ultra-slow et al. [97]
fluid-like unit designed a Mie
has eight parts
resonance system with a curly space structure, as shown in Figure 30(a). This Mie ultra-slow fluid-
distributed
resonance uniformly,
system with aas shown
curly in Figure
space 30b, as
structure, and the simplified
shown in Figurestructure
30(a). Thisis shown in Figure 30c.
Mie ultra-slow fluid-
like unit has eight parts distributed uniformly, as shown in Figure 30(b), and the simplified structure
Inunit
like Figure
has30d,eight a long
partsand tortuous uniformly,
distributed acoustic wave transmission
as shown in Figurechannel is and
30(b), set, and the acousticstructure
the simplified wave
ispropagation
shown in Figure 30(c).
path is30(c).
comparedIn Figure 30(d),
after the a long
acoustic and tortuous
metamaterial acoustic
unitacoustic wave
is placed.wave
When transmission
not placed, the channel
sound isis
is shown in Figure In Figure 30(d), a long and tortuous transmission channel
set, andbasically
the acoustic wave propagation pathAfter
is compared after theofacoustic metamaterial unit is
set,wave
and the acoustic has nowave
eye channel transmission.
propagation path is being placed,
compared aftermost the sound
the acoustic wave propagates
metamaterial unit is
placed.
through When not
the channel. placed, the
The results sound wave
of the wave basically
comparative has
experiments no eye
clearly channel
show the transmission. After
ultrasonic transmission being
placed. When not placed, the sound basically has no eye channel transmission. After being
placed,
capabilitymost the of the sound wave propagates through the channel. The results of the comparative
placed, mostofof Miesound
the resonancewave unit.
propagates through the channel. The results of the comparative
experiments clearly show the ultrasonic transmission capability of the Mie resonance unit.
experiments clearly show the ultrasonic transmission capability of the Mie resonance unit.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
(d)
Figure
Figure30.
30. (a–c)
(a–c)Mie
Mie resonant
resonant unit with
with coiled
coiled space
spacestructure;
structure;(d)(d)Meta-acoustic
Meta-acoustic transmission
transmission of of
Figure 30. (a–c) Mie resonant unit with coiled space structure; (d) Meta-acoustic transmission of
metamaterials [97].
metamaterials [97].
metamaterials [97].
 Crystals 2020, 10, 305 20 of 26
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26

In 2018,InDong2018, Dong et al. [98] proposed an acoustic super lens based on the idea of far-field acoustic
et al. [98] proposed an acoustic super lens based on the idea of far-field acoustic
super-resolution (seePEER
Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR Figure 31). It was found that the far-field super-resolution of λ/6 can be achieved
REVIEW 20 of 26
super-resolution(see Figure 31). It was found that the far-field super-resolution of λ/6 can
by using a multiple signal classification algorithm combined with a supersonic lens.
be achieved
by using a multiple
In 2018, Dongsignal classification
et al. [98] proposedalgorithm
an acousticcombined withon
super lens based a supersonic lens. acoustic
the idea of far-field
super-resolution(see Figure 31). It was found that the far-field super-resolution of λ/6 can be achieved
by using a multiple signal classification algorithm combined with a supersonic lens.

Figure
Figure 31.
31. A
Figure A
A schematic
31.schematic diagram
diagram of
schematicdiagram ofan
of anacoustic
an superlens
acoustic
acoustic [98].
superlens
superlens [98]. [98].

In 2020, Dong et al. [99] designed a class of multi-cavity 2D and 3D acoustic metamaterials (AMMs),
InDong
2020, Dong et[99]
al. [99] designeda aclass
class of
of multi-cavity 2D 2D
andand
3D acoustic metamaterials
In 2020,
and converted et
theal.
3D designed
structure into a super lens (seemulti-cavity
Figure 32). 3D acoustic metamaterials
(AMMs), and converted the 3D structure into a super lens (see Figure 32).
(AMMs), and converted the 3D structure into a super lens (see Figure 32).

(a) (b)
Figure 32.
Figure 32. (a)
(a) Fabricated
Fabricated3D(a)microstructure
3D microstructuresample;
sample;(b) (b) ofofa 3D
(b)Photograph
Photograph a 3D superlens
superlens containing
containing 8 ×8 9×
9 ×3 3microstructures
× microstructures [99].
[99].
Figure 32. (a) Fabricated 3D microstructure sample; (b) Photograph of a 3D superlens containing 8 ×
9 × 3 microstructures
Numerical and[99].
Numerical and experimental
experimental verifications
verifications show
show that
that the
the intensity
intensity distribution
distribution measured
measured by
by the
the
3D
3D superlens
superlens indicates
indicates that
that the
the sub-wavelength
sub-wavelengthresolution
resolutionisis0.46λ
0.46λ00,, and
and two well-focused
well-focused points
points can
can
be
be obtained
obtained
Numerical regardless
andregardless of
of the
experimentalthe phase
phase shift.
shift. Secondly,
Secondly,
verifications show due to
to the
duethat the highly
highly
the symmetrical
symmetrical
intensity 3D
3D AMM,
AMM,
distribution acoustic
acoustic by the
measured
imaging
imaging can
can be
be achieved
achieved with
with normal
normal incidence on
oneach
eachface
incidenceresolution of
faceis the
thesample.
of0.46λ sample.
3D superlens indicates that the sub-wavelength 0, and two well-focused points can

be obtained
6.3. regardless
6.3. Underwater
Underwater of the
Sound
Sound phase shift. Secondly, due to the highly symmetrical 3D AMM, acoustic
Absorption
Absorption
imaging canInbe2019,
achieved
Zhong etwith normal
al. [100] incidence
put forward ontheoretical
the two each facerequirements
of the sample.
for the ultra-thin acoustic
In 2019, Zhong et al. [100] put forward the two theoretical requirements for the ultra-thin
surface
acoustictosurface
fully absorb low-frequency
to fully underwaterunderwater
absorb low-frequency acoustic broadband
acoustic under the action
broadband underof the
semi-infinite
action of
6.3. Underwater
air, Sound
and basedair,
semi-infinite Absorption
on this, designed
and based a rubber
on this, periodically
designed a rubberembedded in the
periodically cavity (see
embedded Figure
in the 33).(see
cavity TheFigure
layer
is acoustically super-surface and achieves perfect sound absorption at a frequency of 500
33). The layer is acoustically super-surface and achieves perfect sound absorption at a frequency of Hz.
In 2019, TheZhong et al.
same year, Shi [100] put designed
et al. [101] forwarda multilayer
the two theoretical
local resonance requirements
scattering bodyfor theonultra-thin
based
500 Hz.
acousticthe
surface to fully mechanism
local resonance absorb low-frequency
and the idea of underwater acoustic
coupled resonance broadband
(see Figure 34). They under the action of
used finite
semi-infinite
element air,analysis
and based on the
to study this,band
designed a rubber periodically
gap characteristics embedded
and sound absorption in the cavity
characteristics (see Figure
of the
proposed multilayered locally resonant acoustic metamaterials (M-LRAMs). Numerical
33). The layer is acoustically super-surface and achieves perfect sound absorption at a frequency of results show
500 Hz. that M-LRAMs have more obvious advantages in underwater sound absorption than traditional locally
resonant acoustic metamaterials (LRAMs).

(a) (b)
6.3. Underwater Sound Absorption
In 2019, Zhong et al. [100] put forward the two theoretical requirements for the ultra-thin
acoustic surface to fully absorb low-frequency underwater acoustic broadband under the action of
semi-infinite air, and based on this, designed a rubber periodically embedded in the cavity (see Figure
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 21 of 26
33). The layer is acoustically super-surface and achieves perfect sound absorption at a frequency of
500 Hz.

Crystals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26

The same year, Shi et al. [101] designed a multilayer local resonance scattering body based on
the local resonance mechanism and the idea of coupled resonance (see Figure 34). They used finite
element analysis to study the band gap characteristics and sound absorption characteristics of the
(a) (b)
proposed multilayered locally resonant acoustic metamaterials (M-LRAMs). Numerical results show
Figure
Figure 33. (a)have
that M-LRAMs A schematic
schematic
more viewviewofofan
obvious anadvantages
underwater
underwater absorptive
absorptive
in metasurface
metasurface
underwater with
sound with a finite-thickness
a finite-thickness
absorption thansteelsteel
traditional
plate
plate followed
followed by
byair; (b)
air; A
(b) physical
A realization
physical
locally resonant acoustic metamaterials (LRAMs). of the
realization proposed
of the metasurface
proposed for perfect
metasurface forabsorption
perfect [100].
absorption
[100].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 34. The
Figure 34. Thecross-section
cross-section
for afor a cell
unit unitofcell of the
the three three proposed
proposed devices: (a)devices: (a) Conventional
Conventional LRAMs; (b) LRAMs LRAMs;
(b)
withLRAMs with double-layered
double-layered cylindrical
cylindrical scatterers; (c) LRAMs scatterers; (c) LRAMs
with three-layered with three-layered
cylindrical scatterers [101]. cylindrical
scatterers [101].
The same year, Zhong et al. [102] proposed a metamaterial sheet consisting of a particle-filled
polyurethane
The samedamping material
year, Zhong et and a square
al. [102] lattice ofaa metamaterial
proposed spiral resonator.sheet
Basedconsisting
on theoretical
of acalculations
particle-filled
and experimental
polyurethane results,material
damping they foundandthat the average
a square sound
lattice of aabsorption coefficient
spiral resonator. of theon
Based proposed
theoretical
metamaterial board in the frequency range of 0.8–6 kHz is 0.54 at normal atmospheric pressure.
calculations and experimental results, they found that the average sound absorption coefficient of the Further
research found
proposed that the average
metamaterial board sound
in the absorption
frequencycoefficient
range of of the metamaterial
0.8−6 kHz is 0.54 at board can reach
normal 0.51
atmospheric
under the conditions that the pressure is lower than 0.5 MPa and the frequency range
pressure. Further research found that the average sound absorption coefficient of the metamaterialis 1.5–6 kHz.
board can reach
6.4. Other 0.51 under the conditions that the pressure is lower than 0.5 MPa and the frequency
Applications
range is 1.5–6 kHz.
Over the past ten years, due to the strange properties of acoustic metamaterials, acoustic metamaterials
have beenApplications
6.4. Other applied to many other aspects. Christensen et al. [103] achieved the acoustic collimation
of longer-wavelength sound waves through a two-dimensional array of subwavelength holes in a
metalOver
film.the past ten toyears,
Analogous due
optical to the Cox
rainbows, strange
et al.properties of acoustic
[104] implemented metamaterials,
acoustic acoustic
rainbows using
metamaterials have been applied to many other aspects. Christensen et al. [103] achieved
many thin perforated plates separated by half a wavelength. Liang et al. [105,106] have theoretically the acoustic
collimation
proposed and of longer-wavelength
experimentally designedsound waves 1D
a simple through a two-dimensional
superlattice and an acoustic array
diodeofcomposed
subwavelength
of
holes in a metal
nonlinear film.which
materials, Analogous to optical
can change rainbows,
the original Cox et
frequency al.2f[104]
f to implemented
to achieve acoustic
the frequency rainbows
doubling
using many
function. Withthin
the perforated plates separated
rapid development of acoustic by half a wavelength.
metamaterials, its uniqueLiang et al.
properties are[105,106]
constantlyhave
theoretically proposed
being discovered and experimentally
and applied to many new fields,designed
suchaassimple 1D superlattice
architectural and so
acoustics and anon.
acoustic diode
composed of nonlinear materials, which can change the original frequency f to 2f to achieve the
frequency doubling function. With the rapid development of acoustic metamaterials, its unique
properties are constantly being discovered and applied to many new fields, such as architectural
acoustics and so on.

7. Concluding Remarks
Crystals 2020, 10, 305 22 of 26

7. Concluding Remarks
The study of phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials not only has important scientific research
value, but also great practical value. The discovery of phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials
provides a new solution for vibration isolation and sound absorption. Therefore, the research work on
phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials has attracted widespread attention from the academic
community. In the future, research on acoustic metamaterials and phononic crystals can focus on the
following directions:

(1) Deepen the effect of lattice parameters, structural configurations, and material properties of
phononic crystals and acoustic metamaterials on the band gap characteristics;
(2) Based on existing research on phononic crystal forbidden bands, designing more phononic
crystals with different materials, shapes and decreasing the lattice sizes to meet actual needs;
(3) Continue to advance the research on the local resonance mechanism for acoustic metamaterials
and strive to achieve the control of elastic waves in low frequency bands and broader width for
forbidden bands;
(4) Increase the experimental research of phononic crystals and acoustic metamateirals, and expand
theoretical research to practical applications.

The exploration of phononic crystals is only a few decades old, and there are still many valuable
materials and uses to be studied. With the deepening of research on phononic crystals, many practical
acoustic metamaterials will be extended to promote the development of sound insulation and noise reduction.

Author Contributions: Writing and revision: J.L.; revision and editing: H.G.; conceptualization, review and
editing: T.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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