Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

CHAPTER 4: ROLLING PROCESS

Metal rolling
It is a plastic deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by compressive forces
exerted by two opposing rolls. Rolling is the most widely used forming process, which provides
high production and close control of final product. Metal is subjected to high compressive stresses
as a result of the friction between the rolls and the metal surface. Most rolling processes are very
capital intensive, requiring massive pieces of equipment, called rolling mills, to perform them. The
high investment cost requires the mills to be used for production in large quantities of standard
items such as sheets and plates. Most rolling is carried out by hot working, called hot rolling, owing
to the large amount of deformation required. Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual stresses,
and its properties are isotropic. Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot be held to
close tolerances, and the surface has a characteristic oxide scale. Further flattening of hot-rolled
plates and sheets is often accomplished by cold rolling, in order to prepare them for subsequent
sheet metal operations. Cold rolling strengthens the metal and permits a tighter tolerance on
thickness. In addition, the surface of the cold-rolled sheet is absent of scale and generally superior
to the corresponding hot-rolled product. These characteristics make cold-rolled sheets, strips, and
coils ideal for stampings, exterior panels, and other parts of products ranging from automobiles to
appliances and office furniture.

Figure 1 Flat rolling process

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work part and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section

Rolling equipment
Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping metal by passing it through rollers. A rolling
mill basically consists of:
 rolls
 bearings
 a housing for containing these parts
 a drive (motor) for applying power to the rolls and controlling the speed
Rolling mill requires very rigid construction, large motors to supply enough power (MN),
successive stands of a large continuous mill and are expensive. Various rolling mill configurations
are available to deal with the variety of applications and technical problems in the rolling process.

Two-high rolling mill

This rolling mill consists of two opposing rolls and is referred to as a two-high rolling mill. Two-
high configuration can be either reversing or non- reversing. In the non-reversing mill, rolls always
rotate in the same direction, and the work always passes through from the same side. Reversing
mill allows the direction of roll rotation to be reversed, so that the work can be passed through in
either direction. This permits a series of reductions to be made through the same set of rolls, simply
by passing through the work from opposite directions multiple times. Disadvantage of the
reversing configuration is the significant angular momentum possessed by large rotating rolls and
the associated technical problems involved in reversing the direction.

Figure 2 Two high roll

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

Three-high rolling mill

In the three-high configuration, there are three rolls in a vertical column, and the direction of
rotation of each roll remains unchanged. To achieve a series of reductions, the work can be passed
through from either side by raising or lowering the strip after each pass. The equipment in a three-
high rolling mill becomes more complicated, because an elevator mechanism is needed to raise
and lower the work.

Figure 3 Three roll mill

Four-high rolling mill:

The four-high rolling mill uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work and two backing
rolls behind them. Advantages are gained in reducing roll diameter. Roll-work contact length is
reduced with a lower roll radius, and this leads to lower forces, torque, and power. Owing to the
high roll forces, these smaller rolls would deflect elastically between their end bearings as the work
passes through unless the larger backing rolls were used to support them.

Figure 4 Four roll mill

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Cluster rolling mill

Cluster roll mill configuration allows smaller working rolls against the work. These mills are also
called as sendzimir mills.

Figure 5 Cluster roll mill

Tandem rolling mill

This consists of series of rolling stations of the order of 8 to 10. In each station, thickness reduction
is given to the sheet. With each rolling station, the work velocity increases. This is fully used in
industry practice, along with continuous casting operation. This results in reduction in floor space,
shorter manufacturing lead time.

Figure 6 Tandem roll mill

Planetary mill
It consists of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large number of planetary rolls. Each
planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular path between
the backing rolls and the slab. As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the work
piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat that reduction. The overall reduction is the
summation of a series of small reductions by each pair of rolls. But the planetary mill with hot
working can reduce a slab directly to strip in one pass through the mill. The operation requires
feed rolls to introduce the slab into the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls on the exit to improve
the surface finish.

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

Figure 7 Planetary roll mill

Forces and geometrical relationship in rolling process

Figure 8 illustrates the relationship between the geometry of rolls and forces involved in metal
deformation by rolling process.

Figure 8 Forces acting during rolling

A metal sheet with a thickness ho enters the rolls at the entrance plane XX with a velocity vo. It
passes through the roll gap and leaves the exit plane YY with a reduced thickness hf and at a
velocity vf. Given that there is no increase in width, the vertical compression of the metal is
translated into an elongation in the rolling direction. Since there is no change in metal volume at a
given point per unit time throughout the process, therefore:

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bo hovo  bhv  bh f v f (1)

where b is the width of the sheet and v is the velocity at any thickness h intermediate between ho
and hf.
In order that a vertical element in the sheet remain undistorted, the exit velocity vo must be greater
that the entrance velocity vf . The velocity of the sheet must steadily increase from entrance to exit
such that a vertical element in the sheet remain undistorted. At only one point along the surface of
contact between the roll and the sheet is the surface velocity of the roll is equal to the velocity of
the sheet. This point is called as neutral point or no-slip point. This is indicated by point N in figure
8.

At any point along the surface of contact between the roll and the sheet, two forces act on the
metal:

1) Radial force Pr and

2) Tangential frictional force F

Between the entrance plane (XX) and the neutral point the sheet is moving slower than the roll
surface, and the tangential frictional force, F, act in the direction show in in figure 9 to draw the
metal into the roll. On the exit side (YY) of the neutral point, the sheet moves faster than the roll
surface. The direction of the frictional force is then reversed so that it opposes the delivery of the
sheet from the rolls (figure 9).

Figure 9 Friction force direction

Pr is the radial force whose vertical component is called as rolling load P. Rolling load is the force
with which the rolls press against the metal. Since this is equal to the force exerted by the metal in
trying to force the rolls apart, it is frequently called as separating force. The specific roll pressure,

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p, is the rolling load divided by the contact area. The contact area between the tool and the metal
is equal to the product of width of sheet (b) and projected length of the arc of contact (Lp).

1
  ho  h f  
2 2

Lp   R  ho  h f     R  ho  h f  
1
   Rh 
1
2 2 (2)
 4 
 

The specific roll pressure is given by

P
p (3)
b  Lp

The distribution of roll pressure along the arc of contact shows that the pressure rises to a maximum
at the neutral point and then falls off as shown by figure 10. The pressure distribution does not
come to a sharp peak at the neutral point, which indicates that the neutral point is not really a line
on the roll surface but an area. Area under the curve is proportional to the rolling load. The area in
shade represents the force required to overcome frictional forces between the roll and the sheet.
The area under the dashed line AB represents the force required to deform the metal in plane
homogeneous compression.

Figure 10 Distribution of roll pressure along the arc of contact

The angle α between the entrance plane and the centerline of the rolls is called as the angle of
contact or angle of bite. From figure 8, the horizontal component of the normal force is Prsinα and
the horizontal component of the friction force is Fcosα. For the workpiece to enter the throat of

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

the roll, the horizontal component of the friction force must be equal to or greater than the
horizontal component of the normal force. The limiting condition for unaided entry of a slab into
the rolls is
F cos  Pr sin  (4)

F sin 
  tan  (5)
Pr cos 

F   Pr where   tan  (6)

The workpiece cannot be drawn into the rolls if the tangent of the contact angle exceeds the
coefficient of friction (tan α > µ). If µ = 0, rolling cannot occur. But as µ increases progressively
larger sabs will be drawn into the roll throat. In hot rolling process, where there is a desire to
achieve large reduction in a short time, roll have grooves cut in them parallel to roll axis to increase
the effective value of µ. Use of bigger rolls or if the roll diameter is fixed, reduction in the value
of ho also helps in free engagement.

Maximum reduction
For the same friction conditions, a large diameter roll will permit a thicker slab to enter the rolls
than a small diameter roll. This is because tanα will be same of both the cases, but the length of
the arcs of contact will be different.

Figure 11 Roll engagement

From figure 11, considering triangle ABC, we can write

R 2  L2p   R  a 
2

L2p  R 2  R 2  a 2  2 Ra (7)

L2p  2 Ra  a 2

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Since the value of a is much smaller than R, we can ignore a2.

Lp   2 Ra  2   Rh 
1 1
2 (8)

where h  ho  h f  2a

We have
Lp Rh h
  tan     (9)
R  h R  h R
2 2
 h max   2 R (10)

Roll flattening
When high forces generated in rolling are transmitted to the workpiece through the rolls, there are
two major types of elastic distortions:
1) The rolls tend to bend along their length because the workpiece tends to separate them while
they are restrained at their ends. This leads to thickness variation over the width.
2) The rolls flatten in the region where they contact the workpiece. The radius of the curvature is
increased R to R’ (roll flattening)

Figure 12 Roll flattening

According to analysis by Hitchcock, the radius of curvature increases from R to R’
 CP ' 
R '  R 1   (11)
 b  ho  h f  

16 1   2 
Where C  and P’ is the rolling road based on the deformed roll radius.
E

Simplified analysis of rolling load

The main parameters in rolling are:
 The roll diameter

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 The deformation resistance of the metal as influenced by metallurgy, temperature and strain
rate
 The friction between the rolls and the workpiece
 The presence of the front tension and/or back tension in the plane of the sheet

The rolling load is given by the roll pressure times the area of contact between the metals and the
rolls. Three conditions can be considered during rolling process.
1) No friction condition
2) Normal friction condition
3) Sticky friction condition

In the case of no friction situation, the rolling load (P) is given by the roll pressure (p) times the
area of contact between the metal and the rolls (bLp).

P  pbLp   o' b Rh (12)

where the roll pressure (p) is the yield stress in plane strain (o’)when there is no change in the
width (b) of the sheet.
In the normal case of friction situation in plane strain, the average pressure p can be calculated as,


p
'

Q
 e  1
1 Q (13)
o

 Lp
where Q  and ℎ̅ = the mean thickness between entry and exit from rolls.
h
The rolling load is given by,
P  pbLp (14)

Thus we have
1  1 
 O   eQ  1 b Rh    o'   eQ  1 b Rh 
2
P (15)
3 Q  Q 
The factor 2⁄√3 arises because flat rolling is a plane strain situation, so that the flow stress should
be the flow stress in plane strain. The equation shows that rolling load increases with rolling
diameter at a rate greater than √𝐷, depending on the contribution from friction hill. The rolling
load also increases as the sheet entering the rolls becomes thinner. Eventually a point is reached

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where deformation resistance of the sheet is greater than the roll pressure which can be applied
and no further reduction in thickness can be achieved. This occur when the rolls in contact with
the sheet are both severely elastically deformed.

Frictional force is needed to pull the metal into the rolls and responsible for a large portion of the
rolling load. High friction results in high rolling load, a steep friction hill and great tendency for
edge cracking. The friction varies from point to point along the contact arc of the roll. The friction
varies from point to point along the contact arc of the roll. However, it is very difficult to measure
this variation in µ, all theory of rolling is forced to assume a constant coefficient of friction.

• For cold-rolling with lubricants, µ ~ 0.05 – 0.10.

• For hot-rolling, µ ~ 0.2 up to sticky condition

Sticking friction condition can occur during the rolling process. Considering compression under
plane strain condition,

a  L 
p   o'   1   o'  p  1 (16)
 2h   4h 
We now,
P  pbLp (17)

Therefore,
 Rh 
P   o'   1 b Rh (18)
 4 h 

Relationship between coefficient of friction, rolling load and torque

We have known that the location of the neutral point N is where the direction of the friction force
changes as shown in figure 13. Angle of bite can be used to establish µ. From the entry plane to
the neutral point the friction force acts in the direction of roll rotation, while on the exit side of
neutral point it reverses the direction. If back tension is applied gradually to the sheet, the neutral
point N shifts toward the exit plane.

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Figure 13 Neutral point and direction of frictional force

The total rolling load P and torque MT (per unit of width b) is given by:
Lp
P
b
  pdx (19)
0
Lp Lp
Mt P
b
    pdx R   R  pdx  R b (20)
0 0

Thus,
Mt
 (21)
PR
where µ is obtained by measuring the torque and the rolling load at constant roll speed and
reduction with the proper back tension.
The proper back tension to bring the neutral point to the exit plane is achieved when the exit
velocity of the sheet vf is equal to the surface velocity of the rolls vr = Rω. This can be expressed
another way by stating the forward slip Sf equals to zero.
v f  vr
Sf  (22)
vr

1 r   
Sf   1  2  (23)
4 1  r  2 

ho  h f
where r  is the reduction and α is the angle of bite.
ho
The minimum thickness of the sheet that can be rolled on a given mill is directly related to the
coefficient of friction. Since coefficient of thickness is much lower for cold working than hot

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working, thinner gage sheets can be produced by col rolling process. In cold thinner sheets can be
produced by increasing the roll speed which reduces the friction coefficient.

Back and front tension in sheets

The presence of back and front tensions in the plane of the sheet reduces the rolling load. Back
tension may be produced by controlling the speed of the uncoiler relative to the roll speed. Front
tension may be created by controlling the coiler. Back tension is twice as effective in reducing the
rolling load P as front tension. The effect of sheet tension on reducing rolling pressure p can be
shown simply by:
2
p  1   3  o (24)
3
2
p    h    o or (25)
3
2
p o h (26)
3
where h = horizontal sheet tension and the compressive stresses are taken as positive.

Thus, the roll pressure is reduced in direct proportion to the tension in the plane of the sheet. This
results in less wear of rolls and improved flatness and uniform thickness across the width of the
sheet. As shown schematically in figure 14, the addition of both front and back tension materially
reduces the area under the curve, although there is little shift in neutral point.

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Figure 14 Effect of strip tension on the distribution of roll pressure

If a high enough back tension is applied, the neutral point moves toward the roll exit. When this
happens, the rolls are moving faster than the metal and they slide over the surface. If the front
tension is used, the neutral point will move toward the roll entrance.

Problems and defects in rolled products

Defects other than cracks can result from deflects introduced during the ingot stage of production
or during rolling. Internal deflects such as fissures are due incomplete welding of pipe and
blowholes. Longitudinal stringers of nonmetallic inclusions or pearlite banding in steels are related
to melting and solidification practices. In severe cases defects can lead to laminations which
drastically reduce the strength in the thickness direction.

There are two aspects to the problem of the shape of a sheet.

1) Uniform thickness over the width and thickness – can be precisely controlled with modern gage
control system
2) Flatness of the part which is generally difficult to measure accurately

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Figure 15 (a) Uniform thick and flat part, (b) Part lacking flatness

Uniform thickness
Under high rolling forces, the rolls flatten and bend, and the entire mill is elastically distorted. Mill
spring causes the thickness of the sheet exiting from the rolling mill to be greater than the roll gap
set under no-load conditions. Precise thickness rolling requires the elastic constant of the mill.
Calibration curves are needed as shown in figure 16 (1–3 GNm-1 for screw-loaded rolling mills, 4
GNm-1 for hydraulically loaded mills)

Figure 16 Typical calibration curve for elastic constant of a rolling mill

Roll flattening increases the roll pressure and eventually causes the rolls to deform more easily
than the metal. There is a minimum thickness below which sheet can’t be reduced. The limiting
thickness is nearly proportional to coefficient of friction, the roll radius, flow stress of the material
and inversely proportional to the elastic modulus.
For example, in steel rolls the limiting thickness is given by,
 R O
hmin  (MPa) (27)
12.8
In general, problems with limiting gauge can be expected when the sheet thickness is below 1/400
to 1/600 of the roll diameter.

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Flatness
The roll gap must be perfectly parallel to produce sheets/plates with equal thickness at both ends.
The rolling speed is very sensitive to flatness. A difference in elongation of one part in 10,000
between different locations in the sheet can cause waviness.

Roll bending solution

Roll bending would produce sheets with varying thickness as shown in figure 17.

Figure 17 Problem of roll bending

To counter this effect, rolls are usually cambered (crowned) as shown in figure 18. The degree of
cambering varies with the width of the sheet, the flow stress, and reduction per pass. Camber or
crown can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only one value of the roll force). This is carried
out by using rolling mill equipped with hydraulic jacks to permit the elastic distortion of the rolls
to correct deflection.

Figure 18 (a) Uncambered rolls give variation of thickness, (b) The use of cambered rolls to
compensate for roll bending

Insufficient camber
If the flat rolls deflect causing the workpiece to have thicker center as shown in figure 19(a).
Thicker center means the edges would be plastically elongated more than the center, normally
called long edges. This induces the residual stress pattern of compression at the edges and tension

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along the centerline (Figure 19(b)). This can cause centerline cracking, warping, edge wrinkling,
warping as shown in figure 19(c-e).

Figure 19 (a) Insufficient camber, (b) Residual stresses, (c) Centerline cracking, (d) Edge
wrinkling, (e) Warping
Over camber
Thicker edges than the center means the center would be plastically elongated more than the edges,
resulting in lateral spread (Figure 20(a)). The residual stress pattern is now under compression in
the centerline and tension at the edges (Figure 20(b)). This may cause edge cracking, center
splitting, centerline wrinkling, wavy center as shown in figure 20(c-e).

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Figure 20 (a) Over camber, (b) Residual stresses, (c) Edge cracking, (d) Centerline splitting, (e)
Wavy center
Edging
Edging can also be caused by inhomogeneous deformation in the thickness direction. If only the
surface of the workpiece is deformed (as in a light reduction on a thick slab), the edges are
produced as shown in figure 21. The overhanging material is not compressed in the subsequent
step of rolling, causing this area under tensile stress and leading to edge cracking. This has been
observed in initial breakdown of hot-rolling when h/Lp > 2 (Figure 21).

Figure 21 Edge distribution with light reduction

With heavy reduction, the center tends to expand more laterally than the surface to produced
barrelled edges (Figure 22). This causes secondary tensile stresses by barrelling, which are
susceptible to edge cracking.

Figure 22 Edge distribution with heavy reduction

Alligatoring will occur when lateral spread is greater in the center than the surface (surface in
tension, center in compression) and with the presence of metallurgical weakness along the
centerline.

Figure 23 Alligatoring defect

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Edge cracking is minimized in commercial rolling operation by employing vertical edge rolls
which keep the edges straight and thus prevent a cumulative buildup of secondary tensile stresses
due to barreling of the edge.

Roller leveling
Shape problems are greatest when rolling in thin strip (<0.025 mm) because fractional errors in
the roll gap profile increase with decrease in thickness, producing larger internal stress. Also, thin
sheet is less resistant to buckling. The stretched strip, undergoes yield-point elongation which
causes surface irregularities called stretcher strains or Lü der’s bands. To correct this situation, the
sheet metal is subjected to a final, light pass of 0.5 to 1.5% reduction known as temper rolling or
skin pass shortly before stretching. A rolled sheet may not be sufficiently flat as it leaves the roll
gap, due to factors such as variations in the incoming material or in the processing parameters
during rolling. To improve flatness, the rolled strip typically goes through a series of leveling rolls
(roller leveler). Several roller arrangements are used, as shown in figure 24. The workpiece is
flexed in opposite directions as it passes through the sets of rollers. Each roll usually is driven
separately by an individual electric motor.

Figure 24 (a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets. (b) Roller leveling to straighten
drawn bars.

Cold rolling theory

Following assumptions are made:
 The arc of contact is circular – no elastic deformation of the rolls
 Coefficient of friction is contact at all points on the arc of contact
 There is no lateral spread so that rolling can be considered a problem in plane strain
 Plane vertical sections remain plane, i.e., deformation is homogeneous
 The peripheral velocity of the rolls is constant

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 The elastic deformation of the sheet is negligible in comparison with the plastic
deformation
 The distortion energy criterion of yielding for plane strain holds good

The stresses acting on an elemental strip in the roll gap is shown in figure 25(a). At any point of
contact between the strip and the roll surface, designated by θ, the stresses acting are the radial
pressure pr and the tangential shear stress r=µpr. These stresses are resolved into their horizontal
and vertical components as shown in figure 25(b). In additions, the stress x is assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the vertical faces of the element. The normal stress on one end of the
element is prRdθ and the horizontal component of the force is prRsinθdθ. The tangential frictional
force is µprRdθ and its horizontal component is µprRcosθdθ.

Figure 25 (a) Geometrical relationship for element undergoing plane-strain deformation by

rolling, (b) Stresses acting on an element

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Taking the summation of the horizontal forces on the element results in:
 x  d x   h  dh   2 pr R cos d   xh  2 pr R sin d  0 (28)

Which simplifies to
d  x h 
 2 pr R  sin    cos  (29)
d
The positive sign applies between the exit plane and neutral plane and the negative sign exists
between the entrance plane and the neutral plane. The negative and the positive sign occurs because
the frictional force changes at the neutral point.
The forces acting in the vertical direction are balanced by the specific roll pressure p. Taking the
equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction results in a relationship between the normal pressure
and the radial pressure.
p  pr 1   tan  (30)

The relationship between the normal pressure and the horizontal compressive stress x is given by
the distortion energy criterion of yielding for plane strain.
2
1   3   o   o' (31)
3
p   x   o' (32)
Where p is the greater of the two compressive principal stresses.

The solution of problems in cold rolling are complicated. Some simplification to this problem has
been provided by Bland and Ford. By restricting the analysis to cold rolling under conditions of
low friction and for angles of contact < 6o, then we can put sinθ ~ θ and cos θ ~ 1. Thus equation
30 can be written as,
d  x h 
 2 pr R     (33)
d
It is also assumed that pr~ p, so that equation 32 can be written as,
 x  pr   o' (34)
By substituting this into equation 33 we get

d  pr   o'  h 
 2 pr R     (35)
d

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or

d  '  pr  
 o  '  1 h   2 pr R     (36)
d   o  
Upon differentiation,
d  pr   pr  d
 o' h  '    '  1  o h   2 pr R     (37)
'

d   o    o  d
The second term in this expression is very small because as h decreases ′𝑜 increases, thus making
product of these two terms nearly a constant, thus its derivative becomes zero. Now we have,

d  pr 
 
d   o'  2 R
pr
     (38)
h
 o'
Upon integrating and applying the boundary conditions, relatively simple equations of the radial
pressure are obtained.
Roll entrance to neutral point:
 o' h   xb    H1  H 
pr  1  e (39)
ho   o1' 
Neutral point to roll exit:
 o' h   xf   H
pr  1  '  e (40)
h f   o2 

where
1
 1

 R '  2 1  R '  2 
H  2   tan     (41)
h  h 
 f  f  

Where
xb = back tension
xf = front tension
Subscript 1 refers to a quantity evaluated at roll entrance plane and subscript 2 refers to quantity
evaluated at the roll exit plane.
The rolling load or total force P is the integral of the specific roll pressure over the arc of contact.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal

 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

 
P  Rb  pd (42)
'

where b = width of sheet

α = contact angle

Hot rolling theory

In hot working processes, the flow stress for hot-rolling is a function of both temperature and strain
rate (speed of rolls). The hot rolling load based on the model developed by Sims is given by,
 1

P   o' b  R  ho  h f  2  Q p (43)
 
where Qp is a complex function of the reduction in thickness and the ratio R/hf. Values of Qp may
be obtained from the equation or figure 26.

ho  h R h2  
 tan
1
Qp   ln n  (44)
4h  hf h f ho h f  4

Figure 26 Values of Qp for use with equation

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

Torque and power

Torque is the measure of the force applied to a member to produce rotational motion. Power is
applied to a rolling mill by applying a torque to the rolls and by means of strip tension. The power
is spent principally in four ways:
1) The energy needed to deform the metal.
2) The energy needed to overcome the frictional force.
3) The power lost in the pinions and power-transmission system.
4) Electrical losses in the various motors and generators.

The total rolling load is distributed over the arc of contact in the typical friction-hill pressure
distribution. However, the total rolling load can be assumed to be concentrated at a point along the
arc of contact at a distance a from the line of centers of the rolls. The ratio of the moment arm, a
to the projected length of the act of contact, Lp can be given as:
a a
  (45)
Lp Rh
where λ is 0.5 for hot-rolling and 0.45 for cold-rolling.
The torque is equal to the total rolling load multiplied by the effective moment arm. It can be
assumed that the roll force acts in the middle of the arc of contact and this force is perpendicular
to the plane of the strip (see figure 27).

Figure 27 Schematic diagram illustrating roll torque

The torque per roll,

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal

 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

PLp
Mt  (46)
2
Since the power is defined as the rate of doing work, the power needed to operate a roll revolving
is given by,
Power  M T  (47)

Where   2 N , and N is the RPM of the roll. Therefore, power per roll is given by,
Power  πLp PN (watt) (48)

Where P is in Newtons and Lp is in meters. The expression that expresses the total power required
in deforming the metal as it flows through the roll gap is given by,
Power  2πLp PN (watt) (49)

Review questions
1. With a neat sketch explain the working of (a) Two high, (b) Three high, (c) Four high, (d)
Tandem, (e) Planetary rolling mills.
2. Write a short note on (a) Maximum reduction, (b) Roll flattening with respect to rolling
process.
3. Determine the relationship between coefficient of friction, rolling load and torque.
4. Why front and back tensions are needed in a rolling process. Explain briefly.
5. Derive the equation for rolling pressure during cold rolling process under plane strain
condition.
6. Write a short note on (a) Uniform thickness, (b) Flatness with respect to the rolling process.
7. Briefly explain, (a) Insufficient camber, (b) Over camber, (c) Edging using neat sketches.
8. Write a short note on torque and power required for rolling process.
9. A 250 mm wide annealed brass strip having K = 895 MPa and n = 0.19 is rolled from a
thickness of 20 mm to 12 mm. For a roll radius of 300 mm and roll RPM of 100, estimate the
total power required for this operation.
10. A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered rolls each
of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed
of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and
the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the
roll force, torque, and horsepower.
11. A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0 mm in one pass in a
rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield strength of
the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance speed of the plate
is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine
(a) The minimum required coefficient of friction that would make this rolling operation
possible, (b) Exit velocity of the plate, and (c) Forward slip.
12. A plate that is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be reduced in a single pass in a two-high
rolling mill to a thickness of 20 mm. The roll has a radius = 500 mm, and its speed = 30 m/min.
The work material has a strength coefficient = 240 MPa and a strain hardening exponent = 0.2.
Determine, (a) Roll force, (b) Roll torque, and (c) Power required to accomplish this operation.
13. A single-pass rolling operation reduces a 20 mm thick plate to 18 mm. The starting plate is 200
mm wide. Roll radius = 250 mm and rotational speed = 12 rev/min. The work material has a
strength coefficient = 600 MPa and a strength coefficient = 0.22. Determine, (a) Roll force, (b)
Roll torque, and (c) Power required for this operation.
14. An annealed copper strip 228 mm wide and 25 mm thick is rolled to a thickness of 20 mm in
one pass. The roll radius is 300 mm, and the rolls rotate at 100 rpm. Calculate the roll force
and the power required in this operation.
15. A flat-rolling operation is being carried out where h0 = 5.0 mm, hf = 3.75 mm, w0 = 250 mm,
R = 200 mm, μ = 0.25, and the average flow stress of the material is 275 MPa. Estimate the
roll force and the torque. Include the effects of roll flattening.
16. Estimate the roll force and power for annealed low-carbon steel strip 200 mm wide and 10 mm
thick, rolled to a thickness of 6 mm. The roll radius is 200 mm, and the roll rotates at 200 rpm.
Let μ = 0.1.
17. Determine the maximum possible reduction for cold- rolling a 300 mm-thick slab when m =
0.08 and the roll diameter is 600 mm. What is the maximum reduction on the same mill for hot
rolling when µ = 0.5?
18. Calculate the rolling load (P1) if steel sheet is hot rolled 30% from a 40 mm-thick slab using a
900 mm-diameter roll. The slab is 760 mm wide. Assume µ = 0.30. The plane-strain flow
stress is 140 MPa at entrance and 200 MPa at the exit from the roll gap due to the increasing

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 Theory of Metal Forming (MME4045)

velocity. Determine the rolling load (P2) if the friction is of sticking type. Also determine the
rolling load considering roll flattening if C = 2.16x10-11 Pa-1 and P’ = P1.
19. A 300 mm-wide aluminum alloy strip is hot-rolled in thickness from 20 to 15 mm. The rolls
are 1 m in diameter and operate at 100 rpm. The uniaxial flow stress for aluminum alloy can
be expressed as 140e0.2 (MPa). Determine the rolling load under plane strain condition and the
total power required for this hot reduction.

References:
 G.E. Dieter, Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, New York, 2000.
 M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4(e), John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
USA, 2010.

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, MIT, Manipal