Lyceum of The Philippines University Cavite: Iredalei (Crassotrea: Ostreidae) ) As An Exhaust Filter For Selected Public

LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE
The Performance of Carapace of Blue Swimming Crabs [Portunus armatus
(Portunus: Portunidae)] and Philippine Cupped Oyster Shells [Crassostrea
iredalei (Crassotrea: Ostreidae)] As An Exhaust Filter for Selected Public
Utility Vehicles
An Investigatory Project
Submitted to the Faculty of the International School
Lyceum of the Philippines University Cavite
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the

International School, Senior High School Program
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
BAJAS, JANE ELIZABETH E.

LONTOC, GERARD MCJOHN M.
LUCERO, COLIN JUDE M.
OSORIO, MARIELLE GRACE A.
REMOLANO, KENNETH M.
February 2020
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INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Air pollution represents the foremost environmental risk to public health.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2016) one out of every nine deaths
are air pollution-related. About three million in those deaths were affected solely by
outdoor air pollution. Smoke emitted by vehicles is the major source of air pollution.
Pollution can be and has been controlled by either to exclude or adding to the emissions
reduction after treatment. A major portion of emissions is fine particulate product which
also has a substantial and uncertain position in climate (Donahue, 2018).
As part of the growing economy in the Philippines, Cavite also suffer this
perennial problem. One of the main contributors to air pollution is the Public Utility
Vehicle (PUV). Mostly of these PUVs, including tricycles and jeepneys, releases harmful
chemicals such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbons (HC),
Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2), and Nitrogen Oxide (NO) in their exhaust. As stated by Kalghatgi and Johansson
(2018) the worldwide demand for transport fuels will increase significantly, but from
petroleum-based fuels will still be met substantially (a share of about 90 percent). The
2
increase in demand will be markedly biased towards commercial vehicles and thus
towards diesel and jet fuels, leading to a possible surplus of lighter lowoctane fuels. With
this PUVs were identified as main contributors of air pollution especially to the engines
that used diesel and regular unleaded gas (RUG). Together with their low operating cost,
diesel engines have high efficiency, longevity, and reliability. Heavy-duty vehicles like
jeepneys are mostly the main consumers of diesel. On the other hand, RUG is a by-
product of crude oil which is highly flammable and it is usually used for tricycles. Toxic
gases such as Carbon Monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons emitted from the PUV were
harmful to human health and the environment. Moreover, the increasing number of
commuters in the Philippines affects the demand for PUV.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is one of the commonly used raw materials in
various industries, such as food supplement, pharmaceutics, animal feed, plastic
production, and others. Calcium Carbonate derived by different marine wastes, like
bivalve’s shells and crustaceans that can be used as fit material for filtration (Silva et al.,
2019). There are potential natural resources that people can use that would help to lessen
toxic gases emitted by the PUVs. One of these marine waste are the Blue swimming crabs
or BSC (Portunus armatus; formerly known as Portunus pelagicus) and Philippine
cupped oyster shells or PCO (Crassostrea iredalei). According to Yan and Chen (2015),
about 6 to 8 million shell waste produce globally per year and about 1.5 million shell
waste produced in Asia only. A lot of shell waste can be recycled and turned into useful
things instead of disposing it.
3
The purpose of this research is to design and test the potential use of blue
swimming crab as an exhaust filter. The carapace of BSC will undergo to a certain test
such as opacity test and automotive emission test that follows the Euro 4 Emission
Standard. Moreover, this study is conducted an experiment to compare the potentiality
between oyster shells and blue swimming crabs as an exhaust filter.
Statement of the Problem
The research aims to experiment the potential use of carapace of blue swimming crabs
(P. armatus) at different concentrations as an exhaust filter for muffler of tricycle and
jeepneys. The research also aims to compare the results between PCO shells and carapace
of BSC.
The following specific questions were also formulated through the researchers’ intuitive
thinking:
1. What is the average Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered by the carapace of blue
swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4
Emission Standard?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 grams
4
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
2. What is the average Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered by the carapace of blue
swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4
Emission Standard?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 grams
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
3. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered
among different concentrations?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 grams
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
4. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered
among different concentrations?
A. 0 gram
5
B. 25 grams
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
5. Is there a significant difference in the Opacity of Smoke between Philippine
cupped oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue swimming crabs (P.
armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 grams
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
6. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered
between Philippine cupped oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue
swimming crabs (P. armaatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4
Emission Standard?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 grams
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
6
7. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered
between Philippine cupped oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue
swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4
Emission Standard?
A. 0 gram
B. 25 gram
C. 75 grams
D. 150 grams
Hypotheses of the Study
Based on the problems stated to this study, the following null hypotheses are
hereby given:
1. There is significant difference among Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered by carapace of blue
swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission
Standard.
2. There is significant difference among Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered by carapace of
blue swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4
Emission Standard.
3. There is significant difference in the Opacity of Smoke between Philippine cupped
oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue swimming crabs (P. armatus) in
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different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.
4. There is significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) between
Philippine cupped oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue swimming crabs (P.
armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.
5. There is significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) between
Philippine cupped oyster shells (C. iredalei) and carapace of blue swimming crabs (P.
armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.
Significance of the Study
The aim of this study is to design and test the effectiveness of blue swimming
crab’s shell as exhaust filter to filter out the toxic gases such as Hydrocarbons (HC) and
Carbon Monoxide (CO).
This study can serve as useful information about how waste material can be used
as new material. The researchers of this study also aim to raise awareness of increasing
deaths in the society due to air pollution. The results of this study will be beneficial to the
following:
To government agencies, if the research is successfully proposed, this study can
help Government Agencies to establish a ways to help the environment about the problem
8
to the air pollution.
To the Public Utility Vehicle drivers, this study can give PUV’s drivers a
knowledge about how harmful the smoke of their vehicle which has an effect to the
environment and people. They can use budget friendly exhaust filter instead of using
high cost of exhaust filter for muffler.
To the environment, this study can help to provide healthiest way to care for the
earth and using blue swimming crab shell and oyster shell waste as a component for
ecofriendly exhaust filter for muffler instead of disposing the shell waste in improper
places.
To the commuters, the result of this study can provide a solution to the problem
of the commuters who is always exposed and constantly inhale the smoke from PUVs.
To the future researchers, the result from this study will be used as a reference to
improve unfinished and published researchers about the carapace of blue swimming crabs
and oyster shells as an exhaust filter for tricycle and jeepneys.
Scope and Limitation
This study is primarily focused on the effectiveness of the carapace of blue
swimming crab as an exhaust filter for the muffler of tricycle and jeepneys. This study
will be conducted at GAF Malagasang Emission Testing Center, 168 Malagasang II-E,
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City of Imus Cavite for the testing of Portunidus armatus Exhaust Filter (PAEF).
The blue swimming crabs that will be used in this study were from selected restaurants in
Dasmariñas City, Cavite. The participants of this study are the owners of PUVs such as
tricycle and jeepney in the area of Barangay San Jose Dasmariñas, Cavite. Due to the
nature of the study, only those who use tricycles and jeepneys are the respondents of this
research. In addition, Hydrocarbons (HC) and Carbon Monixide (CO) observed that
those pollutants were reduce during the experiment.
This experiment will undergo specific test such as opacity test and automotive emission
test that follows the Euro 4 Emission Standard. In every test, 12 samples will be
conducted on it, in which nine samples contain different amount of blue swimming crab’s
carapace and the remaining three samples does not have any amount of it.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined accordingly:
Conceptual Definition
Air Pollution. A type of environmental pollution that affects the air and usually
caused by smoke or other harmful gases.
10
Automotive Gas Analyzer. An instrument used to test the percentage of gases
present in the exhaust of the vehicle.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). A chemical compound which can be found in the
shell of marine organisms that can filter out toxic gases.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2). Colorless, odorless gas found in our atmosphere.
Carbon Monoxide (CO). A poisonous, colorless, odorless and tasteless gas.
Exhaust Filter. The one that collects vaporized oil or liquid from the air venting
from a gasoline engine.
Hydrocarbons (HC). An organic chemical compound composed exclusively of
hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Muffler is a part of a car where toxic gases emits.
Nitrogen Oxide (NO). Any of several oxides of nitrogen which are produced in
combustion.
Opacimeter is an instrument used to measure the k-value of smoke.
Oxygen (O). Colorless and odorless reactive gas, the chemical element of atomic
number 8 and the life-supporting component of the air.
Portunus. Portunus is a genus of crab which includes several important species for
fisheries, such as the blue swimming crab, Portunus pelagicus and the Gazami crab, P.
trituberculatus.
Portunidae. A family of crabs that belong the blue swimming crab.
Portunus armatus. Scientific name of Blue Swimming Crab and formerly known
11
as Portunus pelagicus.
PUV. Mostly the Public Utility Vehicle.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Colorless pungent toxic gas formed by burning sulfur
in air.
Toxic gases. Chemical gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide and hydrocarbons which emitted from the muffler of PUV.
Operational Definition
PAEF. Operationally defined as the Portunus armatus Exhaust Filter in which the
researchers device for filter.
CIEF. Crassostrea iredalei Exhaust Filter; operationally defined as the instrument
made of Philippine Cupped Oyster shells.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Air Quality in the Philippines
The National Emission Inventory of 2015, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC),
Sulfur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Particulate
Matter (PM) are the major contributor of air pollution to emissions nationwide. VOC and
CO are the major pollutants coming from mobile sources. Air Quality Monitoring station
each 93 nationwide. This Air Quality Monitoring station situated in highly urbanized
cities and also rural areas in different regions of the country in which there have manual
and real times stations. National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values (NAAQGV)
have been establish were in monitoring stations keep track of criteria pollutants or air
pollutants (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2015).
Blue Swimming Crabs as an Exhaust Filter
Blue Swimming Crabs (BSC) are brachyuran crabs that belongs to the Portunidae
family (Government of Western Australia, Department of Fisheries, 2011). These type of
crabs are generally recognized by its flat, disc-shaped hind legs, used as swimming
paddles, and by the nine spikes or horns on either side of eyes and carapace. In addition,
female blue swimming crabs (Portunus armatus; formerly known as Portunus pelagicus)
are darker brown or green, with even more rounded shell while male blue swimming
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LYCEUM
2004 2005 OF THE
2006 PHILIPPINES
2007 2008UNIVERSITY
2009 CAVITE
2010 2011
crabs (P. armatus) are bright in color with white spots and has an element of long
chelipads (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Aquaculture,
2012).
Across the Philippines, blue swimming crab fisheries become successful.
Approximately 96 percent of blue swimming crab production in 2011 is dominated by the
municipal fisheries sector (Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, 2012). As stated by the Philippine Statistics Authority (2017), the Visayan
Sea is one of the major fishing grounds contributing to around 31 percent of the total
catch volume that surrounded by the regions of Central Visayas (Cebu), Eastern Visayas
(Leyte), Bicol (Masbate), and Western Visayas (Iloilo and Negros Occidental).
Table 1. Annual Trend of estimated Municipal Production (MT) of Blue Swimming

Crabs from Top 10 Major Producers, 2004-2011
Regions Average
VI 14,903 13,743 11,158 9,545 10,026 9,99 9,382 8,928 10,960

VIII 5,904 7,202 5,889 6,355 4,904 3,628 3,314 2,981 5,022
V 3,861 3,666 3,359 5,299 4,671 4,072 5,210 4,784 4,365
IV-B 3,414 3,012 3,208 3,727 4,596 3,915 3,321 3,358 3,569
IX 1,296 1,084 850 1,092 1,339 1,488 1,287 1,396 1,229
III 1,355 1,010 1,063 1,286 1,191 1,205 1,161 1,178 1,181
VII 353 571.55 1,161 1,303 1,557 1,599 1,427 1,420 1,174
IV-A 491 520 541 562 572 828 1,331 1,913 845
X 476 603 915 1,008 1,050 560 650 552 727
CARAGA 170 274 243 233 346 108 105 137 202
Annual 32,656 32,894 29,350 31,505 31,509 28,271 28,169 27,920 30,284
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(Table from Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,

2011)
Table 1 indicate that Region VI has the most annual average producers of BSC from
2004 to 2011 which have 10,960. By the year 2004, BSC has the most number in which
32,656. For the year 2009, resource reduction in the supply of BSC has become more of a
problem. The majority of fishers and the dilemma of picking plants was the difficulty of
catching considerable amounts of crab compared with 2007 and 2008. It became more
problematic when fuel prices and the cost of fishing provisions increased this year,
including the various natural and man-made disasters encountered.
Components of Blue Swimming Crab
According to Hou et al., (2016) entitled “Marine Shells: Potential Opportunities
for Extraction of Functional and Health-Promoting Materials”, the study investigated that
90 percent of calcium carbonate found in the marine shells which can be converted to
different calcium products such as calcium phosphate and calcium citrate for use in the
biomedical and food industries. Shrimp and carapace of crab shells are composed of
Calcium Carbonate (30%), Chitin (20-25%), high Protein (40%), lipid, and pigments.
Moreover, there are three different polymorphic chitin structures (α-, β-, and γ-) in crab
shell and other shell. Each has its oligomer chains in different spatial arrangements. The
oligomer chains in α-chitin are arranged in a parallel structure and this is the most
common type of chitin in nature, particularly in shrimps and crab shells. Chitin has a DD
15
of less than 50% and is not water-soluble owing to its heavy intra-and inter-hydrogen
bonding. On the other hand, chitosan is soluble in dilute organic acids and is highly
biocompatible and biodegradable and has good ability to adsorb water. Blue Swimming
Crabs as Waste
Food waste disposal is a crucial problem faced by industries and society during
food processing. As the population grows, waste generation increases, and a large
proportion of by-products produced by contemporary food are still underutilized, often
containing high-value substances. Around 1012–1014 tons of waste of sea shells are
produced globally by ocean-borne living organisms (Dhillon et al., (2013). In addition,
Gao et al. (2016) stated that large amount of crab shell were discarded currently as waste
in soil environment. Consequently, a feasible and efficient approach to solving this
problem is to convert this solid waste into high-value products instead of simply
disposing it in landfills. It is mainly composed of magnesium carbonate, chitin
biopolymer, calcium carbonate and some proteins. Hence, the strategy could create a win
- win benefit: an environmental reward as it could alleviate the pollution resulting from
this waste, and an economic reward as it could provide a novel, renewable and low-cost
raw precursor of activated carbons.
Since the number of crab shell waste continue to increase, it provides significant
opportunities for development of value-added products. There is considerable potential
16
for conversion of this waste into value-added products to resolve some of the issues
associated with environment pollution and cost of disposal. The crab shell contains chitin
in which it has a factor to absorb waste water. An increasing volume of literature
indicates considerable potential for utilization of the chemical mineral major component
of shells in applications ranging from food-grade antibacterial protection to bone implants
with demonstrated functional and health-promoting advantages.
Philippine Cupped Oyster Shells as an Exhaust Filter

There are many marine organisms that you can find in the Philippines such as
oyster and crab. Oyster (Crassostrea iredalei) is a marine organism that has a soft-bodied
bivalve mollusk. Oysters are considered as one of the valuable food items and can be
found in all tropical seas (Peralta & Sorio, 2017). According to Food and Agriculture
Organization (2012) oysters are known as the second most commercially important
marine organism. In the Philippines, oysters are also known for poor sanitary quality but
still distributed locally
(Clague et al., 2015). They are popular due to its shell’s components and these edible
oysters are also famous in different places such as South East Asian countries, Europe,
Australia, and USA (Peralta & Sorio, 2017). According to the study, oysters are eaten as
raw and it consumed approximately 4 million tons annually (Peralta & Sorio, 2018).
Moreover, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (2016), 438 billion of
oysters were produced in 2016 and mostly of the shells were not discarded properly
which caused environmental health problem. The oyster shells contain chemical
17
components such as Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and other components. According to
the study, approximately 95 % of Calcium Carbonate that can be found in the shell of
oyster. CaCO3 can be used in several application such as for medicine, construction,
water and air treatment. In medicine, Calcium Carbonate can be used as a hydroxyapatite
production via precipitation synthesis with oyster shells. And oyster shells have
antifungal activities which can be used as agriculture fungicide. In construction, oyster
shell can be used as a building material such as wall made of cement and oyster shell. In
water and air treatment, oyster shell contains calcium carbonate that can reduce the
phosphorus and other toxic gases in water and air (Fredel et al., 2019).
To sum it up, these studies discussed about the oyster shell and its unique
components. Oyster shells are abundant source of calcium carbonate. Calcium Carbonate
is one of the most used raw materials in various industries. These oyster shell waste can
be used in several application such as for construction, medicine and agriculture. In
addition, it mentioned the percentage of calcium carbonate that can be found in the oyster
shell. In conclusion, using oyster shell as exhaust filter is a good idea since it contains
calcium carbonate that can help to lessen the toxic gases. Moreover, oyster shells as an
exhaust filter was created as a solution to increasing consumption of oyster shell waste
and as an exhaust filter for public vehicle.
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Toxic Gases
Passenger vehicles are major pollution contributor, producing significant amounts of
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and other pollution. The major
contributors to air pollution are trucks, buses and cars powered by fossil fuels. Half of
NOx in our air is emitted by transportation and also a major source of global warming. In
2013, transportation contributed more than half of CO and NOx, and almost a quarter of
the Hydrocarbons (HC) emitted into our air (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2018).
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

According to the study of Kinoshita (2020). Natural toxins in the environment can
produce wide variety of deleterious that can affect the living organisms. Carbon
monoxide is one of the toxic gas in the environment that is colorless, odorless and non-
irritable gas, sometimes this is called "silent killer". CO is mainly process by incomplete
combustion of organism compounds. The main source of this are vehicle exhaust, smoke
from fire and improper maintained heating system. 0.01 - 0.06% CO is the content of the
exhaust from diesel engine which inhalation does not cause fatal CO poisoning. The
mainstream of the CO is from cigarette's smoke that has (3-4%) and for the heavy
smokers when saturated increased blood carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hb) will be (10-15%).
CO is a gas that breathe in from the lungs into the bloodstream. CO is greater than
oxygen because of its hemoglobin content which is 230 to 270 times and it is formed in
erythrocytes. Hemeprotein gradation in vivo can produce in a small amount of CO. CO
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can also show high affinity heme-proteins such as myglobin that binds in myocardium
and skeletal muscle and cytochrome c oxidase. In the body, CO is up to 15% in total that
take up by tissues. From organ into the blood CO can diffuse as CO-Hb saturation in
blood decreases. The main toxic effect of acute CO poisoning is the tissue hypoxia due to
the formation of CO-Hb. Decrease oxygen transport capacity can be the cause which
results of insufficient oxygenation at the tissue level. Apoptosis in myocardial cell can
also result of CO poisoning. CO exposure involves apoptosis and intracellular oxidative
stress, and erythropoietin, resveratrol and hyperbaric oxygen all reduce dysfunction of the
myocardium and brain by suppressing apoptosis or through other pathways. Due to the
CO potentiates vascular permeability and causes increased accumulation of interstitial
fluid with decreased circulating blood volume (hemoconcentration) can affect multiple
organs like respiratory, heart , renal and brain with a very high oxygen demand, and so it
is sensitive to the effects of tissue hypoxia.
Moreover, Guzman (2012) stated that Carbon monoxide (CO) leads death as a result of
unintentional poisoning. 15000 emergency department (ED) and nearly 500 deaths
annually in the United States was recorded and they see CO is the reason of this
incidence. CO is an odorless and colorless gas it is not detectable until exposure result in
injury or
death. The combination of tissue hypoxia-ischemia that is secondary to
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Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) is the formation of CO toxicity. COHb has affinity that is
more than 200 times greater than oxygen and in able to develop it is that CO binds
Hemoglobin (Hb). The quantity of COHb formed depends on the duration of exposure to
CO and concentration of CO in air. The result of CO poisoning is from domestic,
occupational, recreational activities and large scale disaster such as hurricanes, and winter
storms. The most common presenting symptoms of CO poisoning is headache which
described as frontal, can be dull and throbbing. 84% of victims this and its intensity does
not correlate with COHb levels. The more exposure in CO more severe neurologic
manifestations, like seizures, confusion, coma acute stroke like syndromes and syncope.
Exacerbates myocardial ischemia and cardiac necrosis can happen at the low levels of
COHb, even in the absence of cardiac symptoms. The result also of CO poisoning can
reduced memory, impaired executive function, significant depression, attention disorders,
slow mental processing speed and anxiety that may last for 12 months or more. During
pregnancy when CO binds more tightly to fetal Hb and elimination of CO by the fetus
lags behind that of the mother has a result of low level exposure which may be
unimportant for the mother, can present great effect to the fetus.
In conclusion, Carbon Monoxide (CO) is one of the poisoning gases that can affect the
environment. Some characteristic is that it's colorless and odorless which it is hard to
recognize. CO can be found in exhaust of the vehicle and smoke that coming from fire.
CO is a poisonous gases which can affect thousands of living organisms. It can affect the
21
human body health that can form disease and disorders in heart, respiratory, brain and
renal which at some point can cause death. CO-Hb formed when diffusion of the carbon
monoxide and hemoglobin occur that forms in the red blood cell and can affect
oxygenation transport capacity.
Hydrocarbons (HC)
According to Benson and Essien (2019) petroleum related activities is increasing that
resulted to the pollution of coastal ecosystem. This study primarily set out to give
information regarding on contamination of hydrocarbons in petroleum. Hydrocarbons are
lipophilic chemicals, which are usually formed as by-products of fossil fuel combustion.
It is common as contaminants from petroleum (Gad S.C & Gad S.E, 2014). Hydrocarbons
are the most important element or factor of petroleum, it occur from natural as well as
anthropogenic sources. As mentioned by Benson & Essien (2019) the main cause of
hydrocarbons on petroleum are offshore oil production, marine transportation, aerial
depositions from combustion of coal and gas flaring. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
are produce during the incomplete combustion of organic materials like petroleum, it is
also considered as ubiquitous environmental pollutants. Because it is commonly
determine in air, soil and water. Hydrocarbons represent a serious problem in the world, it
is common as environmental contaminants. It is also persistent organic pollutants
22
(Oliveira et al.,
2015). There are three types of hydrocarbons: pyrogenic, petrogenic and biological.
Pyrogenic are formed when organic substances are exposed to high temperature under
low oxygen, while in petrogenic it occurs in widespread transportation, storage and use of
crude oil and crude oil products. Biological produces by a certain plants and bacteria or
formed during the degradation of vegetative matter (Mona et al., 2016).
Overall these studies are all about the different sources of the hydrocarbons, it also talks
about the different uses and effects on our environment. It is related to the study because
it measures the percentage of toxic gases emitted by PUVs. Hydrocarbons are byproduct
when combustion of fuel happens in the engine. It also discussed the three types sources
of hydrocarbons: pyrogenic, petrogenic and biological. Hydrocarbons are usually
ubiquitous on environment because it is found in air, soil and water. This study aims to
measure if the smoke of the PUVs was harmful to environment with the use of
automotive gas analyzer.
Opacity of Smoke
According to Singh et al., (2012), opacity is the degree to which smoke blocks
light and it forms the basis for measuring the amount of smoke coming from a vehicle.
Opacity is the measure of visible smoke generally comprising larger particles regarded as
a visual amenity issue that is often seen by the public as an indication of a high polluting
vehicle (Bari, 2013). Smoke Opacity Meter is the instruments measuring the properties of
23
diesel exhaust. Smoke opacity instruments measure properties of smoke, providing an
indirect way of measuring of particulate emissions. There are two groups of instruments:
Opacity Meters, which evaluate smoke in the exhaust gas, and smoke number meters,
which evaluate soot collected on paper filters. Second generation Opacity Meters based
on laser light scattering are much more sensitive and appear to hold promise for
application to newer engines with much lower particulate emissions. It is often used to
evaluate smoke emissions in locations outside the laboratory, such as in maintenance
shops or in the field. In fact, the smoke opacity measurement is the only relatively low-
cost and widely available method to measure a PM-related emission (Particulate Matters)
parameter in the field. For this reason, opacity limits are used mostly in Inspection and
Maintenance (I&M) or Periodic Technical Inspection (PTI) programs for vehicle engines.
Smoke opacity limits may be also included as auxiliary limits in new engine emission
standards (Majewski & Jääskeläinen, 2013).
The studies defined the smoke opacity as the measurement and analysis of the
smoke particles resulting from a vehicle engine. Furthermore, variations of smoke opacity
using opacity meter are observed. The previous study will be used to provide basic
information about the smoke opacity. The opacity meter will be used for the measurement
of opacity of smokes emitted by the selected public vehicles such as tricycles and
jeepneys.
24
It will show the results of smoke opacity in the tabulated graph if the particulate matters
(Hydrocarbons and Carbon Monoxide) will decrease or increase due to different
concentrations. The opacity meter will be used for the measurement of opacities of smoke
emitted by the selected public vehicles. Therefore, the studies on smoke opacity of
selected public vehicles will be very useful for Emission Testing Center in order to take
strategy for vehicle emission control.
25
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
In order to gain information for this study, the study have utilized quantitative
research design (True Experimental Designs). This research design help the researchers to
discover if the experiment of this study which is using blue swimming crab’s carapace as
exhaust filter will be effective. PUVs will be the sample of this study specifically tricycle
and jeepneys. In the experiment, different concentrations of blue swimming crab’s
carapace in grams (g) were used in both mufflers. Sample A has an amount of zero gram
of carapace of blue swimming crabs while Sample B has 25 grams; Sample C has 75
grams and Sample D has 150 grams. This study will also give an in-depth and credible
source of information that can give possible conclusions.
Table 2. Automotive Emission Test
Number of Trial Amount of carapace of Amount of Philippine

Blue Swimming Crabs Cupped Oyster shells
(g) (g)
6 0 0
6 25 25
6 75 75
6 150 150
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Table 3. Opacity Meter
Number of Trial Amount of carapace of Amount of Philippine

Blue swimming crabs Cupped Oyster shells
(g) (g)
3 0 0
3 25 25
3 75 75
3 150 150
27
Table 2 shows that in every concentration of blue swimming crab’s carapace and
Philippine cupped oyster shells (0, 25, 75, 150g) there are three trials that will undergo
using Automotive Gas Analyzer. Furthermore, Table 3 depicts that there are six trials
(kvalue) in every concentration using the Opacity Meter.
Locale of the Study
The experiment was conducted at one of the researcher’s house located at
Barangay San Jose Dasmariñas City, Cavite. The GAF Emission Testing Center is
located at Malagasang II where in the experiment was tested. It was accredited to the
Department of
Trade and Industry, authorized by Land Transportation Office (LTO) and supported by
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Department of
Transportation (DOT) and Technical Education and Skills Development Activity
(TESDA).
Sources of Data
The primary source of data in this study are from the test results of Opacity Meter
and Automotive Gas Analyzer. The secondary source of data will be the other study from
journals in the internet and scholarly articles about blue swimming crab shells and toxic
gases found in the vehicle smoke.
28
Procedure
These are the general procedures that were followed for conducting the study:
Blue Swimming Crabs (Portunus armatus)
A. Gathering of blue swimming crab waste
Blue swimming crab waste gathered in selected restaurants in Dasmariñas City,
Cavite. Then, it will separate the carapace from the other shell parts of crab.
B. Preparation of blue swimming crab waste
Carapace of blue swimming crabs were prepared by washing with tap water then
sun-dry for seven days. After that, it will be wrapped in a clean piece of cloth and crush it
using hammer until it becomes small fragments similar to the size of gravel.
C. Procurement of Materials
Cylindrical metal sheet, hose clamps, medical gauze pad, hex bolts, washers and nuts
were bought from UHY- UHY Hardware which located in Barangay San Jose
Dasmariñas, Cavite while the other equipment of the study were found at one of the
researcher’s house.
D. Preparation of Portunus armatus Exhaust Filter (PAEF)
Using Metal sheet it will form cylindrical metal sheet tube for jeepneys that has a
width of 30 cm (centimeter); a height of 21 cm and 8.5 cm in diameter while for tricycle
has a width of 39 cm and a height of 19 cm. Perforated Metal Sheet Tube (PMST) for
29
tricycle was placed inside in and has a size of 7 cm in diameter with a width of 25.5 and
13.5 in height while PMST for jeep was placed inside and has a size of 4 cm in diameter
with a width of 21 cm and 16 cm in height. In addition, the blue swimming crabs weigh
in different concentrations (25, 75, 150g) using weighing scale.
Philippine Cupped Oyster Shells (Crassostrea iredalei)
A. Gathering of Philippine cupped oyster shells waste
Philippine cupped oyster shells waste gathered in the public market of Barangay
Zapote Bacoor City, Cavite.
B. Preparation of Philippine cupped oyster shells waste
The Philippine cupped oyster shells were prepared by washing with tap water then
sun-dry for seven days. After that, it will be wrapped in a clean piece of cloth and crush it
using hammer until it becomes small fragments similar to the size of gravel.
C. Procurement of Materials
The other equipment of the study were found at one of the researcher’s house while
cylindrical metal sheet, hose clamps, medical gauze pad, hex bolts, washers and nuts were
bought from UHY- UHY Hardware which located in Barangay San Jose Dasmariñas,
Cavite.
30
D. Preparation of Crassostrea iredalei Exhaust Filter (CIEF)
Using Metal sheet it will form cylindrical metal sheet tube for jeepneys that has a
width of 30 cm (Centimeter); a height of 21 cm and 8.5 cm in diameter while for tricycle
has a width of 39 cm and a height of 19 cm. Perforated Metal Sheet Tube (PMST) for
tricycle was placed inside in and has a size of 7 cm in diameter with a width of 25.5 and
13.5 in height while PMST for jeep was placed inside and has a size of 4 cm in diameter
with a width of 21 cm and 16 cm in height. In addition, the blue swimming crabs weigh
in different concentrations (25, 75, 150g) using weighing scale.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 indicate PAEF and CIEF in both jeepney and tricycle. It has
the same structure but different measurements.
Figure 1.
Structure of
Exhaust Filter
for Tricycle
31
Figure 2. Structure of Exhaust filter for Jeepney
32
The result of this study follows the Euro 4 Emission Standard using the Opacity Meter
(KOENG OP-201) and Automotive Emission Test (KOENG KEG-500). According to the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR, 2015), in accordance of
33
Article 4 Section 21 of Republic Act 8749 known as Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 in
able to address the aggravation of air pollution in the country, the following type of
vehicle loaded with Euro 4 shall comply with the following emission standards effective in
July 1, 2015:
Table 2. Euro 4 Emission Standard

(Table from Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2015)
Table 1 indicates the emission standard here in the Philippines as retrieved from DENR
(2015). It require the unit and the model of the specific vehicles and follow the standard
limitations. The standards also depend on what type of fuel that they used. As mentioned
by AutoKid Truck Solutions (2018), the “Euro” in Euro IV stands for the European
Emission Standard, and this is what is being used to define acceptable exhaust emission
limits for vehicles sold worldwide. These standards were first introduced in 1970, and
since then manufacturers, oil companies and vehicle owners have been ordered to adhere
to the standards set. As has already been said, this set of standards was first introduced in
1970, but it wasn't until 22 years after the Euro I was implemented and major changes
were made. A few years later, in 1996, Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions were further
limited and differentiated via the Euro II standard between petrol and diesel engines.
Before the switch to Euro IV, it is important to note that this is what the Philippines had
complied with. In the year 2000, when Euro III was introduced, the engine warm-up
34
period was eliminated and limitations were set for Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) and
Hydrocarbon (HC).
As for Euro IV, which surfaced in 2005 – 13 years before it was complied with by the
Philippines – the focus was on cleaning emissions from diesel cars and reducing
particulate matter (PM) and NOx. The latest version of the European emission standards
– Euro VI – was finally set up in 2014. It was even more stringent than the Euro V, and
advanced techniques were used, such as exhaust gas recirculation.
Using Opacity Meter the experiment utilized a formula to gather average k-value
of the smoke:
∑ 𝑘−𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Average k-value =
𝑛
Where:
∑ k-value = summation of all k-value n
= number of k-value
Using the Automotive Gas Analyzer the study utilized a formula to gather average
percentage of Carbon Monoxide (CO):
∑ 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
Average CO (%) =
𝑛
Where:
35
∑ Test = summation of all test
n = number of test
Moreover, using the Automotive Gas Analyzer the study utilized a formula to
gather average parts per million (ppm) of Hydrocarbons (HC):
∑𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
Average HC (ppm) =
𝑛
Where:
∑ Test = summation of all test
n = number of test
Research Instrument
This study used Opacity Meter (KOENG OP-201) and Automotive Gas Analyser
(KEG-500) to gather the result of percentage from different toxic gases and measurement
of parts per million (ppm) of the smoke opacity. The study used weighing scale to
measure the weight of blue swimming crabs in different concentrations in grams. True
experimental design was used on this study to determine their properties and compare the
outcomes.
36
Data Analysis
For the analysis of the result of the study, the following statistical tools were utilized. The
study used Two-Way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) to test the significant difference
of the samples in terms of the effectiveness sea shells as exhaust filter. Mean was used
which it is a statistical tool that used in getting the average percentage of the gathered
data from the treatments of exhaust filter. Also, this study used Pre-test and Posttest
design to investigate the results between different samples of crab shells and oyster
shells as an exhaust filter for Public Utility Vehicles. Lastly, Correlation was utilize
to measure the relationship between the average amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) and
Carbon Monoxide (CO) and its opacity with reference to the increasing of
concentration of Philippine cupped oyster shells and carapace of blue swimming
crabs.
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Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Aquaculture (2012). The

Philippine Blue Swimming Crab Management Plan. 31pp.
http://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/new/announcement_archive/1Final%20Approved%20Ve
rsi on%20BSCMP%20January%2024%202013.pdf.
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Philippine Statistics Authority (2017). Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines.

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Lyceum of The Philippines University Cavite: Iredalei (Crassotrea: Ostreidae) ) As An Exhaust Filter For Selected Public

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Lyceum of The Philippines University Cavite: Iredalei (Crassotrea: Ostreidae) ) As An Exhaust Filter For Selected Public

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LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE

The Performance of Carapace of Blue Swimming Crabs [Portunus armatus

(Portunus: Portunidae)] and Philippine Cupped Oyster Shells [Crassostrea

iredalei (Crassotrea: Ostreidae)] As An Exhaust Filter for Selected Public

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the

BAJAS, JANE ELIZABETH E.

Background of the Study

Air pollution represents the foremost environmental risk to public health.

also has a substantial and uncertain position in climate (Donahue, 2018).

commuters in the Philippines affects the demand for PUV.

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is one of the commonly used raw materials in

various industries, such as food supplement, pharmaceutics, animal feed, plastic

or BSC (Portunus armatus; formerly known as Portunus pelagicus) and Philippine

things instead of disposing it.

Standard. Moreover, this study is conducted an experiment to compare the potentiality

between oyster shells and blue swimming crabs as an exhaust filter.

Statement of the Problem

1. What is the average Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered by the carapace of blue

swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4

swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4

3. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered

among different concentrations?

4. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered

among different concentrations?

armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard?

6. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered

swimming crabs (P. armaatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4

7. Is there a significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered

swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following the Euro 4

Hypotheses of the Study

1. There is significant difference among Hydrocarbons (HC) filtered by carapace of blue

swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission

2. There is significant difference among Carbon Monoxide (CO) filtered by carapace of

blue swimming crabs (P. armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4

3. There is significant difference in the Opacity of Smoke between Philippine cupped

different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.

4. There is significant difference in the amount of Hydrocarbons (HC) between

armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.

5. There is significant difference in the amount of Carbon Monoxide (CO) between

armatus) in different concentrations following Euro 4 Emission Standard.

Significance of the Study

Carbon Monoxide (CO).

To government agencies, if the research is successfully proposed, this study can

to the air pollution.

high cost of exhaust filter for muffler.

and oyster shells as an exhaust filter for tricycle and jeepneys.

Scope and Limitation

This study is primarily focused on the effectiveness of the carapace of blue

those pollutants were reduce during the experiment.

The following terms are defined accordingly:

caused by smoke or other harmful gases.

Automotive Gas Analyzer. An instrument used to test the percentage of gases

present in the exhaust of the vehicle.

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). A chemical compound which can be found in the

shell of marine organisms that can filter out toxic gases.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2). Colorless, odorless gas found in our atmosphere.

Carbon Monoxide (CO). A poisonous, colorless, odorless and tasteless gas.

from a gasoline engine.

Hydrocarbons (HC). An organic chemical compound composed exclusively of

hydrogen and carbon atoms.

Muffler is a part of a car where toxic gases emits.

Opacimeter is an instrument used to measure the k-value of smoke.