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Fluid evolution in the El-Sid gold deposit, Eastern Desert, Egypt

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DOI: 10.1144/SP402.3

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Fluid evolution in the El-Sid gold deposit, Eastern Desert, Egypt

BASEM ZOHEIR1* & ROBERT MORITZ2
1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Benha University, 13518 Egypt
2
Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
*Corresponding author (e-mail: basem.zoheir@gmail.com)

Abstract: Auriferous quartz (+carbonate) veins in the El-Sid mine cut through the western
margin of the Fawakhir granitic intrusion and the immediate country ophiolites. Gold mineraliz-
ation is spatially and temporally associated with ENE–WSW fault/shear zones developed late
in the deformational history of the area. Field and microscopic studies suggest two distinct ore
stages; namely an early gold-Fe–As-sulphide, and a late gold-base metal mineralization. New
microthermometric and Raman data suggest gold deposition as a result of a complex history of
fluid immiscibly, dilution of low-salinity aqueous-carbonic fluids in the early mineralization
stage, while wall-rock alteration and pressure loss precipitated Au from intermediate-salinity
aqueous ore fluids during the late stage. Fluid inclusion isochoric reconstructions, combined
with oxygen and sulphur isotope data, indicate conditions of 320 + 20 8C and 1.3 + 0.2 kbar
for the early gold-Fe– As-sulphide mineralization, and c. 200 + 15 and 0.6 + 0.9 kbar for the
late gold-Zn– Pb–Cu-sulphide stage. The clockwise evolution path in pressure-temperature
space likely documents gold mineralization under post-peak metamorphic conditions. The calcu-
lated sulphide d34SH2S equilibrium values 29.04‰ to –4.75‰, may refer to a variable redox state
of sulphur in the ore fluids from the early to late mineralization stages. The stable isotope signature
of the vein quartz and calcite suggest mixed magmatic and metamorphic fluid sources (d18O
H2O ¼ +4.9‰ to +7.4‰). Unusually low d C values of calcite in the late mineralization
13

(213.9‰ to 214.7‰) may reflect input of magmatic CO2 and/or oxidized carbonaceous mate-
rial in the infiltrating fluid.

Gold-bearing quartz veins associated with variably
tectonized ophiolitic and island-arc rocks or adja-
cent to their interferences are common in the
southern and central sectors of the Eastern Desert
of Egypt, whereas gold occurrences confined to
granitic intrusions that are in some cases associ-
ated with felsic subvolcanic porphyries is a com-
mon feature in the northern Eastern Desert (e.g.
Moharram et al. 1970; Sabet & Bordonosov 1984;
Klemm et al. 2001; Botros 2004). Based on sev-
eral geological and mineralogical studies, a gold-
granitoid association in the Eastern Desert has
been suggested by many authors (e.g. Garson &
Shalaby 1976; Pohl 1988; Hussein 1990). El-Gaby
et al. (1988) suggested temporal and genetic rela-
tionships between auriferous hydrothermal quartz
veins and calc-alkaline cordilleran-type convergent
margin magmatism. Takla et al. (1990) noticed
that many gold deposits occur in and/or adja-
cent to granitoid intrusions, commonly in direct
contact with mafic/ultramafic rocks (e.g. Atalla,
El-Sid, Um Rus, Atud, Sukari). Free gold and
base metals are thought to have been leached from
unexposed metabasalt or ultramafic rocks through
the circulation of metamorphic or mixed meta-
morphic–magmatic fluids (e.g. Hassaan & El
Mezayen 1995; Harraz 2000; Klemm et al. 2001;
Botros 2004).
The El-Sid mine is located in the central block of
the Eastern Desert of Egypt, roughly midway
between the Nile River and the Red Sea coast. It
was one of the important gold deposits in Egypt
throughout history (Harraz et al. 1992). Exploration
for gold in the Fawakhir –El-Sid area dates back to
early Pharaonic times. Meyer (1997) reported
archaeological ruins of a Coptic/Byzantine gold-
mining village in the area, pointing towards signifi-
cant gold mining during the Roman-Ptolemaic eras.
Mining activities in the area remained sporadic
until the Ottomans and British colonizers arrived.
In the 20th century, exploration/operation conces-
sions were granted to British companies from the
year 1902, but mining ceased completely in 1958
(Neubauer 1962). Between 1940 and 1955, the
El-Sid mine yielded 100 000 oz Au from 120 000 t
of ore (Kochine & Basyuni 1968; Sabet et al. 1976).
Detailed exploration was carried out by the
Egyptian Geological Survey and Technoexpert
teams in 1970– 1971. They reported ancient dumps
along the contact between metabasalt and grano-
diorite in the southern part of the mine area. Eighty-
four grab samples gave gold values that varied from
trace amounts to 20.5 ppm in quartz and quartz-
calcite veins, up to 3.4 ppm Au in a silicified
diorite porphyry dike, and up to 0.34 ppm in the fer-
ruginous metabasalt. In 1989, Minex Minerals

From: Garofalo, P. S. & Ridley, J. R. (eds) Gold-Transporting Hydrothermal Fluids in the Earth’s Crust.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 402, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP402.3
# The Geological Society of London 2014. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on August 3, 2014
B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
(Egypt) Ltd. examined the potential of a nearly
50 000 tonne dump of silicified/sulphidized wall
rock with 13 drill holes (12– 54 m deep), but
samples returned insignificant assay values. In
2007, a Russian company (SMW Gold Limited)
was granted a c. 640 km2 exploration/mining con-
cession area in the Eastern Desert including the
El-Sid/Fawakhir area. Between 2008 and 2009,
SMW carried out a systematic mapping and chip/
channel sample assaying program at the El-Sid
mine area and estimated c. 80 Mt ore at 1.73 ppm
Au along two (100 m wide, 900 m long) parallel
east– west zones.
In this paper, fluid inclusion microthermometry
(supported by Raman spectroscopy data) and
stable isotope studies, integrated with new field
work and mineralogical and structural analysis are
used to determine the P–T conditions and fluid
evolution during stages of vein crystallization and
gold mineralization. The genesis of the El-Sid
gold deposit relative to the crustal evolution of the
Arabian-Nubian Shield in Egypt is as discussed.
Geological and structural setting
Regional geological setting
The Neoproterozoic basement complex of the Cen-
tral Eastern Desert is commonly subdivided into two
major lithotectonic units, namely: (i) the lower
‘infrastructure’ basement, which constitutes fault-
bounded core complexes of orthogneisses and para-
gneisses (e.g. Habib et al. 1985; El-Gaby et al. 1990;
Bregar et al. 2002; Shalaby 2010), and (ii) the struc-
turally overlying ‘suprastructure’ nappe assem-
blage, which includes back-arc ophiolites, island arc
metavolcanic and metasedimentary assemblages, as
well as non- to weakly-metamorphosed cal-alkaline
volcanic rocks (Dokhan Volcanics) and molasse-
type sedimentary rocks (Hammamat Sediments)
unconformably on top (e.g. Shackleton et al. 1980;
El-Gaby et al. 1990; El-Sayed et al. 1999; Abd
El-Rahman et al. 2009). Eruption of the Dokhan vol-
canic rocks and deposition of the Hammamat sedi-
mentary rocks characterize the waning stages of
the Neproterozoic crustal evolution in the region
(c. 640 –570 Ma; e.g. Stern & Hedge 1985; Eliwa
et al. 2006; Tawadros & Tawadros 2012). Variably
deformed calc-alkaline plutons ranging in age
between c. 700 and 600 Ma cut the units underlying
the Dokhan volcanic rocks and the Hammamat sedi-
mentary rocks (e.g. Kröner et al. 1994; Andresen
et al. 2010). Quartz-rich rhyolite and rhyodacite
porphyries form sheets, plugs, and breccias intrud-
ing into the Hammamat sedimentary rocks and
older rocks. These felsic subvolcanic rocks have a
Rb/Sr isochron age of 588 + 12 Ma (Tawadros
2011, and refs therein). Sub-rounded or elongate
post-orogenic granitic intrusions (610 –550 Ma;
Stern 1979; Sturchio et al. 1983; Hassan & Hashad
1990) cut the pre-existing rock units, and are
locally associated with major shear zones (e.g.
Andresen et al. 2009).
No infrastructure basement is exposed in the
study area. The El-Sid mine area is underlain
mainly by highly tectonized nappe rocks, including
ophiolites (serpentinite, metagabbro, and subordi-
nate metabasalt/diabase), and pelagic sedimentary
rocks (metamudstone tremolite –actinotlite phyllo-
nite) embedded in a pervasive scaly, locally carbon-
aceous argillite matrix. These rocks have suffered
greenschist facies metamorphism (e.g. Neumayr
et al. 1998). The Pan-African nappe rocks in the
Meatiq area, 10 km east of the El-Sid mine, were
affected by greenschist metamorphic conditions at
c. 450 8C and 4 kbar (Fritz et al. 2002). Molasse-
type conglomerate and greywacke (Hammamat
sedimentary rocks), slightly deformed acid and
intermediate volcanic rocks (Dokhan volcanic
rocks), as well as quartz-rich porphyries, are com-
mon in the western part of the study area (Fig. 1).
Serpentinite forms NNW-elongate bodies bounded
by thrust contacts and steeply E-dipping faults
(e.g. Hassanen 1985; Harraz & Ashmawy 1994).
Locally layered metagabbro (737 + 1 Ma zircon
U –Pb age; Andresen et al. 2009) exposed east of
the serpentinite rocks constitutes a major part of
the ophiolite suite in the study area. Metabasalt
and metadiabase form elongate map-scale blocks,
and are common as fragments, of variable size,
embedded in the mélange matrix. Fritz et al. (2002)
suggested a close association between tectonic and
magmatic activity at 620–580 Ma in the region.
The ophiolitic rocks are intruded by a North–
South elongate granite intrusion (the Fawakhir
intrusion), which occupies the central part of the
map area (Fig. 1). Field observations reveal that
quartz monzodiorite masses at the eastern and
southwestern margins of the intrusion have sharp
contacts against the much more voluminous monzo-
syenogranite phase in the center (Fig. 1). The latter
shows steep contacts against the country rocks
and forms offshoots cutting the quartz monzodio-
rite masses (Fig. 2a). Fowler (2001) suggested a
complex emplacement history of the Fawakhir
intrusion in which the monzo-syenogranite phase
(597 + 3 Ma; Andresen et al. 2009) were emplaced
into the early quartz monzodiorite. New zircon U –
Pb data from the quartz mozodiorite phase yield
638 + 8 Ma (Zoheir et al. unpublished data). The
quartz monzodiorite phase is characterized by
abundant mafic xenoliths of restite type, whereas
the monzogranite phase contains subrounded to
oval enclaves of quartz monzodiorite and metagab-
broic rocks (Fig. 2b). Fowler (2001) suggested a
complex emplacement history of the Fawakhir
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Fawakhir area, central Eastern Desert of Egypt, with location of the El-Sid mine
(modified from El-Sayed et al. 1999). Radiometric ages (U–Pb isochrons) are from Ries et al. (1983), Stern & Hedge
(1985), Andresen et al. (2009), Tawadros (2011) and from Zoheir et al. (unpublished data). Inset showing the
location map.

intrusion in which the quartz monzodiorite was
emplaced during the late stages of thrust faulting,
with the congealed early magma being fragile, it
fractured (Figs 2 & 3) and was incorporated as frag-
ments in the following monzo-syenogranite pulse. A
narrow zone of hybrid rock separates the Fawakhir
intrusion from the country ophiolitic rocks in the
western part of the mine area. In the western part
of the mine area, a dyke-like body (c. 50 m-wide)
of highly sheared granodiorite cuts the ophiolitic
rocks. This body is cut by the mineralized quartz
veins in the underground. Acid and basic dykes
cut the Fawakhir intrusion in ENE –WSW, NE –
SW, and NNW–SSE directions and extend into
the adjacent country rocks. A lamprophyre dyke
(2–4 m wide) is exposed in the western part of the
mine area, where it cuts the sheared ophiolites, and
is commonly associated with carbonatization and
silicification alteration. Surface and underground
mine workings for gold are confined to the
western margin of the Fawakhir intrusion in quartz
monzodiorite and extends westward into carbon-
aceous ophiolitic mélange rocks.
Structural setting
The structural setting in the central sector of the
Eastern Desert has been interpreted as a result of
oblique convergence that partitioned into an inter-
nal wrench corridor represented by major NW
wrench faults/shears and a western fold and thrust
belt (Fritz et al. 1996; Fritz & Messner 1999).
While thrusts propagated westward to incorporate
the Hammamat molasse sedimentary rocks into
the nappe edifice, extension occurred simulta-
neously within the Najd Fault System (Fritz et al.
2002). Exhumation of internal core complexes
accompanied NW– SE sinistral strike-slip faulting
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Fig. 2. Representative outcrop features of the Fawakhir pluton. (a) Offshoot of monzo-syenogranite into serpentinite
and quartz monzodiorite close to the El-Sid mine (view to the west). (b) Elongated enclaves of quartz monzodiorite and
microdiorite in the monzo/syenogranite phase, and conjugate joint at the western margin of the Fawakhir intrusion. (c)
Fault striation on a metabasalt exposure at the western part of El-Sid mine, indicating a normal movement along the
East–West fault planes (view to the south). (d) Slickensides on a quartz monzodiorite exposure indicating an oblique
reverse dextral movement along the East– West fault planes (view to the south).

that resulted in NW–SE directed extension, which
provided depocentres for the accumulation of intra-
montane molasse basins (Fritz & Messner 1999), as
well as weak zones for the intrusion of granitoid
bodies (Fritz et al. 2002).
Structural fabrics in the study area (Fig. 1)
include mylonitic foliation and conjugate strike-slip
faults. The mylonitic foliation planes indicate a
west-verging thrust structures at the basal contact
of serpentinite and metabasalt masses that are
overlain by, and incorporated into the Hammamat
Sedimentary rocks in the west. Three main fault
trends, oriented ENE –WSW, NE –SW, and NW–
SE, cut the Fawakhir intrusion and surrounding
rocks. Subordinate NNW- and WNW-trending
faults overprint the other directions with no lateral
displacement. Steeply plunging (65– 798S) slicken-
sides on the ENE –WSW fault surfaces may suggest
normal faulting in the western part of the mine area
(see Fig. 2c). Loizenbauer & Neumayr (1996)
suggested a spatial and temporal relationship
between gold mineralization and extensional tec-
tonics in the Fawakhir area. However, discrete sub-
horizontal striations are observed on some ENE –
WSW fault segments in the eastern part of the
mine area, implying a right-lateral displacement
component (see Fig. 2d). Harraz & Ashmawy
(1994) suggest multiple reactivations of the ENE –
WSW strike-slip faults during the structural evol-
ution of the mine area. The other fault trends are
steeply inclined or nearly vertical, and are associ-
ated with lateral offset variable from a few centi-
metres to tens of metres.
Gold-bearing quartz veins are mostly confined
to faults trending c. east –west (N70– 928E) and
dipping 66–828 to south, whereas tension gashes
occupy the north-dipping ENE –WSW fractures.
A stereographic projection of measured fault/
joint planes and quartz veins in the mine area sug-
gests that gold-bearing quartz veins could have
been emplaced along extensional c. east –west
fault segments developed throughout re-activation
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 3. Fracture-fault pattern in the Fawakhir intrusion and surrounding ophiolitic serpentinite (compiled from
field data, satellite data, and fault attitudes from Harraz & Ashmawy (1994)). Insets showing structures associated with
the strike-slip faults and their orientations relative to a single main displacement zone. The stereographic net shows
ENE–WSW fault sets accommodating the Au-quartz veins (in blue) with dextral sense as components of the whole
sinistral wrench system. Notice the calculation of palaeostress tensor based on the auriferous faults/shear zones yields
palaeostress directions comparable to those of the sinistral wrench system.

of the sinistral wrenching along the major NW–SE
strike-slip faults and related dextral shearing along
the East –West faults (Fig. 3). Loizenbauer &
Neumayr (1996) suggested that the Fawakhir
monzo-syenogranite body cooled down, and the
principal stresses remained in the same orienta-
tion and caused the continuation of the strike-slip
faulting. Afterwards, the local palaeostress field
rotated so that s1 was vertical and s2 was in an
east –west direction, resulting in a stage of nor-
mal faulting, and the development of conjugate
joints (Fig. 3).
Methods
Field and satellite imagery data were used to prepare
a new map of the study area at an appropriate scale.
Ore mineralogy, textures, hydrothermal alteration,
and microstructures were studied by transmitted
and reflected light microscopic studies on more than
200 thin and polished thin sections. The mineral
chemistry of ore minerals was determined by
electron microprobe spot analyses on carbon-coated
polished thin sections with an SX-50 Cameca instru-
ment at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
Working conditions were a 20-kV accelerating
voltage, with a 30-nA beam current (1 mm focused
beam).
Microthermometric measurements were carried
out on 37 (150-mm-thick) doubly polished wafers
on a Linkam THMGS-600 heating/freezing stage
mounted on a Leica microscope equipped with a
Nikon 100 × long working distance lens at the
fluid inclusions laboratory of the University of
Geneva. Calibration using synthetic fluid inclusions
(Sterner & Bodnar 1984) at temperatures of –56.68,
0.08, and 374.1 8C was periodic. The precision and
accuracy of this stage are discussed by Shepherd
et al. (1985). A heating rate of 1 8C/min was used
for phase changes below 30 8C, whereas a heating
rate of 5 8C/min was used above this temperature.
Hence, low temperature phase changes are accurate
to +0.2 8C, whereas temperatures above 30 8C
have an estimated accuracy of +2 8C. The volu-
metric proportions of the aqueous- and vapour-rich
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
phases in mixed inclusions and degree of filling
(DF: volume proportion of liquid in a fluid inclu-
sion) were visually estimated at room temperature
by reference to the volumetric charts of Shepherd
et al. (1985), taken into account a typical error of
approximately +10%.
The Raman spectroscopy measurements were
carried out with a Dilor Labram Raman spec-
trometer at the University of Geneva, Switzerland
using an Nd-YAG laser (excitation wavelength
532 nm, 50 mW laser energy at the laser source,
and 20 mW on the sample surface). A 50× micro-
scope objective was used to focus the laser onto
the sample and to collect the Raman signal. To
characterize the Raman shifts (spectra) and identify
the phases present, we referred to the online Raman
database of Bonelli & Frezzotti (2003) and Frezzotti
et al. (2012).
O, C, and S stable isotopic compositions of
vein quartz, calcite, and sulphides were analyzed
using gas-isotope ratio mass spectrometers at the
University of Lausanne, Switzerland. Simulta-
neous measurements of d18O and d17O isotopic
compositions of quartz and calcite separates (at a
grain size of 200– 500 mm and weight of 1.5–
2.0 mg) using a CO2-laser fluorination system and
Finnigan MAT 253 mass spectrometer (served
with Isodat Acquisition 2. software). Vein calcite
separates were analysed for carbon isotopic compo-
sition using a Carlo Erba 1108 EA connected to
a Finnigan MAT Delta-S IRMS via a Conflo II
split interface (EA/IRMS). The sulphur isotopic
compositions were measured using a Carlo Erba
(CE 1100) elemental analyzer linked to a Thermo-
Fisher Delta V mass spectrometer. The data are
reported in the conventional d values as ‰ devi-
ations relative to the Vienna Canyon Diablo Troilite
(VCDT) for S, and Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite
(VPDB) and Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
(VSMOW) standards for C and O, respectively.
External reproducibility of the laboratory standards
was generally better than 0.15‰.
Mineralization style and characteristics
Ore bodies
The El-Sid gold deposit comprises a set of pinched
and swelled quartz veins (≤2 m thick), extending
for hundreds of metres in a ENE –WSW direction.
The gold-bearing quartz veins cut the Fawakhir
intrusion and the ophiolitic mélange rocks to the
west (Fig. 4). In the eastern part of the mine area,
three main veins (0.2–1.2 m thick) and contiguous
veinlets in hydrothermally altered granitic rocks
have been worked out for a distance of c. 220 m
along strike, and down to c. 200 m along dip
(Fig. 5). On the other hand, a milky quartz vein
(0.5–2 m-thick) forms the principal ore body
exposed in the underground in the western part of
the mine. This vein extends laterally to c. 300 m
and to c. 455 m down dip (Fig. 5). Neubauer (1962)
suggested that a lamprophyre dyke, which is
exposed on the surface and forms the footwall in
the underground, controls this vein’s dip and strike.
The ore bodies were worked out from several adits
(levels) along three inclined shafts down to c.
230 m below the surface (Fig. 5). Gold content in
the mineralized veins varies from 1.5 to 22.6 ppm
(Gabra 1986). Higher grades (29.7 ppm Au and
22.9 ppm Ag) were reported in the laminated
quartz veins (Hussein 1990). Pervasive silicification
and sericitization next to the quartz veins are buf-
fered outward into fresh host monzodiorite
through a pyrite– chlorite–sericite –calcite assem-
blage in the eastern part of the mine. In the western
part of the mine area, zones of altered ophiolitic
wall rock with disseminated sulphides, chlorite, and
carbonate correlate positively with the quartz vein
thickness.
New field and microscopic studies suggest a
twofold vein paragenesis, including early ribboned
(Q-1a) quartz veins and laminated (Q-1b) quartz
veins, and late massive milky quartz + calcite
(Q-2) veins. Q-1a quartz veins (≤1.2 m thick) are
abundant in the eastern part of the mine area,
cutting mainly through monzodiorite and hybrid
rock (Figs 6 & 7). These veins form pinched and
swelled tabular or lenticular bodies, with abundant
elongate slivers of altered wall rock. The ribboned
structure, stretched ends, and undulate morphol-
ogy of these veins suggest formation under dex-
tral transpression (Fig. 8a). Milky-white and gray
quartz are the main components of these veins,
in addition to variable amounts of carbonate, seri-
cite and chlorite. Ore minerals are commonly dis-
seminated in zones where wall-rock material is
abundant, or as fine disseminations in the highly
strained zones. In places, Q-1a veins are cut or par-
tially replaced by Q-1b fault-fill quartz veins.
Q-1b veins (≤50 cm-thick) are fault-fill veins
hosted by moderately to steeply dipping fault seg-
ments. These veins replace the Q-1a in the eastern
part of the mine area, and are cut by Q-2 veins in
the western part of the mine (Fig. 8b). They are
characterized by a laminated-stylolitic appearance,
with abundant sericite/chlorite septae (Fig. 8c).
They show internal elongated blocky microstruc-
tures, mainly of large quartz grains with highly
sutured grain boundaries, and deformed domains
of dynamically recrystallized quartz grains and car-
bonaceous wall-rock material. The mineralogy of
these veins includes quartz, carbonate, sericite,
chlorite, graphite, and typically a greater abundance
of disseminated sulphides.
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 4. Detailed geological map of the mine area showing the distribution/orientation of quartz veins, along with a
projection of the underground work pattern from north to south concordant with the ore bodies’ southward dip (modified
from Neubauer 1962; El-Bouseily et al. 1985, 1986; Langwieder 1994).

Fig. 5. Sketch cross section showing the geometry of the main ore bodies and design of the underground workings at the
El-Sid mine area (modified from Neubauer 1962). Colours for lithological units are as in Figures 1 and 4.
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Fig. 6. Features of the auriferous quartz veins in El-Sid deposit including. (a) Sulphide-rich quartz boudin along
ductile shear zone cutting through highly deformed chlorite-rich quartz-monzodiorite in the eastern part of the mine.
(b) Fault-fill quartz vein with a laminated appearance along a brittle-ductile shear zone in fractured granitoid rocks in the
eastern part of the mine area. (c) Close up view of a laminated quartz vein (Q-1b) showing alternating milky quartz-rich
bands and laminations rich in wall-rock material. Notice the symmetry of both sides around the median line (yellow). (d)
Blocky massive milky quartz veins with abundant rafts and stretched selvages of the host serpentinite in the western part
of the mine area.

The internal structure of the Q-1a and Q-1b veins
may reflect different styles of brittle –ductile defor-
mation that is typical of orogenic gold deposits
(e.g. Groves et al. 1998; Dubé & Gosselin 2007).
They might be temporally coeval veins developed
together in different segments of the structure
network, or represent consequent vein formation
during the onset of the early mineralization stage
(sensu Witt et al. 2012).
The Q-2 veins comprise massive milky-white
quartz cutting through carbonatized metabasalt and
serpentinite and highly tectonized, graphite-bearing
mélange matrix in the western part of the mine (see
Fig. 7). These veins show greater thicknesses com-
pared to the other vein types, and commonly
enclose thick (c. 0.5 m wide) slivers of the wall
rock (Fig. 8d). These veins are composed of large
blocky quartz, calcite, and disseminated sulphides.
Q-2 veins replace the Q-1b veins along moderately
dipping (42–658S) fault/fracture sets (Fig. 8d).
Microtextural characteristics
In addition to their variable morphologies, the
three quartz-vein types are characterized by distinct
microtextures. The Q-1a veins are characterized by
variably strained milky-white and gray quartz inter-
mingled with subordinate carbonate and sulphide-
bearing wall-rock selvages (Fig. 9a). Most crystals
are overprinted by plastic deformation and exhibit
undulose extinction, kink and deformation bands,
as well as deformation lamellae (Fig. 9b). The large
quartz crystals are coarsely crushed (granulated)
and cut by dislocation planes partially filled with
sub-grains and new grains (Fig. 9b), suggesting
vein emplacement and deformation in a dynamic
environment.
In the Q-1b veins, dark-coloured planar laminae,
commonly a few mm wide, are separated by fine-
grained anhedral quartz (Fig. 9c). These laminae
are subparallel to the vein walls. Stylolite-like
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 7. Features of the investigated auriferous quartz veins in polished hand specimen (left) and thin section (right).
(a) Sulphide-rich boudinage quartz vein (Q-1a) with texture indicating formation coeval with shear development.
(b) Subgrains developed along microshears in ribboned quartz vein (Q-1a). (c) Structure of the laminated quartz vein
with quartz bands separated by laminations of wall-rock material and disseminations of sulphide minerals and gold. The
upper margin of the vein is a complex zone of intensely sheared wall rock, lamination, and attenuated quartz.
(d) Microscopic details of the laminated quartz (Q-1b) with alternate serrate quartz, calcite, and sulphide-rich wall rock.
(e) Buck quartz, comb quartz, and calcite in the late massive quartz veins (Q-2). (f) Galena and gold along the grain
boundaries of buck quartz (Q-2).

solution seams (,0.5 mm) are a common feature
in these veins and are characterized by local con-
centrations of wall-rock material, carbonate, and
sulphides (Fig. 9d). In some places, cores of the
large quartz grains exhibit smooth undulose extinc-
tion instead of sharp deformation bands.
The Q-2 veins are made up of milky-white, unde-
formed buck quartz and abundant calcite (Fig. 9e).
Recrystallization and subgrain development are
absent in these veins, and there is no evidence
of plastic deformation. Intergrowths of euhedral
quartz and calcite are common in the central parts
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Fig. 8. Characteristic quartz textures of the El-Sid auriferous quartz veins in thin sections (XPL). (a) Large quartz
crystal dissected by conjugate sets of shear bands and subrounded subgrains in Q-1a. (b) Small bulges developed along
shear planes, which accommodate a dextral shear in Q-1b. (c) Late quartz (Q-2) cross-cuts the laminated structure of
Q-1b vein. (d) Intergrown comb quartz and calcite in Q-2.

of the veins. In some places, galena, sphalerite, and
gold fill intergranular space between quartz crys-
tals (a few mm.wide) and heal the microfractures
(Fig. 9f).
Ore mineralogy and paragenesis
The mineralogy of the quartz veins includes pyrite,
arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, chalco-
pyrite, and subordinate gold/electrum. These min-
erals occur as fine-grained interlocking aggregates
in the wall rock and as random disseminations or
lamination-bound aggregates in the quartz veins.
Based on their distribution and textural relation-
ships, sulphide minerals in the El-Sid deposit are
classified into three paragenetic assemblages;
early, transitional and late. The early assemblage
includes pyrite (I), arsenopyrite (I) and less com-
mon pyrrhotite. This assemblage is commonly
disseminated in Q-1a veins. Arsenopyrite (I) is com-
monly euhedral and contains abundant pyrrhotite
inclusions. The transitional sulphide assemblage
comprises pyrite (II), arsenopyrite (II), and rare
pyrrhotite and visible gold. This assemblage is
common in Q-1b veins, but locally replaces the
early sulphides in Q-1a veins. Arsenopyrite (II)
occurs as subhedral to anhedral crystals commonly
intergrown with pyrite, with inclusions of visible
gold. The late assemblage includes streaky sphaler-
ite, galena, chalcopyrite, and gold/electrum. Galena
and sphalerite exhibit mutual boundaries and occur
as random disseminations in coarse-crystalline Q-2
veins. The early and transitional sulphide assem-
blages are disseminated in Q-1a and Q-1b veins,
where euhedral to subhedral pyrite and arsenopy-
rite grains contain fine inclusions of pyrrhotite
(Fig. 9a–d). Pyrite-arsenopyrite pairs of the early
and transitional assemblages show abundant tex-
tural features of co-paragenesis (Fig. 9), and are
variably replaced by sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and
galena (Fig. 10a –c).
Scarce gold inclusions in primary sites away
from fractures are observed in As-bearing pyrite
crystals, where juxtaposed with arsenopyrite in
Q-1a and Q-1b veins. More abundant small blebs
of free gold are disseminated along the dark
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 9. Backscattered electron images showing the ore textures of the El-Sid gold deposit. (a) Weakly zoned early
arsenopyrite (apy I), with microcracks healed with galena in a Q-1a vein. (b) Coexisting pyrite-arsenopyrite of the early
assemblage (apy I and py I), with small pyrrhotite (po) inclusions in pyrite (Q-1a vein). Notice the altered appearance
of apy (I). (c) Intergrowths of pyrite-arsenopyrite of the transitional assemblage (apy II and py II) in a Q-1b vein.
(d) Coexisting arsenopyrite (II) and pyrite (II) with gold inclusions in subhedral pyrite grain in Q-1b vein.

laminae in Q-1b veins. Gold and electrum inter-
growths with galena and sphalerite occur in Q-2
veins, but also are reported to occur along micro-
fissures in Q-1b veins (Fig. 10d). The association
of visible gold/electrum and pyrite (I) and/or
arsenopyrite (I) in Q-1a veins is absent.
In the back scattered images, sector twining and
growth zoning characterize arsenopyrite of the early
assemblage. These features are generally absent in
arsenopyrite (II). Differences in the chemical com-
position of arsenopyrites (I and II) from the early
and transitional assemblages is evident by the
electron microprobe data (Table 1). Arsenopyrite
(I) contains higher As atmoic % (30.5 –32.1) com-
pared to arsenopyrite (II), which has 29.03 –30.36
atomic %. Based on the BSE images and electron
probe analysis, the low variability of the As and S
content of the arsenopyrite rims relative to cores
suggests equilibrium with the overprinting hydro-
thermal event. Traces of invisible gold have been
reported in the early As-rich arsenopyrite. The tran-
sition from the deposition of invisible to visible gold
in Q-1a and Q-1b veins can be expressed as the
evolution from arsenopyrite (containing invisible
gold) + pyrite + pyrrhotite (as inclusions within
arsenopyrite and pyrite)  arsenopyrite (low arse-
nic contents) + pyrite + pyrrhotite + visible gold.
Arsenopyrite thermometery (Kretschmar &
Scott 1976; Sharp et al. 1985) suggests 343 +
20 8C and 315 + 10 8C for formation of the early
and transitional Fe– As-sulphide assemblages,
respectively. The calculated log f S2 for the early
sulphide assemblage is between 28 and 29,
whereas data of the transitional assemblage yield
log f S2 around 210 (Fig. 11). The calculated temp-
eratures and sulphur fugacity (f S2) are lower for the
transitional assemblage, relative to the early Fe –
As– S sulphides. This may be explained as a result
of a continuously evolving hydrothermal system,
as sensed from the preserved gradual changes in
mineral chemistry, rather than by two distinctly sep-
arate arsenopyrite-forming events (e.g. Morey et al.
2008). The slight decrease in f S2 can be assessed
through the absence of composition zoning in
arsenopyrites (I) and (II) in most samples. This
observation may also be consistent with the
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Fig. 10. Reflect light microscopic shots showing (a) Galena (gn) replacement through core and prepheries of a
pyrite (II) grain in a Q-1b vein, (b) Galena filling fractures in pyrite (II) with intergrowths of gold/electrum grains (Au),
(c) Intergrowths of galena (gn) and sphalerite (sph) in a calcite-rich domain of a Q-1b vein, and (d) Galena (gn)
and sphalerite (sph) intergrowths in a Q-2 vein. Notice that sphalerite (sph) shows the chalcopyrite (cpy) disease,
indicating concomitant formation.

suggestion of the Q-1a and Q-1b to be temporally
coeval veins developed together in different seg-
ments of the structure network.
Ag and Te content in electrum grains/specks
associated with the transitional assemblage are
lower compared to those associated with the late
base metal assemblage (Table 2). In some sam-
ples, fine stringers and blebs associated with galena
in the late assemblage yield a hessite composition
(Table 2). The notable increase in silver and tellur-
ium in the late mineralization may refer to a mag-
matic contribution and/or shallower depth of
formation (e.g. Powell et al. 1991).
Fluid inclusion study
Fluid inclusion types and modes of occurrence
The mineralized quartz veins are generally rich in
trail-bound, clustered, and isolated liquid-rich and
vapour-rich inclusions of C –O –H fluids. Based
on their relative phase proportions at and below
room temperature, and phase changes during
freezing-heating runs, three compositional types of
fluid inclusions have been identified, as aqueous-
carbonic (Type-I), aqueous (Type-II), and carbonic
(Type-III) inclusions. The relative proportion of
each inclusion type varies in the Q-1a, Q-1b, and
Q-2 veins (Fig. 12). Generally, most observed inclu-
sions are ≤20 mm long, although a few aqueous
inclusions are as large as 30 mm across. These
inclusions show variable morphologies (e.g. nega-
tive crystal, oval, rounded, and irregular shapes),
but inclusions with daughter crystals are generally
absent. Fluid inclusions occur either isolated, clus-
tered, along transgranular trails, or along intra-
granular trails and along grain and sub-grain
boundaries (typical for shear-related quartz veins;
e.g. Simmons & Richter 1976; Kranz 1983; Van
den Kerkhof & Hein 2001).
Type-I fluid inclusions are either bi-phase (H2O
liquid –CO2 liquid) or tri-phase (H2O liquid– CO2
liquid –CO2 vapour) at room temperature. Their
shape ranges from oval to irregular. The CO2
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Table 1. Representative data of arsenopyrites from the early and transitional assemblages of the El Sid
gold deposit

Arsenopyrite (I) Arsenopyrite (II)

wt% av. Max. Min. Median av. Max. Min. Median

S 20.96 21.50 20.38 20.92 21.96 22.67 21.52 21.87

Fe 34.48 35.03 33.67 34.72 34.68 35.72 33.18 34.76
Co 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.85 0.00 0.00
Ni 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.28 1.39 0.00 0.11
Cu 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.12 0.00 0.02
As 43.35 44.53 42.51 43.26 41.77 42.45 41.12 41.61
Se 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.22 0.17 0.16
Ag 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.08 0.00 0.04
Sb 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Te 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.49 0.17 0.05
Au 0.13 0.32 0.00 0.20 0.04 0.12 0.00 0.04
at.%
S 35.27 36.07 34.55 35.23 36.54 37.42 35.96 36.55
Fe 33.31 33.63 32.38 33.45 33.13 33.79 31.68 33.34
Co 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.76 0.00 0.00
Ni 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.26 1.26 0.00 0.10
Cu 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.10 0.00 0.02
As 31.22 32.10 30.52 31.20 29.75 30.36 29.03 29.73
Se 0.11 0.09 0.00 0.11 0.10 0.15 0.12 0.11
Ag 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.01
Sb 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Te 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.21 0.07 0.12
Au 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.02

volumetric proportion ranges between 0.2 and 0.8 (liquid and vapour H2O) inclusions showing elon-
within a single population (FIA sensu Goldstein & gate, negative crystal or irregular shapes. In Q-2
Reynolds 1994). Type-II inclusions are bi-phase veins, Type-II inclusions are commonly larger in

Fig. 11. Sulphur activity–temperature projection of the stability field of arsenopyrite (Barton 1969), with atom. wt% As
arsenopyrite-buffered curves from Kretschmar & Scott (1976) and Sharp et al. (1985). The hatched areas depict the
temperature range and f S2 conditions of precipitation for the early (I) and transitional (II) sulphides. As, arsenic; apy,
arsenopyrite; l, liquid; lö, löellingite; po, pyrrhotite; py, pyrite.
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Table 2. Representative data of gold/electrum associated with the transitional and late sulphide assemblages
of the El Sid gold deposit

wt% Gold associated with the transitional Gold associated with the late Hessite stringers
sulphide assemblage sulphide assemblage (base metals) in base metals
av. max. min. median av. max. min. median av.

S 0.44 1.31 0.09 0.22 0.2 0.25 0.12 0.2 0.02

Fe 0.26 1.86 0.27 0.9 0.31 0.23 0.08 0.06 0.00
Co 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ni 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01
Cu 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00
As 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
Se 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ag 13.02 10.67 11.97 14.3 25.31 21.15 29.39 25.38 60.67
Sb 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.26
Te 0.1 0.014 0.08 0.16 0.19 0.28 1.13 0.78 38.67
Au 86.65 85.65 86.81 84.44 74.7 78.06 70.45 74.82 0.00

size and more saline, compared to Type-II inclu-
sions in Q-1a and Q-1b veins. Type-III inclu-
sions are oval or faceted mono-phase or bi-phase
with dark appearance. They occur commonly as
intragranular trails in association with Type-I inclu-
sions in Q-1a and Q-1b veins. In Q-2 veins, Type-III
inclusions occur as planar arrays or in clusters with
Type-II inclusions.
Microthermometry and laser Raman data
The cycling technique described by Goldstein &
Reynolds (1994) was applied to obtain accurate
measurements of some phase transitions. The
obtained data, including temperatures of total hom-
ogenization (Th total), melting of CO2 (Tm CO2), hom-
ogenization of CO2 (Th CO2), melting of clathrate
(Tm Clath), and final melting of ice (Tmice), are sum-
marized in Table (3). Thermometric data were inter-
preted in terms of composition and density of the
trapped fluids. Molar volumes, compositions, and
isochores were calculated using the ‘FLUIDS’ soft-
ware package (Bakker 2003). Salinities of aqueous
inclusions are determined from ice melting tempera-
tures using the equation given by Bodnar (2003).
Salinities from final clathrate melting are calculated
using the computer programs of Bakker (1997)
based on the equation of Diamond (1992). Densities
of H2O and CO2 in CO2-bearing inclusions were
calculated by applying the equation of state by
Saxena & Fei (1987). Fluid inclusions isochores
were calculated based on equations by Bowers &
Helgeson (1983) for H2O–CO2 inclusions, and by
Bodnar & Vityk (1994) for H2O inclusions with
the program ISOC (Bakker 2003).
Type-I inclusions (H2O– NaCl–CO2 + CH4). On
heating after supercooling to 2110 8C, the Type-I
inclusions showed four phase transitions, including:
melting of CO2, rare ice melting, clathrate melting,
and partial homogenization of CO2. The Tm CO2
occurred commonly below 256.6, which is sugges-
tive of variable amounts of mixed gasses with CO2
(i.e. CH4 + N2). Th CO2 occurred into liquid, and
less commonly into the vapour phase. Critical hom-
ogenization through meniscus disappearance was
reported only in two inclusions. In the Q-1a quartz
veins, some of the aqueous-carbonic inclusions
yielded Th CO2 to liquid at c. 18– 29 8C, and others
homogenized into vapour at c. 28– 31 8C. Based
on the fact that CH4 and CO2 have similar molar
volumes at high temperatures and pressures and
mix near ideally at such conditions (Ridley & Hage-
mann 1999), these temperatures may correspond to
CO2 densities (dCO2) of 0.64 –0.80 g/cm3 and
0.28 –0.39 g/cm3, respectively (Table 3). In Q-1b
veins, liquid-vapour CO2 homogenized at 23.7 –
30.2 8C into liquid in some inclusions and into
vapour at 25.6–30.9 8C in others. CO2 density
ranges between 0.25 and 0.35 g/cm3 for inclusions
in which CO2 homogenizes into vapour and 0.53 –
0.73 g/cm3 for inclusions in which CO2 homo-
genizes into liquid, slightly lower than dCO2 in
similar inclusions in the Q-1a veins. Clathrate
dissociation in the aqueous-carbonic inclusions
occurred commonly between 4.3 8C and 9.6 8C.
The corresponding salinities are c. 1–10 wt% eq.
NaCl, with notably lower densities in the Q-1b
veins. The Th total values are erratic in the different
vein types, but Type-I inclusions in the Q-1b veins
homogenize at lower temperatures (275– 329 8C)
compared to those in Q-1a veins (296 –342 8C).
Raman shifts further indicate variable CH4 con-
tents (up to 30 mol%) along with traces of N2
(,2 mol%) in Type-I inclusions associated with
the gold-sulphides in Q-1a and Q-1b veins. Total
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 12. Fluid inclusions in the gold-bearing quartz veins from the El-Sid mine. (a) Trail of vapour rich three phase
inclusions of H2O–CO2 fluids (Type-I) in the early quartz veins (Q-1a). (b) 3D cluster of three phase inclusions of
liquid-rich H2O–CO2 + CH4 fluids along the boundary of early quartz enclave in a laminated quartz veins (Q-1b).
(c & d) Vapour-rich and liquid-rich Type-I fluid inclusions in Q-1a and Q-1b, respectively. (e & f) Carbonic inclusions
(Type IIIa) with negative and oval shapes in Q-1a quartz. (g) Low salinity aqueous (Type-IIa) inclusion in Q-1a vein
quartz. (h) High salinity aqueous inclusions (Type-IIb) in sphalerite in Q-2.

homogenization into liquid or to the vapour phase groups of inclusions but are variable in different
has been observed at a narrow temperature range clusters, suggesting entrapment at approximately
in a single fluid inclusion trail. The Th total are the same temperature and pressure, and likely from
usually identical among individual clusters or the same fluid (e.g. Goldstein 2003). Generally, no
Table 3. Summary of the characteristics and Microthermometric and laser Raman data of the different inclusion types in the El Sid gold deposit

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Type-I: H2O– NaCl– CO2 Type-II: H2O –NaCl + CO2 inclusions Type III: CO2 + CH4 + N2 inclusions
(+CH4 + N2) inclusions
Type-IIa: low salinity Type-IIb: high salinity Type-IIIa: CO2 – CH4 + N2 Type-IIIb: CO2 inclusions
aqueous inclusions aqueous inclusions inclusions

Early milky to Abundance: 55% of the Abundance: 25% of the Absent Abundance: 20% of the bulk Absent
grayish whole fluid inclusion bulk inclusions inclusions population
quartz veins population population Shape: oval, oblate

B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

(Q-1a) Shape: sub-rounded, oval,
elongate
Size: 6–20 mm
Occurrence: isolated, in
clusters, along intragranular
trails
DF ¼ 0.2– 0.8
Tm CO2 ¼ 256.6 2 58.4 8C
Th CO2 ¼ 17.9 –28.7 8C (to
liquid)
Th CO2 ¼ 27.6 –30.8 8C (to
vapour)
Tm Clath ¼ 4.3– 8.1 8C
Th total ¼ 296–342 8C
dCO2(g/cm3)¼ 0.28 –0.79
Salinity ¼  4 –10 wt%
NaCl eq.
XCO2 (mole%)¼ 3– 52
XCH4 (mole%)¼ 0– 11
Bulk density ¼ 0.66–
0.95 g/cm3
Laminated Abundance: 15% of the bulk
quartz veins inclusions population
(Q-1b) Shape: oval, wedged, irregular
Size: 5–10 mm
DF ¼ 0.2– 0.7
Shape: equant, elongate,
irregular
Size: 3–12 mm
Occurrence: isolated or
along intragranular trails
associated with Type-I
inclusions
Vol.% H2O vapour ¼ 2 –10
Tm ice ¼ 21.9 2 7.4 8C
Th total ¼ 269–328 8C
Salinity ¼ 3.2–11 wt%
NaCl eq.
dH2O(g/cm3) ¼ 1.01 –
1.07 g/cm3
Abundance: 50% of the
bulk inclusions
population
Shape: rounded, stretched
irregular
Size: 3– 10 mm
Occurrence: isolated, along
intragranular trails associated
with Type I inclusions
Tm CO2 ¼ 256.8 to 258.7 8C
Th CO2 ¼ 7.8–28.1 8C (into liquid)
Th CO2 ¼ 29.7–30.6 8C (into
vapour)
dCO2(g/cm3) ¼ 0.33– 0.88 g/cm3
Abundance: 8% of the Abundance: 20% of the bulk Abundance: 7% of the
bulk inclusions inclusions bulk inclusions
population population population
Shape: sub-rounded, Shape: elongate, negative Shape: rounded, elongate
irregular crystals Size: ≤3– 5 mm
 Tm CO2 ¼ 257.1to 260.4 8C
Th CO2 ¼ 23.7 –30.2 8C (to
liquid)
Th CO2 ¼ 25.6 –30.9 8C
(to vapour)
Tm Clath ¼ 5.8– 9.6 8C
Th total ¼ 275–329 8C
dCO2(g/cm3) ¼ 0.25– 0.73
Size: 4–10 mm
Vol.% H2O vapour ¼ 5 –20
Tm ice ¼ 20.7 to 24.8 8C
Th total ¼ 238–302 8C
Salinity ¼ 1.2–7.6 wt%
NaCl eq.
dH2O(g/cm3) ¼ 1.00 –
1.04 g/cm3
Size: 2– 12 mm
Occurrence: along inter-
and trans-granular trails
Vol.% H2O vapour ¼ ≤5
Tm ice ¼ 24.1 to 28.3 8C
Th total ¼ 209– 276 8C
Salinity ¼ 6.6– 12.1 wt%
eq. NaCl
Size: 2– 9 mm Occurrence: along inter-
Tm CO2 ¼ 256.6 to 260.9 8C and trans-granular
Th CO2 ¼ 21.3–29.9 8C (to liquid) trails
Th CO2 ¼ 29.4–30.8 8C Tm CO2 ¼ 256.6 to
(to vapour) 256.9 8C
dCO2(g/cm3) ¼ 0.32– 0.76 g/cm3 Th CO2 ¼ 27.4–30.3 8C
(to liquid)
dCO2(g/cm3) ¼ 0.58–

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Salinity ¼  1 –8 wt% dH2O(g/cm3) ¼ 1.04– 0.67 g/cm3
NaCl eq. 1.08 g/cm3
XCO2 (mol.%) ¼ 10– 48
(ave. 23)
XCH4 (mol.%) ¼ 2– 30

LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

(Raman data)
XN2 (mol.%) ¼ 0 –2
(Raman data)
Bulk density ¼ 0.49–
0.89 g/cm3
Massive milky Absent Absent Abundance: 80% of the Absent Abundance: 15% of the
quartz bulk inclusions bulk inclusions
(+calcite) population population
veins (Q-2) Shape: sub-rounded, Shape: elongate, negative
stretched irregular crystals, rounded
Size: 7– 30 mm Size: 2 –10 mm
Vol.% H2O vapour ¼ 5 –10 Tm CO2 ¼ 256.6 to
Tm ice ¼ 27.3 to 219.2 8C 256.8 8C
Th total ¼ 187– 248 8C Th CO2 ¼ 23.6–26.9 8C
Salinity ¼ 10.9– 21.8 wt% (to liquid)
eq.NaCl dCO2(g/cm3) ¼ 0.68–
dH2O(g/cm3) ¼ 1.07– 0.73 g/cm3
1.17 g/cm3

More details about the equations of state used in fluid inclusions composition modeling are given in the text.
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
aqueous-carbonic (Type-I) inclusions were observed
in the Q-2 veins.
Type-II inclusions (H2O – NaCl + CO2). Type-II
inclusions could be further subdivided on the basis
of paragenesis and salinity into two subtypes; low
salinity (Type-IIa) are commonly associated with
the aqueous-carbonic and carbonic inclusions in
Q-1a and Q-1b quartz veins, and saline aqueous
(Type-IIb) in or adjacent to sphalerite in the Q-2
and Q-1b veins. The Tm ice of Type IIa inclusions
(4–15 mm) occurred between 27.4 8C and
21.9 8C, corresponding to salinities of 3.2 and
11 wt% eq. NaCl. Tm Clath is observed in a few
inclusions in Q-1a quartz veins, which reflects
the presence of invisible traceable, amounts of
CO2. The Th total of Type-IIa inclusions in Q-1a
veins occurred between 269 8C and 328 8C. Type-
IIa inclusions that are associated with Type-I
inclusions in the Q-1b veins give final Tm ice between
20.7 8C and 24.8 8C, corresponding to salinities
of c. 1.2–7.6 wt% eq. NaCl. Th total occurred com-
monly into liquid at temperatures of 238 –302 8C.
On the other hand, Type-IIb inclusions
(7–30 mm) with no evidence of dissolved CO2
were observed in isolations and planer arrays in
Q-2 veins, but as transgranular trails in the Q-1b
veins. In Q-1b veins, Type-IIb inclusions in inter-
granular and transgranular trails have salinities
between c. 7 and 12 wt% eq. NaCl, and homogen-
ize into liquid at temperatures of 209 –276 8C. In
the Q-2 veins, Type-IIb inclusions intimately
associated with sphalerite give the highest sali-
nities (c. 11–22 wt% eq. NaCl) and the lowest
Th total at temperatures between 187 8C and
248 8C (Table 3).
Type-III inclusions (CO2 + CH4 + N2). Carbonic
inclusions in the investigated quartz veins are clas-
sified into two subtypes, that is Type-IIIa and
Type-IIIb. Type-IIIa are high density CO2 – rich
inclusions that occur as intragranular trails in asso-
ciation with Type-I inclusions in Q-1a and Q-1b
veins. These inclusions give variable Tm CO2 in
Q-1a (256.6 to 258.7 8C) and Q-1b veins (56.6
to 260.9 8C), reflecting variable contents of dis-
solved CH4 + N2. Th CO2 occurred into liquid and
less frequently into the vapour phase at roughly
comparable temperatures in Q-1a and Q-1b quartz
veins (Table 3). In Q-1a, an invisible aqueous
fraction is inferred from a phase change at 4.8–6.6
8C in a few of the relatively large inclusions. In
agreement with the Raman spectroscopy analysis,
CO2-rich inclusions in the Q-2 quartz veins
showed Tm CO2 indicating a pure CO2 composition.
The Type-IIIb inclusions showed a narrow range of
Th CO2 and only into liquid, indicative of more or
less a constant density.
Stable isotopes
d34S values of sulphides
Sulphur isotope values of 39 sulphide separates
(sphalerite, galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and chalco-
pyrite) collected from powdered mineralized
lodes and wall rock are given in Table 4. Distinc-
tion of the early and transitional pyrites is based
on the vein samples from which sulphides were
collected. The sulphur isotopic composition (d34S)
values of the collected vein sulphides are given in
Table (4). The d34S values of pyrite range from
21.51‰ to 5.83‰. Pyrites from the Q-1a veins
have distinctly positive d34S values, while pyrites
from Q-1b give commonly negative d34S values
(Fig. 13). Similarly, three arsenopyrite samples
from Q-1b veins yielded negative sulphur isotope
values, while a sample from Q-1a gives a posi-
tive value (1.01‰). Sphalerite and galena yielded
d34S values from 20.73‰ to 28.73‰ and from
23.85‰ to 212.01‰, respectively. Two samples
of chalcopyrite yielded d34S values of 24.46‰
and 23.91‰. Non-clustered values of d34S of the
studied sulphides may reflect sulphur from several
disparate fluids under reduced conditions, or pre-
cipitation from a single fluid under variably oxidiz-
ing conditions (e.g. Ohmoto & Rye 1979), though
still conforms to sulphur isotopic ratios in orogenic
gold sulphides (e.g. Groves et al. 2003). Phase sep-
aration would lead to relatively 34S-depleted H2S in
the residual ore fluid, and results in the precipitation
of sulphide minerals with more negative d34S
values (e.g. Ohmoto & Rye 1979; Ohmoto 1986).
Evolution towards lighter sulphur isotope ratios
from early, through transitional to late sulphides
(Fig. 13) may be attributed to preferential parti-
tioning of reduced gas phases from the ore fluid
by fluid-pressure fluctuations during faulting. The
d34S value of the sphalerite-galena pairs from
the same samples are in accordance with the
expected fractionation trends of this mineral pair.
The sulphur-isotope geothermometric tempera-
ture values, calculated from the d34S values of
this mineral pair, are in a reasonable range, 181
8C and 236 8C (Table 5), which is comparable to
data from relevant fluid inclusions. These equili-
brium temperatures are taken to confirm that Q-2
represent a lower temperature-phase of quartz
veining and sulphide formation. Based on average
temperatures of fluid inclusions and isotope frac-
tionation equilibrium, the calculated d34S H2S
values fall in the range of –9.04– 4.75‰ (see
Table 4). The absence of any clustering or outlier
of the d34S data (Fig. 13) may emphasize on
sulphur source heterogeneity or on variations in
fluid conditions during mineral deposition (i.e. T,
f O2, pH: cf. Ohmoto & Rye 1979).
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Table 4. Sulphur isotope data of representative sulphide minerals from mineralized quartz veins and wallrocks
of the El Sid deposit

Sample Mineral Measured T (8C)1 T (8C)2 d34S H2S +

d34S (‰) fluid (‰)

14765 pyrite (I) 5.50 325 4.22 0.25

147sidx pyrite (I) 5.83 335 4.75 0.22
14753 pyrite (I) 4.9 341 3.82 0.21
14787 pyrite (I) 5.01 340 3.94 0.21
14773 pyrite (I) 4.02 325 3.04 0.20
147L3 pyrite (I) 3.2 340 2.11 0.21
14728 pyrite (I) 2.65 365 1.67 0.20
147q3 pyrite (I) 2.1 340 1.05 0.20
14772 pyrite (I) 1.00 320 20.14 0.23
14729 pyrite (I) 0.87 320 20.26 0.23
14775 pyrite (II) 0.02 315 21.14 0.23
147sidpy pyrite (II) 0.16 290 21.10 0.25
14758 pyrite (II) 20.67 287 21.94 0.25
147sid_sul pyrite (II) 20.33 310 21.51 0.24
14788 pyrite (II) 20.3 320 21.47 0.23
14777 pyrite (II) 21.48 300 22.62 0.23
14730 pyrite (II) 21.51 325 22.62 0.22
14765 arsenopyrite (I) 1.01 300 20.21 0.24
14758 arsenopyrite (II) 20.96 325 22.08 0.22
14777 arsenopyrite (II) 21.87 320 23.01 0.23
14765 arsenopyrite (II) 20.95 320 22.09 0.23
14743 sphalerite 20.73 208 21.16 0.22
14773 sphalerite 22.64 216 23.06 0.21
14782 sphalerite 28.73 199 29.18 0.24
14753 sphalerite 22.62 236 23.01 0.19
14719 sphalerite 28.42 201 28.86 0.22
14760 sphalerite 24.09 196 24.54 0.23
14718 sphalerite 26.63 181 26.98 0.27
14776 sphalerite 21.20 197 21.65 0.23
14773 galena 25.66 216 23.02 0.27
14718 galena 210.03 181 26.94 0.21
14782 galena 212.01 199 29.15 0.24
14719 galena 211.61 201 28.81 0.22
14743 galena 23.85 208 21.12 0.22
14760 galena 27.36 196 24.51 0.23
14776 galena 24.46 197 21.62 0.23
14753 galena 25.41 236 22.98 0.19
14760 chalcopyrite 24.46 196 24.24 0.36
14743 chalcopyrite 23.91 208 23.69 0.35

T (8C)1 ¼ temperature of formation based on sulphur isotope fractionation of galena-sphalerite pairs (Ohmoto & Rye 1979).
T (8C)1 ¼ temperature of formation based on the average fluid inclusions intimately associated with sulphides.
d34S H2S fluid (‰) ¼calculated d34S for H2S in equilibrium with sulphide using the sulphur isotope fractionation equations of Ohmoto &
Rye (1979).
+ ¼ error range of estimation.

d18O and d13C values of vein quartz and
calcite
The Q-1a vein quartz has d18O values ranging from
11.5‰ to 12.9‰ relative to SMOW, while Q-1b
give d18O values of 13.1 –14.1‰, and samples
from Q-2 yield variable, but heavier values (12.1 –
15.9‰ (Table 6; Fig. 14). Although d18O values
of quartz may discriminate Q-1a, Q-1b, and Q-2
quartz veins, these values are more or less identical
in each of the vein phases (Table 6). Using the Th
totalof fluid inclusions to calculate d18O values of
water in isotopic equilibrium with quartz (d18O
H2O), a range of 4.9–7.4‰ is obtained. The com-
parable d18OH2O values for Q-2 may indicate a
homogeneous fluid source.
The quartz of the Q-2 veins shows identical d18O
values (15.9–15.6‰), suggesting that quartz preci-
pitated from the same fluid and at roughly the
same temperature range. In agreement with the
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ

Fig. 13. Measured d34S (‰ v. VCDT) values of sulphides disseminated in quartz veins from El-Sid deposit,
and calculated d34H2S (‰ v. VCDT) for the equilibrium fluid. See text for details on equations used for
the calculations.

Table 5. Sulphur isotope data of galena-sphalerite petrographic evidence, quartz is in oxygen isotope
pairs from Q-2 veins equilibrium with calcite in Q-2 veins. Three quartz-
calcite pairs in Q-2 veins give equilibrium temper-
Sample sp gn Dsp-gn T ature of 226–248 8C (using the equation of Sharp
(8C)* & Kirschner 1994). The d13C values of calcite
collected from Q-2 veins are generally light
14743 20.73 23.85 3.12 208 (213.9‰ to 214.7‰). According to Ridley &
14753 22.62 25.41 3.50 236
Diamond (2000), the d13C values of carbonate min-
14718 26.63 210.13 3.5 181
14719 28.42 211.61 3.21 201 erals in orogenic lode gold deposits lie between 223
and +2 per mil. Strongly negative d13C values are
*equation used: Ds-g ¼ 0.73*l0‘6*T‘-2 (Ohmoto & Rye 1979) reported for lodes in dominantly metasedimentary
uncertainties due to equation accuracy + 20 8C. sequences (e.g. Kontak & Kerrich 1997; Oberthur
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Table 6. d18O and d13C values of auriferous vein quartz and calcite from the
El-Sid deposit. Temperatures used for calculation of the water composition are
based on Th total of relevant fluid inclusions. See text for details.

Sample Mineral_vein d18O (‰ d13C (‰ d18O H2O (‰

generation vs. SMOW) vs. PDB) vs. SMOW)

14755_Q Quartz_Q-1a 11.9 6.0

14765 Quartz_Q-1a 12.8 6.9
14740 Quartz_Q-1a 12.3 6.4
14701_Sid Quartz_Q-1a 12.9 7.0
14755_Q Quartz_Q-1a 12.3 6.4
14777_L3 Quartz_Q-1a 11.8 5.9
14741_L2 Quartz_Q-1a 11.9 6.1
14761_L3 Quartz_Q-1a 12.7 6.8
14786_L2 Quartz_Q-1a 11.8 5.9
14755_L3 Quartz_Q-1a 12.7 6.8
14750_L3 Quartz_Q-1a 11.5 5.6
14777_L3 Quartz_Q-1b 13.3 6.6
14785_Q Quartz_Q-1b 13.1 6.5
14763_L2 Quartz_Q-1b 13.4 6.7
14750_L3 Quartz_Q-1b 13.1 6.3
14786_L2 Quartz_Q-1b 13.5 6.8
14755_L3 Quartz_Q-1b 13.2 6.5
14757_L3 Quartz_Q-1b 14.1 7.4
14737_Q Quartz_Q-2 15.9 5.7
14732_L2 Quartz_Q-2 12.7 214.6
14741_L2 Quartz_Q-2 15.6 4.9
14752_L3 Quartz_Q-2 15.8 5.9
14749_L2 Calcite_Q-2 12.1 214.7
14756_L3 Calcite_Q-2 12.4 214.2
14761_L3 Calcite_Q-2 12.3 213.9

Equation used: Sharp and Kirschner 1994.

1000 ln a quartz-water ¼22.9 + ((3.65*10‘6)/T‘2).

et al. 1996). In these terranes, the d13Ccarbonate
values of the deposits are inherited from carbonate
in metasedimentary rocks of the host-rock sequence.
In the El-Sid deposit, the carbonaceous metasedi-
mentary matrix of the mélange rocks may have con-
tributed with lighter carbon during fluid circulation.
This assumption is in accordance with that of most
of the Q-2 veins that cut the mélange rocks in the
western part of the mine area. Contributions from
magmatic carbon cannot be discarded and may be
linked with the lamprophyre dyke forming the foot-
wall of the Q-2 vein in the western part of the
mine area.
Discussion
The Fawakhir intrusion
Since many auriferous shear zones and quartz veins
in the Eastern Desert of Egypt occur in Pan-African
granitoid intrusions or in their direct vicinity, these
granitoids seem to have had an important influence
on gold mineralization (e.g. Klemm et al. 2001).
The Fawakhir intrusion is considered as one of
several, few kilometre-long, elliptical epizonal,
granite to monzogranite intrusions in the Eastern
Desert, formed at 620–570 Ma (Hassan & Hashad
1990). Emplacement of these intrusions took place
late in the Pan-African orogeny during active thrust-
ing in compressional terranes (e.g. Meneisy & Lenz
1982; Ragab 1991). Available geochronological
data on the Fawakhir intrusion include whole-rock
Rb–Sr ages; 574 Ma (Rogers & Greenberg 1983),
586 + 9 Ma (Fullagar & Greenberg 1978), and
590–565 Ma (El-Bouseily et al. 1986). These data
were most likely based on samples from the pink
granite of the Fawakhit intrusion (monzo-syenogra-
nite phase in this study). Comprehensive zircon
U –Pb data yielded two distinct ages of the Fawakhir
intrusion phases. The monzo-syenogranite phase
dated at 597 + 3 Ma (Andresen et al. 2009), while
new zircon U –Pb data from the quartz mozodiorite
phase yield 638 + 8 Ma (Zoheir et al. unpublished
data). According to Fowler (2001), emplacement
of the monzodiorite phase took place during
regional thrusting. The congealed early magma
pulses were fractured and incorporated as fragments
into the subsequent pulse. The monzo-syenogranite
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
Fig. 14. Histogram of the measured d18O (‰ v. SMOW) values of quartz and calcite in the mineralized quartz veins
from El-Sid deposit.
phase invaded the pre-existing rocks as flat-lying
sheets, which accommodated further magma by
lifting their roofs along marginal faults.
The Fawakhir granitoid intrusion is similar to
the Sukari intrusion, in geological context, mineral-
ogy, chemical composition, tectonic setting, and age
relative to the Pan-African tectono-thermal history.
Another most important similarity between these
two intrusions is their association with important
mesothermal gold deposits in Egypt (Harraz 2000;
Helmy et al. 2004). Emplacement of the Sukari
intrusion is controlled by negative and positive
flower structures that developed during a major
strike-slip faulting episode (Helmy et al. 2004).
According to our observation, the flower structure
model can also be modified to explain the struc-
ture and emplacement of the Fawakhir pluton. A
connection in space between the Fawakhir intrusion
and development of the major NW-trending trans-
current faults has been suggested in previous
studies (e.g. Sabet & Bordonosov 1984; Loizen-
bauer & Neumayr 1996) and is confirmed in this
study. Similarly, late Pan-African granite intrusion
into an active complex set of left-lateral strike-slip
NW–SE faults and ductile shear zones (Najd Fault
System) has been reported elsewhere in the
Arabian –Nubian Shield (Stern 1985). The geochro-
nological data of the Fawakhir intrusion suggest that
emplacement of the two phases spanned the course
of the Najd Fault System (640 –560 Ma; Stoeser &
Camp 1985). The association between tectonic and
magmatic activity in the Central Eastern Desert of
Egypt took place between 620 and 580 Ma (Fritz
et al. 1996, 2002).
Gold lodes and deformation
Gold-bearing quartz veins at the El-Sid mine cut the
western contact of the Fawakhir pluton and the
immediately adjacent country rocks of ophiolitic
metagabbro, metabasalt, serpemtinite, and carbon-
aceous mélange matrix. Rheological contrasts,
together with high-angle fault intersections, likely
played an important role in the localization of the
ore bodies in shear zones and fault segments. The
orientation of the fault and shear zones normal to
the lithological contact between the Fawakhir
granite, and the country rocks might have enhanced
fluid percolation and allowed intense fluid –
wall-rock interaction.
The deformation features of the mineralized
lodes, including boudinage quartz pods, stretching
and inclined slickensides, imply vein formation con-
comitant with the shear zones development. The
internal structure of the Q-1b veins with several
thin graphite-bearing wall-rock laminae, separated
by interlocking quartz domains may have formed
during repeated opening and sealing of the veins
by recurrent and successive slip (cf. Fowler &
Winsor 1997; Séjourné et al. 2005). Passchier &
Trouw (1996) proposed formation during alternat-
ing stages of growth and crystal-plastic deformation
of Q-1b veins (antitaxial veins), typical for brittle-
ductile shearing conditions.
The occurrence of gold blebs and globules as
inclusions in arsenopyrite (II) and pyrite (II) in
Q-1b veins, and as fracture-fillings in the early sul-
phide assemblage and Q-1a veins indicates that gold
enrichment took place after the formation of the
early sulphide assemblage, and is likely concomi-
tant with formation of the fault-valve system. Temp-
erature and sulphur fugacity decreased from
340 + 20 8C and log f S229 to 315 + 10 8C and
log f S2 (211 to 210) between the early and the
transitional sulphide assemblages, respectively.
Based on the sericite– chlorite–carbonate altera-
tion associated with Q-1a and Q-1b veins in the
El-Sid deposit and chlorite –carbonate potential
near neutral ore fluids at 300–350 8C (fluid
inclusion data), gold transport was more likely by
bisulphide than by chloride complexing (e.g.
Corbett & Leach 1998; So et al. 2002). Late gold-
base metal sulphide mineralization, on the other
hand, may have been by chloride complexing in
cooler, more saline solutions. Spatial association
of gold-sulphide dissemination in or next to sel-
vages of wall-rock material in the quartz lodes and
at the vein contacts imply a significant role of wall-
rock sulphidation and the consequent reduction in S
content of the fluid as a possible cause of
gold precipitation.
Fluid inclusions
Stages of fluid entrapment. The existence of fluid
inclusion assemblages with contrasting inclusion
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

composition and variable settings may point toward
several episodes of fluid circulation and entrapment.
Based on petrographic criteria, three episodes are
suggested:
(1) Early quartz veining (fault sealing). During
this stage carbonic, dilute aqueous, and
mixed fluids (Types I, IIa, and IIIa, respect-
ively) were trapped in clusters or along intra-
granular trails in the early quartz veins.
Isolation and clustered modes of these inclu-
sions within un-deformed cores of large vein
quartz grains is considered as evidence of
their early paragenesis, as ductile intracrystal-
line deformation leads to expulsion of fluid
inclusions from grain interiors to the grain
boundaries of quartz during recrystallization
(e.g. Drury & Urai 1990),
(2) Transitional, fault valve opening-healing.
During this stage discrete immiscible and
mixed fluids (Types-I, IIa and IIIa) were
entrapped in the Q-1b veins in clusters and
as intragranular planar arrays. The presence
of Type-IIIa, Type-I, and Type-IIa inclusions
in clusters and in trails may reflect hetero-
geneous entrapment during formation of
the Q-1b quartz veins. A general decrease in
Th total and salinities of Type-I and Type-IIa
from Q-1a to Q-1b (see Table 3) may indicate
fluid dilution concomitant with a temperature
decrease.
(3) Late, massive veining. During this stage fluids
different from those in the two previous stages
were entrapped in Q-1b and Q-2 veins.
Inclusions of Types-IIb and Type-IIIb fluids
were entrapped along microfractures during
late episode of fluid circulation through the
shear zones. However, these inclusions
occupy primary sites in Q-2 veins, that is, iso-
lated, clustered, or intergranular trails, indicat-
ing intimate temporal relationships.
Entrapment mechanism. The intimate association of
Type-I inclusions (with variable XCO2), Type-IIa,
and Type-IIIa inclusions in trails or clustered in
Q-1a and Q-1b veins (Fig. 12), and the non-
symmetrical frequency of Th total (Fig. 15) may
evoke fluid immiscibility (e.g. Ramboz et al.
1982). The absence of a correlation between XCO2
v. salinity and/or Th total of Type-I inclusions in
Q-1a and Q-1b veins argues against significant post-
entrapment modification (Fig. 15a, b). Alterna-
tively, Type-I fluid inclusions in Q-1a and Q-1b
quartz veins may represent the originally hom-
ogenous H2O–CO2 + CH4 –NaCl parental fluid,
from which immiscible fluids (Type-IIa and Type-
IIIa inclusions) were derived through immiscibility
and phase separation. Because significant post-
entrapment modifications is not evident, variation
in salinities of Type-1 and Type-IIa fluid inclusions
in Q-1a and Q-1b vein quartz may be attributed to
fluid immiscibility, mechanical mixing between

Fig. 15. (a) Plot of XCO2 molar proportion v. salinity (based on clathrate melting data) for Type I inclusions in
Q-1a and Q-1B quartz veins. (b) Plot of XCO2 molar proportion v. Th total of Type I fluid inclusions in Q-1a and Q-1b
quartz veins. Shadowed area represents the similar salinities and homogenization temperatures in both vein types.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on August 3, 2014
B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
fluids of different salinities, or to heterogeneous
exchanges between the fluids and surrounding
rocks. The latter assumption is unlikely as there is
no significant source or sink of Cl2 in the wall
rock. Salinity variation in response to fluid immisci-
bility is typified by a positive correlation between
XH2O and salinity (e.g. Bowers & Helgeson 1983;
Anderson et al. 1992; Bodnar & Vityk 1994). The
Th total v. salinities plot of Type-I inclusions indicate
a mildly positive correlation suggesting a pre-
ferential fractionation of salt into the aqueous frac-
tion (Fig. 16). This relationship is absent in Q-1b
veins, suggesting a different fluid history. A com-
plex fluid evolution history including immiscibility
and partial mixing with other fluids can explain
these mixed relationships in the Q-1b veins. In
similar examples, fluid immiscibility concomitant
with partial fluid mixing during quartz veining has
been described for some orogenic lode gold depos-
its (e.g. Anderson et al. 1992; Faleiros et al. 2007).
Relatively saline Type-IIb inclusions with the
near constant filling degrees represent the most
abundant inclusions in clusters and along trails in
Q-2 veins, but these fluids occur also along healed
micro-cracks in Q-1b veins. The lack of mixed
inclusions (i.e. aqueous–carbonic) in Q-2 veins
indicates the absence of fluid immiscibility during
their formation.
The ore fluids. The fluid inclusion studies reveal that
the Type-I inclusions are likely to represent the ore
fluids in Q-1a and Q-1b veins, as they are commonly
Fig. 16. Covariance diagram relating Th total and
salinities of the Type-I inclusions in early milky to
grayish quartz veins and laminated quartz veins.
intimately associated with auriferous sulphide and
gold grains. Fluid inclusion data imply that gold in
veins was precipitated in response to a complex
fluid immiscibility and partial mixing with meta-
morphic/meteoric water through cyclic fracturing-
healing late in the development of Q-1a veins,
concomitant with formation of the Q-1b veins. In
Q-1b veins, compositions and homogenization
temperatures of the aqueous inclusions indicate an
evolution toward salinity depletion concomitantly
with a temperature decrease, probably related to
fluid entrapment in progressively shallower struc-
tural levels. CH4 contents were notably high in
Type-I inclusions homogenize at relatively lower
temperatures (Table 3). Enrichment in CH4 contents
in Type-I inclusions may reflect an early aqueous-
carbonic fluid subsequently modified by fluid-wall
rock interaction during fault development. Fluid-
wall rock interaction, together with immiscibil-
ity, led to highly variable XCO2 values, especially
common in CH4-bearing Type-I inclusions in
Q-1b (e.g. Ramboz et al. 1982; Lattanzi et al. 1989).
Entrapment of lower temperature Type-IIb
fluids in sphalerite and in Q-2 quartz may represent
late distinct shallower connate or magmatic water
(e.g. Burrows et al. 1986; Nesbitt 1988). The
gold –galena link uniformly developed in the late
Q-2 veins and associated high salinity aqueous
inclusions may suggest gold deposition by destabi-
lizing gold-chloride complexes due to redox or pH
changes through sulphidation and carbonatization
of the wall rock. Nesbitt (1988) suggested that
deep circulation/convection of meteoric water in
structures associated with major, transcurrent fault
zones may account for major geological and geo-
chemical differences among the orogenic gold
deposits, as well as for the Cordilleran mesothermal
deposits.
P – T– Oxygen fugacity (fO2)
The coexisting Type-III and Type-II fluids in Q-1a
and Q-1b veins are interpreted as a result of variable
degrees of intermittent unmixing from a homo-
geneous parent low salinity H2O–CO2 fluid. This
interpretation is further supported by the fact that
H2O–CO2 inclusions in both veins homogenize to
both liquid and vapour phases. Such heterogeneous
and homogeneous fluid trapping may be interpreted
to be triggered by fluctuations in fluid pressure
between lithostatic and lower values during vein
development (e.g. Robert & Kelly 1987; Sibson
et al. 1988). It is therefore, more likely that the
whole range of fluid inclusion homogenization
temperatures reflects variations in the trapping
pressures instead of temperature variations. Inde-
pendent temperature estimates are met by the early
and transitional sulphide assemblages in Q-1a and
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LODE GOLD SYSTEMS IN El-Sid DEPOSIT

Fig. 17. Isochores for: (a) Type-I inclusions in the early quartz veins, Q-1a, (b) Type-I inclusions in laminated quartz
veins, Q-1b, and (c) saline aqueous inclusions (Type-IIb) in the late milky quartz veins, Q-2. Insets showing sample
inclusions and a Raman spectrum of a CH4-bearing H2O–CO2 inclusion. Peak metamorphic conditions of the
greenschist facies metamorphosed nappe rocks from Fritz et al. (2002).

Q-1b veins. For Q-1a veins, temperature estimates
based on the early arsenopyrite –pyrite –pyrrhotite
assemblage, 343 + 20 8C, matching perfectly with
homogenization temperatures of Type-I fluid
inclusions, correspond to a pressure range of
1.8–2.1 kbar (Fig. 17). If plotted in the same
space, isochores for the aqueous-carbonic inclu-
sions in Q-1b veins are less steep compared with
those in Q-1a veins. The formation temperatures
of the transitional Fe –As-sulphides (315 + 10 8C)
in combination with these isochors define a pres-
sure range of 1.2–1.5 kbar (Fig. 17). Equilibrium
temperatures calculated from the oxygen isotope
fractionation between quartz –calcite pairs (220 +
20 8C) for Q-2 veins. Based on the isochores of
Type-IIb inclusions homogeneously trapped in
Q-2 veins, the formation of Q-2 veins and gold
deposition occurred at 200 8C and 0.6– 0.9 kbar.
Trapping pressures estimated by the combination
of the isochores with the different temperature
ranges imply ore development at depths of 3–
8 km. This is consistent with the structural infor-
mation, which indicates brittle–ductile behavior
for the development of the ore-hosting structure.
Oxygen fugacity ( fO2) is calculated for the
full range of XCO2 at the estimated T–P range
(300– 350 8C and 1–2 kbar) by applying the
equations and equilibrium constant of Ohmoto &
Kerrich (1977) and the fugacity coefficient of
Ryzhenko & Volkov (1971). The obtained values
(log f O2 between 231 and 229.8) are between the
pyrite-magnetite/pyrrhotite and hematite/magne-
tite buffers above the CO2 –CH4 buffer and below
the SO2/H2S buffer, indicate relatively reduced
conditions for the ore-fluid, constrained by the abun-
dant sulphides (pyrite + arsenopyrite + pyrrhotite)
in the quartz veins. This is consistent with f O2
values typical of sub-amphibolite facies orogenic
gold systems (Mikucki & Ridley 1993). The slight
variation in f O2 was likely due to pressure fluctu-
ation as attested by the localized presence of pyrrho-
tite inclusions in pyrite and arsenopyrite. Also, the
change in f O2 may be related to CH4 content of
the fluid, consumption of CO2 by carbonate precipi-
tation, among many other factors.
Conclusions
Gold mineralization in the El-Sid mine is associated
with mesothermal-style quartz and quartz-carbonate
veins. Detailed textural and petrographic studies of
the host shear zones, as well as the wall rock,
suggest that gold mineralization was contempora-
neous with c. ENE –WSW fault/shear systems.
The latter overprinted the metamorphism and defor-
mation in the country Pan-African nappe rocks. The
structural setting, wall-rock alteration and fluid
inclusion characteristics are typical for orogenic
lode gold deposits (sensu Groves et al. 2003). The
fluid inclusion data indicated that a complex
history of fluid immiscibility, mixing, and wall-rock
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B. ZOHEIR & R. MORITZ
alteration caused gold deposition from low salinity
aqueous-carbonic fluids at early stages and from
relatively saline aqueous fluids in the late stage.
Intermediate homogenization temperatures, sali-
nities, and increase in CH4 contents of the mixed
H2O–CO2 inclusions in the Q-1b veins may be
attributed, at least in part, to partial mixing
(dilution) in a fault-valve system.
Fluid inclusion isochoric reconstructions,
combined with oxygen and sulphur isotope geother-
mometry of mineral pairs, indicate pressure-temp-
erature conditions for gold deposition at 320 +
20 8C under 1.3 + 0.2 kbar and 200 + 15 under
0.6 + 0.9 kbar for early gold + Fe –As sulphides
and the late gold-base metal mineralization, respec-
tively. Gold deposition was mainly induced by
pressure fluctuation throughout a fault-fracture
valve system, as well as destabilization of gold-
bisulphide/chloride complexes during wall-rock
sulphidation. Calculated sulphur isotope compo-
sition of the ore fluids (d34SSS between 29.04‰
and 4.75‰) suggests mixed sources of sulphur or
variation in fluid conditions during mineral depo-
sition. The quartz oxygen isotopic data from the
studied lodes are typical for reduced ore fluids in
orogenic gold systems (Mikucki & Ridley 1993).
The isotopically light carbon signature of the vein
calcite from the late mineralization could be
accounted for by the variable addition of carbon
from a magmatic source and/or oxidized organic
carbon. The lamprophyre dyke in the western part
of the mine area is the most likely potential deep
source of carbon in the El-Sid deposit. Interplay
between a magmatic source and oxidized organic
carbon may be supported by the carbonaceous
mélange matrix in the western part of the mine area.
The clockwise evolution path on the P –T
diagram (Fig. 17) likely documents local uplift
and cooling of the ore fluids with time. Comparison
of P –T estimates from another similar major gold
deposit (the Sukari deposit, in the southern Eastern
Desert) shows that both had broadly comparable
ore fluid characteristics and gold-forming P –T
regimes, suggesting that lode-gold mineralization
in the greenstone belts of the Eastern Desert was
an integral part of major, late Pan-African transpres-
sional tectonics and magmatism.
The El-Sid gold deposit shows features similar to
those described for Archean orogenic gold systems
spatially associated with granitoids in the Yilgarn
Craton, Western Australia (Duuring et al. 2007).
Of these features: (i) gold mineralization is late
with respect to granitoid emplacement, peak meta-
morphism, and deformation; (ii) orebodies are struc-
turally controlled; and (iii) gold deposition occurred
under mesothermal conditions from a CO2-rich,
low-to-moderate salinity, reduced ore fluid that
was likely derived from a metamorphic and/or
magmatic fluid source. In these systems, structural
setting and fluid flux significantly control gold min-
eralization processes, rather than the host granitoid
age, composition, or oxidation state.
Field work was possible through a financial support from
the STDF, Egypt. The first author acknowledges the
immense help provided by Benha University (http://
www.bu.edu.eg/), which allowed a sabbatical leave to
carry out the laboratory work in Geneva University,
Switzerland.
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