Chapter 3 Lecture

Research Designs
When you have already a well-defined research problem and have collected
the relevant literature and studies, you should go for a sound methodology. A view of
the research approaches and methods may help you have the right perspective in
planning your choice of methodology in terms of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
method. The design will depend on your research problem.
The quantitative perspective emphasizes studies which hold that there is an
objective reality that can be expressed numerically. Experimental studies are
quantitative. They make use of language such as variables, control, validity,
reliability, hypotheses, statistically significant. Qualitative perspective emphasizes
phenomenological view and focus on meaning and understanding and takes place in
naturally occurring situations. Mixed method perspective can combine the two
approaches (Joyner et al, 2016). The combinations maybe qualitative first then
quantitative or quantitative first then qualitative. Researchers are divided into
whether to use quantitative or a qualitative perspective, since there tend to be some
overlapping in combining them.
The quantitative are the experimental research, quasi-experimental research,
causal-comparative research, correlational research, descriptive research, and
evaluation research. Those qualitative in nature are case study research, ethnographic
research, action research, and historical research.

Studies Quantitative in Nature

Experimental Research: An experiment is usually conducted on a certain
period to a certain grade level. At least there is an experimental group and a control
group. There are subjects in each group which are selected randomly. The group
which contains subjects is called a sample. Each group or sample is at least 30
subjects (pupils, students, whatever). The elements of each group should be selected
randomly. How do you select subjects randomly? It is done by giving every member
of the population a chance to be chosen. The lottery method is an example. Their
names are listed which are categorized according to gender, age, and scholastic
rating. Both groups are given a pre-test on the subject matter for the study period.
Then experimental group is taught using the approach which is the treatment and the
control group is taught the usual approach used by the teacher. After the study period
the post-test is administered to both groups.
The results of the post-test are compared (Seville et al. 1988).
Quasi-experimental Research. This experiment is one that follows the
general procedures of the experimental research, without the usual control group or
without random assignment from the population. It is usually not feasible in
educational settings. However, classes nowadays are big and heterogeneously
organized; the members of the experimental group may be randomly selected from a
big heterogeneous class and the control from another big heterogeneous class. One
class is given the treatment with the study subjects are integrated provided the records
of observation of the members of the experimental group are excluded from the
whole class for study purposes. The control group is also integrated in the class
which is not given the treatment but the usual approach done by the teacher-
researcher. Both classes are given the pre-test and post-test. But the record of
observations in terms of the study is kept separately during the study period (Joyner,
2016).
Causal-Comparative Research. This is sometimes called ex post facto
research since the causes are usually studied after they have had an effect upon
another variable. An example is the study on that group who were diagnosed with
lung cancer and a group without lung cancer. This was done by selected a group of
smokers and a group of non-smokers after a certain period. The cause of having lung
cancer may be attributed to smoking. Another example is investigating the cause of
later performance of those promoted and those not promoted (Sevilla, et al 1988).
Correlational Research. These studies are designed to compare the
relationships of the variables in a study. Parental involvement, alternative activities,
and teacher competencies are the factors that are compared to the grade 3 pupil’s
performance in Mathematics. The correlation coefficient formulas are the ones
usually applied to determine the type or magnitude of relationship. But this does not
means one is the cause of the other (Joyner, 2016).
Descriptive Research. This study is conducted to describe the existing
characteristics or condition of individuals or groups objects or phenomenon. The
usual statistics applied are frequency, proportion, percentage, mean, weighted mean,
and standard deviation. No relationships or differences can be drawn from the data
collected. Attitudes, perception, observations may be recorded and reported through
such studies (Sevilla et al, 1988).
Evaluation Research . This includes educational programs, products and
organization topics of formative and summative studies. When a program is
launched, it is evaluated during implementation and evaluated after it has been fully
developed. This study determines the effectiveness of programs and projects. The
results of which will be the basis for improvement (Joyner ET all, 2016).

Studies Qualitative in Nature

Case Study Research According to Yin (2009) as cited by Joyner (2016)
a very useful definition is:
“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.” Sanchez (2002) stated
that it is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an institution.
Some insights into little-known problem, background data for broader studies, socio-
psychological and socio-cultural processes are some of the gains in this studies. It
can provide information of the impact of some significant event on a person or group
of person’s life. A questionnaire or an interview can be used to collect data from
respondents. A mixed-method design may be one means to conduct the study.
Ethnographic Research Cristobal & Cristobal (2017) stated that the
researcher participates as he collects data. He involves himself in the everyday
activities of his participants. He engages himself in the events in the site and mix
with the key informants in the locality. An example is finding out the demographic
profile of informal settlers and their adaptation techniques to continue surviving.
 Action Research It is a practitioner research. It seeks to understand how
participants make meaning or interpret a particular phenomenon or problem in their
workplace, community, or practice. It tries to engage participants into solving a
practical problem. Teachers and social workers often engage in action research. An
example is resolving students’ texting I the different levels (Merriam& Tisdell, 2016).

Sources of Data
Primary Sources: are published original writings, reflections, and reports that
can be found in periodicals, monographs, conference proceedings, books, theses, and
dissertations.
Secondary Sources: are published writings and reports that analyze, critique, or
report on a primary source and can be found in periodicals and reference books.
Tertiary Sources: are indexes, dictionaries, guides and
bibliographies/references that aid the researcher in using the primary and secondary
sources.
Non-documentary Sources: are unpublished forms of communication and
information, which can include interviews, conversations with professionals, students and
other experts in the field.
Online searching: It is seen as information on the internet through major search
engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Blog.

Reliability of the sources

Source must be published in credible peer-reviewed scientific journals. Experts
have reviewed studies published in such journals to make sure they are of high quality.
Each research study contributes to a body of knowledge. More weight is given to a study
that supports other studies. Funded Researcher of funded research must not have been
influenced by the funders.

Respondents of the Study

In this section of chapter three you have to present the participants or subjects of
your study. You will show it in Table 1 which is called sampling frame and titled
Distribution of the Respondents…(this depends upon your topic). This includes the name
of the school or/and other details of the study site. It also includes the information how
you will select your sample the sampling technique, and the sample.
You have to define the population and you can do this by going back to your
research problem. If the study aims to gather the academic performance of Grade 3
pupils, your target population are Grade 3 pupils, but you cannot include all the Grade 3
pupils especially if they are too many. Thus, you will use sampling technique to reduce
the sample to a smaller percentage to save time, money and effort in conducting the
research. Sampling technique may be probability sampling or non-probability sampling.
This will depend upon your topic again. The example in this lecture has been the study
on the parental involvement, alternative activities, and teachers’ competencies versus
Grade 3 pupils’ performance in Mathematics. The target population is quite big 580.
This has to be reduced and 30% of the population (580) will give a sample large enough
for the study (237). You should use the stratified proportional random sampling. The
Grade 3 pupils in the said school are in 13 sections or subgroups (strata). This is well
discussed in the sample of chapter 3.
Other research problems may be different from the sample in the handout. Thus
the researcher has to select a sampling technique suited to his research problem. If it is
an experimental study, the technique is very much different from the example above.
Attach to this handout is a reading material that may help you understand sampling
techniques.
 Chapter 3 Sample

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research design, sources of data, respondents of the study,

instrumentation, data gathering procedures, and statistical treatment are presented

in this chapter.

Research Design

Correlational design will be adopted in this study. Statistical significant

relationships of three independent variables and one dependent variable will be tested.

Joyner, Rouse, & Glatthorn (2013) state that correlational studies are designed to

analyze the relationships between two or more variables ordinarily through the use of

correlation coefficients. Correlation determines the magnitude and direction of

relationship. Two or more sets of scores are collected and relationships between two of

them are computed. Correlation techniques can be used to test hypotheses (Sevilla,

Ochave, Punzalan, Regala, & Uriarte, 1988).

Sources of Data

Data will be collected from several sources, primary and secondary sources.

The Mathematics Teaching Guides for Grade 3. Quarterly Test Results in the Division.

Pupils’ Permanent Records Form I and Grading Sheets will be used as source of pupils’

data. Primary data will be gathered from the responses in the questionnaire on the

parental involvement, pupils’ alternative activities, teachers' competencies, and result of

the Division Fourth Periodical Test

Respondents of the Study

The setting of the study will be a public elementary school in District

3 in Mabunga City during the Fourth Quarter of School Year 2020-2021. The
Principal, mathematics coordinator, teachers, parents, and pupils. Out of the 13
sections in the school, Forty percent or 237 Grade 3 pupils will be the respondents
as a result of the application of the Sloven’s Formula (Sevilla et al, 1988) on the
580 total Grade 3 pupils in the whole school. The Stratified Proportional Random
Sampling and Systematic Sampling Technique were used to select the pupil-
participants. Table 1 presents the sample and population.
Table 1
Distribution of the Respondents

Section Enrolment Proportion Percentage Sample

1 45 .08 8 19
2 45 .08 8 19
3 45 .08 8 19
4 45 .08 8 19
5 44 .07 7 19
6 44 .07 7 17
7 43 .07 7 17
8 45 .08 8 19
9 44 .07 7 17
10 45 .08 8 19
11 45 .08 8 19
12 45 .08 8 17
.08 8 17
13 45
Total 580 1.00 100 237
Sample = 237/580 = 40%
 The respondents of the study will be randomly selected from the grade

three pupils in 13 sections of Maligaya Elementary School. The total sample will

be produced through the Slovin’s Formula, which will be 237 from 580 of the 13

sections. By dividing the enrolment per section by the total enrolment, the

proportion and percentage will be produced. Each proportion will be multiplied

by the total sample and the partial sample per section will be produced (Example

is section one: .08 x 237= 19). The elements of each partial sample can be

determined by systematic sampling. The interval can be taken by dividing the

partial enrolment by the partial sample. (Example is section one: partial

enrolment is 45. Divide this by 19 the answer is two. Thus, every second pupil in

the list of 45 is an element of the partial sample. For section one, get 19 as the

first partial sample. Do this procedure for the rest of the 13 sections. The sample

of the study is large enough. Two hundred thirty-seven (237) is 40% of the total

enrolment. The parents of the Grade 3 pupils will also be respondents who will

answer two parts of the questionnaire.

Instrumentation

Data-gathering tool will be a three-part questionnaire with English and

Filipino versions. Part I was about parental involvement and Part II will be about

pupils’ alternative activities will both be answered by the parents and pupils. Part

III will be on teachers’ competencies and will be answered by selected pupils.

The questionnaire will have a Likert Scale with fixed alternatives such as Always,

very often, often, some times, and never. Below are the values and the

alternatives for Teachers’ Competencies:

 Value Range Alternative Interpretation
5 4.01 – 5.00 Always Strongly Agree Lubhang Sumasang-ayon
4 3.41 – 4.00 Very Often Agree Sang-ayon
3 2.61 -3.40 Often Moderately Agree Katamtaman
2 1.81 – 2.6 Sometimes Less Agreeable Kaunti ang Pagsang-ayon
1 1.00 – 1.80 Never Least Agreeable Maliit ang Pagsang-ayon

For Parental Involvement and Pupils’ Alternative Activities are the following:

Value Range Alternative Filipino Interpretation

5 4.01 – 5.00 Always Palagi
4 3.41 – 4.00 Very Often Madalas na Madalas
3 2.61 -3.40 Often Madalas
2 1.81 – 2.6 Sometimes Madalang
1 1.00 – 1.80 Never Bihira

The Fourth Periodical Test will be the instrument that will be used to collect the

data on the Grade 3 pupils’ performance in mathematics. It will cover January to March

2020-2021 fourth quarter. This will be prepared by the mathematics teachers and

coordinators.

Data Gathering Procedure

Data for the study will be gathered using a questionnaire and a periodical test.

The periodical test will be prepared by the mathematics coordinator with the other math

teachers and approved by the school principal. To assure its validity, it will be based on the

Mathematics Guide being used by the teachers in instruction. To gather data on parental

involvement, pupils’ alternative activities, and teachers’ competencies, a three-part

questionnaire will be answered by the parents and pupils at the end of the fourth period of

the school year. The answers will be collated, tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted using

statistical tools by the researcher by the end of the quarter.

Validation of the Questionnaire

To assure the validity of the questionnaire, its indicators will be analyzed if they

are consistent with the necessary content that jibe with the needed data that will support the

main problem and specific questions since parental involvement and alternative activities

will be adopted from other researchers’ paper, Alegria (2002) and Villanueva (2006). Part

III on teacher competencies will be prepared by the researcher herself. The questionnaire

will be tried-out in a nearby school with similar characteristics as the research site. They

will be subjected to reliability tests after the test-retest period before the fourth quarter.

The final copy of the questionnaire will be prepared and approved by the research adviser

and members of the pre-oral defense panel members.

Data Analysis

Several statistical Formulas will be applied to analyze the data collected from the

periodical test and questionnaire.

1. To determine the sample size, the Slovin’s Formula will be used.

N
n=
1 + Ne 2
where n = sample size
N= population size
e= desired margin of error

2. To determine the proportion of the population for the sample the percentage Formula
will be used.

f
P=∑ (100 )
N
where P=percentage
f=frequency
N=population size
3. To determine the level of parents’ and pupils’ perception on the parental involvement
and pupil’ alternative activities the Weighted Mean Formula will be used.

WX =
∑ fw
∑f
where WX =weighted mean
f=frequency
w=weight

4. To determine the significance of the difference between the responses of parents and
pupils the t-test of uncorrelated means will be used.

X1 − X 2
t=
s12 s2 2
+
n1 n2
where t = t-test of uncorrelated means
X 1 = the average of the first group
X 2 = the average of the other group
s12 = the standard deviation squared or variance of the first group
s2 2 = standard deviation squared or variance of the other group
n1 = the number of cases for the first group
n2 = the number of cases for the other group

5 To determine the relationships between pupils’ Mathematics performance and the

parental involvement, pupils’ alternative activities, and teachers’ competencies

n ( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
n  n 
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
2 2


( x 2
− )
( x )  
( y 2
−)( y ) 
where r = correlation coefficient
n = number of pairs of scores
∑ xy = sum of the products of paired scores
∑ x = sum of x scores
∑ y = sum of y scores
∑ x = sum of squared x scores
2

∑ y = sum of squared y scores

2
 Sample, Population, and Sampling Techniques

1. Objective: Demonstrate understanding and skill in applying the following:

1.1 Deciding on the Appropriate Population

1.2 Selecting a Sample
1.3 Identifying Types of Sampling
1.4 Performing Sampling Techniques

2 .Get 90 to 95 percent in the posttest

Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques

In statistics, sample and population are commonly used as source of data to be collected.
If we interview 30 pupils out of 150 pupils enrolled in Grade Six about their attitude
towards face book in their lessons, the opinion they will express constitute a sample of all
the pupils in Grade Six in that setting.

Similarly, if we interview 20 teachers out of 200 in a school, regarding their attitude

towards using Filipino as a medium of instruction, their answer may reflect the attitude of
all the 200 teachers. Ferguson (1976) defines a sample as “any sub aggregate drawn from
a population. Kerlinger (1973) as cited by Sevilla (1993) defines population as “all
members of any well-defined class of people, events, or objects.” Sampling is the process
involved in taking a part of the population, making observations on this representative
group, then generalizing the findings to the population. If the population is big enough to
study and you wish to include everyone, there is no need of sampling.

An example is the census taken in a country. There are surveys where the target
population is small that sampling is not needed anymore and the census or population
sampling technique is used. An example is a survey aimed to find the proficiency in
science instruction. The science teachers in the city schools division where the researcher
teaches were 51 and the science coordinators were 20. They were chosen as the
respondents in the study. Another study was aimed to find out the correlation of study
habits and home atmosphere of Grade VI pupils to their academic performance. Since
the researcher was a teacher of Grade VI pupils in the school, she conducted her survey
there. The 120 Grade VI pupils were enrolled at the time of the study, thus they were
selected as the subject of the investigation.

There are basically, two types of samples: (1) probability samples and (2) non-
probability samples. A probability sample is one wherein every element of the
population has a chance of entering the sample frame. In the non probability samples,
which are the accidental and quota sample and do not give any knowledge as to the
probability of any person in the population being included in the sample (Sanchez, 1986).
Population and Sample

To gather answers to the specific questions of a research problem, a researcher has to

determine his subjects from person, objects of events. This depends upon the type of
study he is doing. There are times when the population or group of persons, objects or
events of his interest are large that time, money and efforts needed to do it may be beyond
the researchers ability. A portion of the population or a sample may be taken randomly
or impartially. This process may be done without bias to maintain equi-probability
(giving each element a chance to be chosen) and independence (giving one member a
chance to be drawn without affecting the other members chance to be chosen in the
population). However, if the population is not too large and is within the researcher’s
means, the whole population can be taken as the subject of the study. This may also be
called census sampling.

Methods of Sampling with Probability

If a researcher, wants to determine who uses calculator among the 500 students, he may
select 100 students without bias and with lesser effort by writing the name of each
student on small pieces of paper, roll each of them and place them in a box or small
basket, shake them thoroughly and draw one piece at a time until 100 names have been
drawn. This is the lottery or fishbowl method.

Systematic Sampling
The 100 students may also be selected by getting a list of the 500 students, divide it by
100. The answer which is 5 suggests that every 5th number in the list is to be chosen as
member of the sample. This is the simplified random sampling.

Tables of Random Numbers can be used to choose elements of a sample by using the
lottery technique to determine the starting point of selection from rows and columns. The
intersection of the row number and column number is the entry point of selection of the
members of the sample. The digits of the number drawn should correspond to the
number of digits of the needed number.

Simple Stratified Random Sampling can be done by having a list of the subgroups in a
population. If the population are high school students, an orderly list from first year to
fourth year with the corresponding number of students may be obtained, with the total at
the bottom of the list in the second column. Decide on the number of sample (250) and
divide it by 5 the number of layers. This give 50 as the number of elements of each layer

Population Enrolment Sample

Grade 10 150 50
Grade 9 200 50
Grade 8 250 50
Grade 7 175 50
Grade 6 300 50
Total 1075 250
Stratified Proportional Random Technique If the subgroups in the first column are
unequal, the proportion may be determined by getting the total of the groups, divide each
subgroup by such total and the answer is the proportion. All the proportion should be
equal to one. Multiply the proportion by the total of the subgroups, the subgroup numbers
of the sample will be given. The total of the subgroup numbers is the sample.

Population Enrolment Proportion Sample

Grade Four 150 .21 56
Grade Three 250 .36 96
Grade Two 100 .14 37
Grade One 200 .29 78
700 1.00 267
Non-Probability Sampling An accidental sample is not a representative of the
population. A group of persons may be selected as a sample study group if they possess
the characteristics of the study sample needed in the research. An example of an
accidental sample are those persons who were selected for study because they have
already been sick of dengue.
Another non probability sampling is purposive sampling. Here the elements of the
sample were selected because the researcher would like to study the way of life of single
mothers.

Quota sampling is another non probability sampling. An example is the group of

graduates of a certain school in a certain number of academic school years.

Sample Size of Respondents in a Study

If the population is too large to handle, sampling has to be done to get a sample using a
probability sampling technique.
Gay (1976) offers some minimum acceptable sizes depending on the type of research as
follows:
1. Correlational Study - 30% of the population
2. Ex post facto or causal comparative – 15 subjects
3. Experimental Research – 30 subjects
4. Descriptive Research - 30 percent of the population
(Sevilla, et el 1988) The larger the sample the better.