A
A
α , β (alpha, beta)
These are stereo descriptors and
1. used in carbohydrate
nomenclature to explain the
configuration at the anomeric
carbon by relating it to the
anomeric reference atom.
2. used by chemical abstracts
service to explain the
configuration of a cyclic molecule
with various stereogenic centres.
abnormal molar mass
The molar mass that is either lower
or higher than the expected or
normal value. Solute which
dissociates or associates in solution
exhibits abnormal molar mass.
abrasive
A substance used for grinding or
rubbing down surfaces, e.g., emery.
absolute
Pure, not dependent on or relative
to anything else e.g., absolute zero.
absolute alcohol
100% ethyl alcohol. It is obtained by
distilling the rectified spirit over
quick lime (CaO) for several days.
absolute configuration
(R and S notations) Arrangement of
groups about a chiral (asymmetric)
atom.
absolute entropy
(S°) It refers to absolute zero as it
marks the starting point. The
values of absolute entropies of
various substances can be
evaluated with the help of third law
of thermodynamics.
absolute scale of
temperature
A scale of temperature based on
absolute zero temperature (0 K).
absolute temperature
Temperature measured from
absolute zero on the Kelvin scale or
on the Rankine scale.
absolute zero
The lowest theoretically possible
temperature at which gases are
supposed to occupy zero volume. It
corresponds to –273.15°C or zero,
on Kelvin scale.
absorption
A process in which the substance is
uniformly distributed throughout
the bulk of the solid.
absorption indicator
A type of indicator used in
precipitation reactions. The yellow
dye fluorescein is a common
example of absorption (adsorption)
indicator.
absorption spectrum
A spectrum produced due to
absorption of radiation. In
absorption spectrum a continuous
flow of radiation is passed through
the sample. The radiation is then
analyzed to determine which wave
lenghts are absorbed.
absorption tower
A vertical column used for
absorption of gases in industries.
A abstraction 2

abstraction acepromazine
A type of a chemical reaction which ( C19H22N2O 5) An orange coloured
involves bimolecular removal of an oily liquid, used as a tranquilizer
atom or ion from a molecule. for large animals and to relieve
abundance nausea.
It refers to the availability of an acetal
element in percentage by mass, e.g., Colourless volatile present organic
the abundance of aluminium in liquid, formed by addition of
earth’s crust is about 8%. alcohol molecules to aldehyde
molecules.
accelerator
A substance that increases the rate ==O R′OH (alcohol)
R—C =
of a chemical reaction. H
Aldehyde
acceptor
An electron deficient species (an R OR′ R′OH (alcohol)
atom, molecule or ion) that receives C
a pair of electrons from another H OH
electron-rich species to form a Hemiacetal
R OR′
coordinate bond. These are
C
generally called Lewis acids.
H OR′
accumulator Acetal
A type of a galvanic cell or a battery
that can be used as an energy source acetaldehyde
and can be recharged by passing (CH 3CHO, IUPAC name-ethanal)
electric current and used again and A colourless pungent smelling
liquid, b.p. 21°C soluble in water
again. e.g., lead-acid accumulator,
and ether. It is used, in the
nickel cadmium accumulator.
preparation of acetic acid, ethanol
accuracy paraldehyde, metaldehyde,
It is the agreement of a particular phenolic resins and synthetic
value to the true value of the result. drugs. Aldehyde ammonia is
rubber accelerator.
acenaphthene
( C12H10) Colourless crystalline acetaldol
aromatic compound, m.p. 95°C; An alternative name for aldol.
b.p 278°C, It acts as a dyestuff acetamide
intermediate. (CH 3CONH2, IUPAC name-ethan
1 2 amide) Colourless deliquescent
cryst-alline organic compound
with a mousy odour. It can be
prepared by heating ammonium
acetate.
Acenaphthene
acetanilide
acenes (C 6H5NHCOCH 3) IUPAC name-
The polycyclic aromatic hydro- N-phenyl ethan amide)
carbons, having fused benzene White crystalline organic
rings in a rectilinear arrangement. compound, soluble in water.
 3 acetylide
A

acetic acid by the reaction of benzene with

(CH 3COOH, IUPAC acetyl- chloride in the presence of
name-ethanoic acid) A pungent anhydrous AlCl 3.
smelling, corrosive liquid, b.p.
acetylation
118°C, soluble in water. It is the See ACYLATION Acetyl chloride
acid present in vinegar.It purest
(CH 3COCl, IUPAC name–ethanoyl
form, it is called glacial acetic acid.
chloride) Colourless, strong
acetic anhydride smelling liquid organic compound,
[( CH 3CO ) 2 O IUPAC name - obtained by the action of PCl5 or
ethanoic anhydride] Colourless SOCl 2 on acetic acid.
liquid with an irritating smell.
acetyl group
acetoacetic acid O
(CH 3 COCH2COOH, IUPAC name-

3-oxobutanoic acid) A colourless CH 3  C  group is acetyl or
syrupy organic liquid, unstable and
ethanoyl group.
decomposes into acetone and
carbon dioxide. acetyl acetonato
acetoacetic ester CH 3  C  CH == C  CH 3
(CH 3COCH2COOC 2H5, IUPAC  
name–ethyl 3-oxobutanoate) A O O−
colourless pleasant smelling liquid, (acac), an ion functioning as A
b.p. 180.4°C, shows keto-enol bidentate ligand coordinating
tautomerism. through the two oxygen atoms.
acetone acetylcholine
(CH 3COCH 3, IUPAC name- A white hygroscopic crystalline
propanone) A colourless pungent powder, soluble in water and
smelling liquid, b.p. 56°C, soluble found in blood, ergot and in some
in water and organic solvents. It is plants. If infected, it causes dilation
the first member of ketones. of arteries.
acetonitrile acetylene
(CH 3CN, IUPAC (C 2H2, IUPAC name–ethyne) A
name–ethanenitrile) common colourless organic gas with ether
like odour, used as a fuel.
name methyl cyanide, colourless,
pleasant smelling liquid, acetylene black
poisonous, b.p. 82°C. A type of carbon black, obtained by
the pyrolysis of ethyne.
acetophenone acetylide
(C 6H5COCH 3 IUPAC A carbide formed by the reaction of
name-l-phenyl ethanone common acetylene and a solution of a heavy
name phenyl methyl ketone, sweet metal salt. Most acetylides are
pungent smelling liquid, prepared explosive in nature.
A acheson process
acheson process
An industrial process for the
manufacture of graphite.
achiral
Optically inactive molecule is
known as achiral molecule.
acid
A class of chemical compounds,
produces H+ or H 3O+ ion in its
aqueous solution. Sour in taste,
turns blue litmus red, have a pH
less than 7 and its reaction with
base gives salt and water.
acid anhydride
A type of organic compound of
general formula RCOOCOR′,
where R and R′ are alkyl or aryl
groups.
acid-base indicators
Compounds such as
phenolphthalein, methyl orange
change etc which colour reversibly,
depending on whether the solution
is acidic or basic.
acid dissociation
constant
( K a) The extent to which an acid
ionizes in its aqueous solution can
be expressed by the equilibrium
constant for the ionization reaction,
which is called the acid dissociation
constant ( K a).
+ −
HX( aq) = H ( aq) + X ( aq)
acid
[H+ ] [X− ]
Ka =
[HX]
acid dye
A class of coloured substances
(dyes), characterised by the
presence of acid groups such as
sulphonic (  SO 3H), carboxylic
(—COOH) or phenolic (—OH)
group and are used to dye silk,
4
wool and nylon directly. Examples
orange I, orange II, methyl red etc.
acid salt
It contains one or more replaceable
hydrogen atoms in its molecule and
is formed by the partial
replacement of H-atoms present in
a polybasic acid by positive ions.
For examples; NaHSO4, NaHCO 3,
NaH2PO4.
acid value
A measure of the amount of free
acid present in a fat. It is equal to
the number of milligrams of
potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize 1g of the substance (fat).
acid-base titration or
neutralization titrations
A titration based upon the reaction
between an acid and a base.
acid halide
See ACYL HALIDE.
acidic hydrogen
A hydrogen atom in an acid that
forms a positive ion (H+ ) when the
acid dissociates, e.g.,
HCOOH
↑
Acidic hydrogen
acidic oxide
Oxide of a non-metal. On reaction
with water, it forms an acid and
with a base, it forms salt and water.
acidic rain
The rain containing acidic water
due to the oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen. These oxides are
produced by the burning of fossil
fuels. Normally, pH of the rain
water is 5.6. If the pH of rain water
drops below 5.6, it is called acid
rain.
 5 activated complex theory
acidity constant
See ACID DISSOCIATION
CONSTANT.
acidimetry
Volumetric analysis, standard
solutions of acids are used to
determine the amount of base
present.
acriflavine
(IUPAC name –2, 8-diaminoacri-
dine) Orange colour crystalline
organic compound, used as an
antiseptic.
acrilan
Synthetic fibre, a copolymer of
acrylonitrile and vinyl acetate.
acrolein
(CH2 == CHCHO, IUPAC name-
prop-2-enal) Colourless liquid
organic compound with pungent
odour.
acrylic acid
(CH2 == CHCOOH, IUPAC name-
propenoic acid) Unsaturated
liquid, reactive organic acid with
pungent odour and used to prepare
acrylic resins.
acrylic resin
Transparent thermoplastic
produced by the polymerisation of
esters or amide derivatives of
acrylic acid; example acrilan and
perspex. These resins are used in
making artificial fibres and optical
lenses.
acrylonitrile
(CH2 == CHCN, vinyl cyanide or
propenonitrile) Colourless liquid
and used to make acrylic resins.
actinides (actinoids)
Fourteen elements from Th(90) to
Lr(103) are called actinides or
inner-transition elements. These
are radioactive in nature.
A
actinium
89 Ac, radioactive element of group
III of the Periodic Table, mass
number of most stable isotope-227
(half-life 21.7 years), m.p. 1050°C
and b.p. 3200°C.
actinium series
A naturally occurring radioactive
series started by uranium-235 and
ends with an isotope of lead.
actinoid contraction
The actinoids exhibit actinoid
contraction due to poor shielding of
5f-electrons. As a result of this,
there is smooth decrease in atomic
and ionic sizes with increasing
proton number.
activated adsorption
It occurs in some cases of
chemisorption and involves an
activation energy.
activated alumina
Obtained by heating hydrated
alumina and used as catalyst in
organic dehydration reactions and
in chromatography.
activated charcoal
Charcoal (carbon) activated by
steaming or by heating in a vacuum
for adsorption of gases.
activated complex
It refers to the intermediate
complex formed by the particular
arrangement of reactant molecules
at the point of maximum energy
(threshold energy) in a reaction.
activated complex theory
According to this theory, when
activation energy is supplied to a
reaction, it absorbs the energy to
form intermediate activated
A activated sludge process 6

complex. It is a high energy, active carbon

unstable intermediate. It The carbon treated with steam, air
decomposes immediately to form or CO2 at a high temperature. It is
products of lower energy state. used as an adsorbent because of its
ET Threshold large surface area and opened
Activated
energy complex capillaries. It is also used in water
treatment, sugar refining, dry
Potential energy

Ea Activation cleaning, rubber reclamation,

Eb energy cigarette filters and as a catalyst as
ER well.
Reactant
DH Product active mass
Molar concentration of a substance
Reaction coordinate
that is involved in a chemical
reaction, concentration in mol L−1.
activated sludge process
The activated sludge is about 97% active site
1. A site on the surface of a catalyst
water. The sludge after primary
at which catalytic activity occurs.
treatment is transferred into
2. A site on the surface of an
aeration tanks where it is
decomposed by the anaerobic enzyme molecule that binds to
bacteria. After several hours, the substrate molecule.
suspended microbes settle down at activity
the bottom of the tank as activated (a) A thermodynamic function used
sludge. in place of concentration for the
activation energy reactions involving non-ideal gases
(Ea) The minimum energy required and solutions. It characteristics that
in all situations, the equilibrium
to form activated complex. It is the
constant expression can be written as
energy barrier that has to be
overcome for the reaction to a a
K= C D
proceed. It also determines the way aA aB
in which the rate of the reaction where, aC , aD , aA and aB are the
varies with temperature. activities of the components which
Ea = EP − ER function as concentration
ET
(pressure) corrected for non-ideal
behaviour. Thus, in terms of
Ea activity, the equilibrium constant
ER
expression remains constant at a
particular temperature and its form
is simple.
Energy

EP
activity series
Reaction coordinate The arrangement of elements in
order of increasing reduction
potential (or decreasing negative
activator reduction potential) values is called
A substance that increases the activity series or electrochemical
activity of a catalyst. series.
 7 addition reaction
A

acyclic O O
(or open chain compounds or  
( R  C  O  C  R). It is used to
aliphatic compounds) These
prepare aromatic ketones. e.g.,
compounds consist of straight or
branched chain of carbon, e.g., O

===
Anhy. AlCl3
CH 3  CH2  CH 3 + R—C—Cl
Propane
Acyl chloride
(straight chain) Benzene
CH 3 O

===

CH 3 — CH— CH 3 C R + HCl
Iso -butane
(branched chain)
Aromatic ketone
acyl fission
The breaking of the carbon-oxygen addition polymer
bond in an acyl group. Hydrolysis It is formed by the repeated
of an ester occurs through acyl addition of monomer molecules
fission. possessing double or triple bonds.
e.g., formation of polythene from
acyl group ethene and polypropene from
O propene.
 nCH2 == CH2 →
R  C  type group; where R is a
Ethene
hydrocarbon group. e.g., acetyl
O (  CH2  CH2 ) n
 Polythene
group (CH 3  C ). (addition polymer)
addition polymerisation
acyl halide or chain growth
Organic compounds having the
general formula RCOX; where polymerisation
RCO— is the acyl group and X is a In this mode of polymerisation, the
halogen atom. e.g., ethanoyl molecules of the same monomer or
chloride ( CH 3COCl), ethanoyl different monomers add together
bromide ( CH 3COBr). to form a polymer. The monomers
used are unsaturated compounds.
acylation In this mode of polymerisation,
A reaction that introduces the acyl chain growth takes place through
O the formation of either free radicals
 or ionic species.
group ( R  C ) in a molecule in
addition reaction
the presence of acylating agents A chemical reaction in which a
O molecule is added to another
 molecule. These reactions occur in
such as acyl halides (R  C X) unsaturated compounds
and acid anhydrides containing double or triple bonds.
A additive 8

additive adenosine monopho-

A substance added to another sphate (AMP)
substance or material to improve its It is a hydrolysis product of
properties. adenosine triphosphate and an
important structural component of
adduct nucleic acids and of several
A product of addition reaction. coenzymes.
This term is generally used for
compounds formed by the reaction adenosine triphosphate
between a Lewis acid and a Lewis (ATP)
base. A carrier of chemical energy in all
living organisms. It consists of
adenine adenine linked to D-ribose and the
It is a purine derivative and is one D-ribose component bears three
of the major component bases of phosphate groups.
nucleotides and nucleic acids – – –
(DNA and RNA). O O O
| | |
NH2 – _ _ _ _ _ _
O P O P O P O

|
|| || || NH2
N O O O N
N Adenosine
N
HC
CH H2C O N N
N N
—

H
Adenine
HO OH
Triphosphate
adenosine
It is a type of nucleoside in which a
molecule of base adenine is linked adhesive
to a D-ribose sugar molecule. A material used for joining surfaces
NH2 together. e.g., glues, thermoplastic
and thermosetting resins, asphalt
N rubber etc.
N
adiabatic process
HO—H2C O N N A process in which there is no
transfer of heat between the system
and surroundings.
H H ∆Q = 0 (zero)
H H
adiabatic system
OH OH It does not allow the exchange of
Adenosine heat between the system and
surroundings through its
adenosine diphosphate boundary.
(ADP) adipic acid
It is formed by the hydrolysis of (HOOC ( CH2) 4  COOH,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). IUPAC name hexane-1,
 9 agar–agar
A

4-dioic acid) It is a colourless constant gas pressure at different

crystalline substance, used in the temperatures.
manufacture of nylon-66. p= constant p= constant
adonic acid k k
An acid obtained from aldose by m m
the oxidation of its aldehyde group
into carboxyl group, e.g.,
t t
CHO COOH (physisorption (chemisorption
 Br2 water  isobar) isobar)
(CHOH) 4 → (CHOH) 4
  adsorption isotherm
CH2OH CH2OH The variation of the amount of gas
Glucose Gluconic acid adsorbed by the adsorbent with
pressure at constant temperature can
be expressed by means of a curve,
adrenaline hormone termed as adsorption isotherm.
It is produced by adrenal medulla
along with noradrenaline. It aerobic
increases heart beat, sugar level in A biochemical process that takes
the blood and rate of breathing to place in the presence of oxygen.
prepare the body for violent e.g., in aerobic respiration,
physical action. oxidation of fuel (glucose)
molecules by molecular oxygen
adsorbate takes place with the formation of
A substance that is adsorbed on the
surface of an adsorbent. carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic
respiration yields more energy than
adsorbent anaerobic respiration.
A substance on the surface of which
adsorption takes place. aerosol
A colloidal dispersion of a solid or
adsorption liquid in a gas. e.g., smoke, dust in
The accumulation of atoms or air (solid in gas aersol) and fog,
molecules of a substance on the mist, insecticide sprays (liquid in
surface of another solid or liquid gas aerosol).
substance (adsorbent).
agate
adsorption A very hard natural form of silica,
chromatography used for knife-edges of balances,
It is based on fact that different and in ornaments.
compounds are adsorbed on an
adsorbent to different degrees. affinity
Commonly used adsorbents are The extent by which one substance
silica gel and alumina. is attracted to or reacts with another.
adsorption indicator agar–agar
See ABSORPTION INDICATOR. It is a complex polysaccharide
adsorption isobar obtained from sea weeds,
It is a graph drawn between commonly used as gelling agent for
quantities adsorbed under a growing bacteria.
A agitator 10

agitator Naturally occurring amino acid,

A blade like instrument used in m.p.-297°C, obtained by the
fermenters and bioreactors to mix hydrolysis of proteins.
the medium continuously in order to albumin
maintain the rate of oxygen transfer. A group of globular protein,
aglycon soluble in water but form insoluble
The non-sugar compound coagulate compound on heating. It
remaining after replacement of the occurs in egg white, blood, milk,
glycosyl group from a glycoside by plants etc.
a hydrogen atom.
alcohols
agonist A type of organic compounds of the
Drugs that mimic the natural general formula R—OH. Alcohols
messenger by switching on the are classified according to the
receptor. These are useful when number of hydroxyl group present
there is lack of natural chemical in a molecule. Alcohols with
messenger. one—OH group are known as
air monohydric alcohols, with two
A gaseous mixture that surrounds —OH groups dihydric alcohols
the earth. The composition of air by and with three —OH groups are
volume is nitrogen ( N2)-78.03%, known as trihydric alcohols.
oxygen ( O2)-20.99%, argon Polyhydric alcohols contain four or
(Ar)-0.94%, carbon dioxide more hydroxyl groups.
(CO 2)-0.03%, neon (Ne) 0.0018%,
Monohydric alcohols further can be
helium (He)-0.0005%, krypton
(Kr)-0.0001% and xenon classified as primary alcohols (1°),
(Xe)-0.00001%. Air also contains secondary alcohols (2°) and tertiary
water vapours (in variable alcohols (3°). A compound with a
amounts), particulate matter such hydroxyl group attached to an aryl
as dust and pollen and other gases group is called a phenol.
in small amounts. CH 3  CH2  CH2OH
air pollution (1° )
Addition of undesirable materials
into atmosphere either by natural OH
or human activities, which 
adversely affect the quality of air CH 3  CH  CH 3
and causing harms to humans, (2 ° )
animals, vegetation and materials. CH 3
alabaster 
A fine grained compact mineral CH 3 — C— CH 3
form of gypsum (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O). 
OH
alanine (3 ° )
NH2
 In IUPAC system, alcohol names
(CH 3  CH  COOH, IUPAC end in the suffix-ol. e.g., methanol
name- 2-amino propanoic acid), (CH 3OH).
 11 alicylic compounds
A

alcoholmetry α , β-unsaturated carbonyl

A process used to determine the compounds which are aldol
amount of ethanol in a liquid. condensation products and the
reaction is called aldol
aldehydes condensation.
A type of organic compounds with
the general formula R—CHO, aldopentose
O An aldose sugar with five carbon
 atoms. e.g., ribose
where  C  H ( CHO) group is
known as aldehyde group (a aldose
carbonyl group with a hydrogen A monosaccharide, which contains
atom bound to the carbon atom). an aldehyde group. e.g., glucose
These are formed by oxidising aldosterone
primary alcohols. In IUPAC A hormone produced by adrenal
system, aldehyde names end in the glands and maintains salt and
suffix-‘al’. e.g., methanal (HCHO). water balance in the body.
aldimine (Schiff’s base) aldoximes
These are formed by the A type of organic compounds with
condensation reaction of aldehydes functional group  CH == NOH.
or ketones with primary aromatic These are formed by the action of
amines with the elimination of hydroxylamine (NH2OH) on
water. aldehyde (RCHO).
aldohexose alginic acid
Glucose is an aldohexose because it A complex polysaccharide
contains an aldehyde group and six occurring in the cell walls of the
carbon atoms. brown algae. In the form of
alginates, it is used mainly as
aldol stabilizer and texturing agent in the
A condensation product of food industry.
aldehyde in the presence of a base.
The name aldol is derived from two alicylic compounds
functional groups, aldehyde and (Aliphatic cyclic compounds)
alcohol. These are carbocyclic closed ring
aldol condensation compounds which resemble the
Aldehydes and ketones which aliphatic hydrocarbons in
possess atleast one α-hydrogen properties. Aliphatic cyclic
undergo aldol condensation compounds may be saturated or
reactions in the presence of a base unsaturated. These are further
to form hydroxy aldehyde and classified into homocyclic (contains
hydroxy ketone. The aldol and carbon atoms in the ring) and
ketol thus obtained on warming heterocyclic (atoms other than
gives out a water molecule and carbon also present in the ring).
A aliphatic compounds
e.g.,
Cyclopropane Cyclohexane
O alkaline
Cyclohexene Epoxyethane
aliphatic compounds
Organic compounds in which all
carbon atoms are linked to one
another to form open chains
(straight or branched) are called
aliphatic or open chain or acyclic
compounds.
e.g.,
CH 3CH2CH2CH 3
n- butane
CH 3CH2CH2 CH2OH
Butan-1-ol
alizarin
(C14H8O4) It is orange red dyestuff
and belongs to anthraquinone dyes
group. Depending upon the nature
of mordant used, it can give
different colours. e.g., it gives a
bright red colour with aluminium
and a blue colour with barium.
alkali
A base that dissolves in water and
give hydroxide ions in their
aqueous solutions. These are
corrosive and react with acids e.g.,
NaOH, KOH.
alkali metals
(Group-1 elements, formerly group
IA of the Periodic Table) Li, Na, K,
Rb, Cs and Fr are known as alkali
metals. These are never found in
the elemental state in nature. These
are soft and highly reactive metals.
12
alkalimetry
Volumetric analysis using standard
solutions of alkali to determine the
amount of acid present.
1. Having the properties of an
alkali.
2. An aqueous solution with a pH
greater than 7.
alkaline earth metals
(Group-2 elements, formerly group
II A of the Periodic Table) Be, Mg,
Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are similar to
alkali metals in appearance and
chemistry, but are harder, have
higher melting and boiling points
and are rather less reactive than the
alkali metals.
alkaloid
A type of nitrogenous organic
compounds produced by plants
and animals. Many alkaloids are
toxic or medicinal e.g., morphine,
quinine, atropine etc.
alkanal
Compounds containing aldehyde
group ( CHO). Alkanal
corresponds to an aliphatic
aldehyde series e.g., HCHO
(methanal), CH 3CHO (ethanal),
CH 3CH2CHO (propanal) etc.
alkane
Alkanes are saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons containing only
single bonds. General formula
C nH2n + 2. Methane (CH4) and
ethane are typical examples. They
were earlier known as paraffins
(Latin : parum = little; affinis =
affinity)

alkanol
These compounds corresponds to
an aliphatic alcohol series. General
formula ROH or C nH2n + 1OH e.g.,
methanol (CH 3OH), ethanol
(C 2H5OH).
alkene
A type of unsaturated hydrocarbon
containing one or more
carbon-carbon double bonds with
the general formula C nH2n.
Alkenes were formerly known as
olefins. Alkenes undergo addition
reactions e.g., ethene ( C 2H2),
propene (CH 3CH == CH2).
alkoxide
An organic compound containing
an ion of the type RO− , where R is
an alkyl group. These are obtained
by the reaction of metallic sodium
with an alcohol.
alkoxy alkane
An alternative name for an ether.
alkyl benzene
A type of organic hydrocarbon
containing one or more alkyl
groups substituted on to a benzene
ring. e.g., methyl benzene, ethyl
benzene.
alkyl group
A group derived from an alkane by
the removal of one hydrogen atom.
General formula  C nH2n + 1 e.g.,
methyl group ( CH 3) from
methane, ethyl group ( C 2H5)
from ethane.
alkyl halides or
haloalkanes
In alkyl halides, the halogen atom is
bonded to an alkyl group ( R).
General formula  C nH2n + 1X.
Many alkyl halides occur in nature
13 allosteric site
A
and some of these are clinically
useful.
alkyl sulphides
These are thioethers. General
formula  R  S  R′ e.g., ethyl
methyl sulphide ( C 2H5S CH 3).
alkylation
A chemical reaction that introduces
an alkyl group to an aromatic
organic compound e.g., In
Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction,
alkyl group is added to the benzene
ring.
alkyne
Like alkenes, alkynes are also
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Alkynes contain atleast one triple
bond between two carbon atoms.
General formula  C nH2n − 2.
Alkynes are weekly polar in nature.
Alkynes undergo addition
reactions.
allene
In allene, three carbon atoms are
linked by two adjacent double
bonds ( C == C == C ) e.g.,
1, 2-propadiene ( CH2 == C == CH2).
allosteric enzyme
An enzyme that has two
structurally different sites one of
which is active and the other
inactive.
allosteric site
Some drugs do not bind to the
enzyme’s active site. These bind to
a different site of enzyme which is
called allosteric site. This binding
of inhibitor at allosteric site
changes the shape of the active site
in such a way that substrate cannot
recognise it. If the bond formed
between an enzyme and an
A allotrope
inhibitor is a strong covalent bond
and cannot be broken easily then
the enzyme is blocked
permanently. The body then
degrades the enzyme-inhibitor
complex and synthesises the new
enzyme.
allotrope
One of the forms of an element that
exhibits allotropy.
allotropes of carbon
Carbon exhibits many allotropic
forms; both crystalline as well as
amorphous. Diamond and graphite
are two well known crystalline
forms of carbon. In 1985, third
crystalline form of carbon known as
fullerenes was discovered by H.W.
Kroto, E. Smalley and R.F. Curl.
allotropy
The ability of certain elements to
exist in more than one physical
forms (allotropes). Allotropy is
more common in group 14, 15 and
16 of the Periodic Table e.g.,
Oxygen : ozone ( O 3) and dioxygen
( O2).
Carbon : diamond, graphite and
fullerene.
Sulphur : rhombic and monoclinic
sulphur.
alloy
A material having two or more
metals or a metal and a non-metal.
Alloys may be compounds, solid
solutions or mixtures of the
components. e.g., brass is an alloy
of Cu and Zn, steel is an alloy of Fe
and carbon.
allyl group
Propenyl group,
CH2 == CH  CH2 
is known as allyl group.
14
allylic alcohols
The alcohols in which the OH
group is attached to a sp3
hybridized carbon next to the
carbon-carbon double bond, i.e., to
an allylic carbon. e.g.,
CH2 == CH  CH2  OH .
sp3
alnico
A trade name for an alloy that is
made up of aluminium, nickel and
cobalt. It is used to make
permanent magnets.
alpha decay
Radioactive disintegration by the
loss of an alpha particle.
alpha helix
The most common form of
secondary structure in proteins, in
which the polypeptide chain is
coiled into a helix.
alpha particle
The nucleus of a helium atom
consisting of two protons and two
neutrons (atomic mass = 4.2029 u
and charge + 2 units).
alpha iron
A pure crystalline form of iron with
a body centred cubic structure.
alpha-naphthol test
(Molisch’s test) It is used to detect
the presence of carbohydrates in
solution. In this test, a small
amount of alcoholic
alpha-naphthol is added to the
sample solution to be tested and
then, concentrated sulphuric acid is
poured slowly down the
side of the test tube.
Formation of a violet ring
at the junction of the
liquids shows the
presence of carbohydrate.
 15 aluminium oxide
A

alternant aluminium bronze

A conjugated system of
pi-electrons if its atoms can be
divided into two sets so that no
atom of one set is directly linked to
any other atom of the same set, e.g.,
CH2==CH  CH==CH2
This molecule contains alternate
single and double bonds. aluminum chloride
alum
It is a double sulphate of trivalent
metal like iron, aluminium,
chromium etc. and an univalent
metal such as potassium or sodium
with 24 molecules of water e.g.,
potash alum
( K2SO4 ⋅ Al 2(SO4) 3 ⋅ 24H2O). These
are used in tanning leather and as
mordants of dyeing. Other
examples of alums are sodium
alum, ammonium alum, ferric alum
and chrome alum.
alumina
See ALUMINIUM OXIDE.
aluminate
A salt formed when aluminium
oxide or aluminium hydroxide is
dissolved in a solution of strong
bases.
Al(OH) 3 + OH− → aluminium hydroxide
Al(OH) −4 + H2 O
Aluminate ion
aluminium
(Chemical symbol-Al, atomic
number-13, relative atomic mass
26.98.) A silvery white lustrous aluminium oxide
metallic element belongs to the
group 13 (formerly III B) of the
Periodic Table. It is extracted
mainly from the purified bauxite by
electrolysis. Its alloys are used in
the manufacture of aircraft
window, frames and kitchen
utensils.
An alloy of copper with 4%-13%
aluminium, have fine golden
lustre, resistant to corrosion and is
readily fusible. It is used in making
jewellery utensils decorative
articles etc.
(AlCl 3) A white covalent
deliquescent solid, which fumes in
moist air.
AlCl 3 + 3H2O → Al(OH) 3 + 3HCl
In the liquid and vapour phase, it
exits as dimers Al 2Cl 6 containing
chlorine bridges to aluminium
atom.
Cl Cl
Cl
Al Al
Cl Cl
Cl
Aluminium chloride
It is used in Friedel-Crafts reactions
in organic preparations. It is also
used as a catalyst in the cracking of
hydrocarbons to obtain petroleum.
[Al(OH)3] A white powder
prepared as a colourless gelatinous
precipitate by adding NaOH
solution to a solution of aluminium
salt. It is an amphoteric hydroxide.
[Alumina (Al 2O 3)] A white
crystalline amphoteric compound
reacts with both acids and alkalis. It
occurs naturally as the mineral
corundum and bauxite. It is used as
a catalyst in the dehydration of
alcohols.
A aluminium potassium sulphate 16
aluminium potassium
sulphate
See ALUM.
aluminium sulphate
[Al 2 (SO4 )3] A white crystalline
solid. It is used as a precipitating
agent in sewage treatment, as a
foaming agent in fire extinguishers,
as a size in paper making and as a
mordant in dyeing.
aluminium trimethyl
[Trimethyl aluminium (CH 3) 3Al]
Colourless, reactive liquid.
Aluminium alkyls are used in
Ziegler process for the preparation
of high density polythene on the
large scale.
amalgam
An alloy of a metal with mercury
(Hg). Amalgams of mercury with
silver and tin are used in dentistry
to fill tooth cavities.
amatol
It is an explosive. It consists of a
mixture of nitroglycerine and
ammonium nitrate.
ambidentate ligand
Ligand which can ligate through
two different atoms is called
ambidentate ligand. e.g., —NO−2
and SCN − ions. NO−2 ion can
coordinate either through nitrogen
or through oxygen to a central
metal atom/ion. Similarly, SCN−
ion can coordinate through the
sulphur or nitrogen atom.
ambidentate nucleophile
A nucleophile that has two
alternative reactive centres such
that reaction at one centre stops or
inhibits reaction at the other e.g.,
( CN) − is an ambident nucleophile
which can attack from both the
atoms.
americium
(Chemical symbol-Am, atomic
number-95, relative atomic
mass-243) A silvery white element
of group-3, obtained by neutron
irradiation on pure Pu. It is used as
a source of gamma rays.
amides
Organic compounds having general
formula RCONH 2. In a simple
amide, the —OH group of
carboxylic acid is replaced by
NH2 group.
O
===
CH3—C—NH2 CONH2
Acetamide Benzamide
amidol
2, 4-diaminophenol dihydrochlo-
ride is known as amidol. It is used
as a reducing agent in photography
and in dye making.
aminase
An enzyme used in hydrolysis of
amines.
amination
A chemical reaction in which an
amino group is introduced into a
molecule. e.g., reactions of alkyl
halides with ammonia.
amine
Amines constitute an important
class of organic compounds
derived by replacing one or more
hydrogen atoms of ammonia
molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s). In
 17 amino toluene
A

nature, they occur among proteins, amino acid residue

vitamins, alkaloids and hormones. When two or more amino acids
H CH3 combine with the elimination of
water molecule to give a peptide,
N: N: the remaining substance is called
H H CH3 H amino acid residue. All units of a
Ammonia Secondary amine peptide chain are therefore, amino
(dimethylamine) acid residues. In amino acids,
H CH3 H-atom of amino acid is not
present.
N: N:
amino benzene
CH3 H CH3 CH3 (or Aniline)
Primary amine Tertiary amine (C 6H5NH2) A colourless oily
(methylamine) (trimethylamine) poisonous organic liquid with
When the H is replaced by aryl unpleasant odour, b.p. 184.1°C. It is
group, the compound produced is insoluble in water but soluble in
called aniline or its derivatives. e.g., organic solvents. It is obtained by
.. reducing nitrobenzene ( C 6H5NO2).
NH2 H3N—NH It is used in making dyes and
drugs and also used in rubber
industry.
amino ethanamide
aniline N–methyl aniline (H2NCH2CONH2 , glycinamide)
An amide with crystallization
H3C—N—CH3
temperatures temperature 68°C. It
is used for the synthsis of organic
intermediate in the pharmacetical
industry.
N, N–dimethyl aniline
amino ethane
(C 2H5NH2) A colourless liquid
amino acid amine used in manufacturing some
Amino acids contain both amino
dyes.
(  NH2) and carboxyl ( COOH)
functional groups. Depending amino group
upons the relative position of General formula  NRR′, where R
amino group with respect to and R′ may be hydrogen atoms or
carboxyl group, the amino acids alkyl groups or aryl groups.
can be classified as α, β, γ, δ and so
on. Only α-amino acids are amino toluene
obtained on hydrolysis of proteins. (CH 3C 6H4NH2 − methyl aniline)
They may contain other functional Toluidine is known as amino
group also. toluene. These are three isomers:
A ammonal 18
CH3 CH3
ammoniacal solution.
NH2 A solution in aqueous ammonia.

NH2 ammonia soda process

o-amino toluene m-amino toluene Solvay process for manufacturing
CH3 sodium carbonate.
ammonium carbonate
[( NH4) 2 CO 3] A white crystalline
compound decomposes readily to
NH2 produce ammonia. It is used in
p-amino toluene making extinguishers, baking
powder, smelling salts (sal
These are used in making dyestuffs volatile), and in wool treatment.
and drugs.
ammonal ammonium chloride
(NH 4Cl, sal ammoniac) A
An explosive consisting of
ammonia, nitrate, nitrotoluene, Al colourless white crystalline
powder and charcoal. compound, used in dry batteries, as
a soldering and galvanizing flux
amonation
and as a mordant in dyeing.
The process of conversion of CO
group into amine by reacting with ammonium hydrogen
hydrogen and ammonia in the carbonate
presence of a catalyst is called
amonation. (Ammonium bicarbonate,
NH4HCO 3) A white crystalline
ammonia solid used in baking powders and
NH 3, a colourless pungent gas. medicines.
Readily liquified by cooling,
b.p. −33.5°C, m.p. −77.7°C. It is ammonium hydroxide
highly soluble in water to form (Ammonia solution, NH4OH) It is
ammonium hydroxide. It is formed formed by the dissolution of
naturally by bacterial ammonia in water. It contains
decomposition of nitrogenous hydrated ammonia molecules as
organic matter. It is pyramidal in well as some NH+4 and OH− ions. It
shape. It is used in making nitric is used as a cleansing agent.
acid, fertilizers, explosives, foams
and films. ammonium ion
NH+4 ion, it behaves as a metal ion.
:

N 101
.7 p ammonium nitrate
m [NH4NO 3] A colourless crystalline
H solid, very soluble in water. It is
107.8°
used as a fertilizer and in
H H manufacturing explosives.
ammonia solution ammonium phosphate
Ammonium hydroxide is known as [(NH4 )3 PO4] A colourless
ammonia solution. crystalline salt used as a fertilizer.

ammonium sulphate
[( NH4) 2 SO4] A white crystalline
compound soluble in water and
used as a fertilizer (its excess use
make the soil acidic).
ammonium thiocyanate
(NH 4NCS) A colourless crystalline
solid used as a source of
thiocyanate ions in matches,
photography and in explosives.
ammonolysis
The process of cleavage of the C—X
bond in alkyl or aryl halides by
ammonia molecule is known as
ammonolysis. These halides on
reaction with an alcoholic solution
of ammonia undergo nucleophilic
substitution reaction in which
halogen atom is replaced by an
amino group ( NH2).
amorphous solids
An amorphous solid (Greek
amorphos = no form) consists of
particles of irregular shape. The
arrangement of constituent
particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
in such solids has only short range
order. These solids do not have a
sharp melting point but soften over
a range of temperature. e.g., glass,
charcoal , rubber, plastics etc.
amount of substance
(n) A measure of the number of
entities present in a substance.
see MOLE.
Ampere
[Named after the French physicist
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836)]
The ampere is that constant current
which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite
length of negligible circular
cross-section and placed 1 metre
19 amyl group
A
apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force
equal to 2 × 10−7 Newton per metre
of length.
amphiboles
A rock forming metasilicate
minerals. These have a structure of
silicate tetrahedra linked to form
double endless chains. e.g.,
tremolite, edenite etc.
amphiphilic
An amphiphilic molecule has both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic
parts. e.g., detergents.
ampholyte
The substance which behave both
as an acid and a base.
amphiprotic
The amphiprotic substances can
donate as well as accept protons.
e.g., water.
amphoteric
An amphoteric substance can
exhibit both acidic and basic
properties. Amphoteric term is
commonly used for those oxides
and hydroxides of metals that can
form both cations and complex
anions. e.g., aluminium oxide, zinc
oxide etc.
amu
See ATOMIC MASS UNIT.
amyl alcohol
[Pentyl alcohol or pentanol
(C5H11OH)] A colourless liquid
with a particular characteristic
smell. It is obtained from fused oil
and is used as a solvent.
amyl group
(C5H11) A monovalent pentyl
group.
A amyl nitrite
amyl nitrite
(C5H11ONO) A pale brown volatile
liquid organic compound. It is used
in medicines to dialate blood
vessels of angnia patients.
amylase
Diastase, a type of enzyme that
digest starch or glycogen to dextrin,
maltose and glucose.
amylopectin
A polysaccharide, consists of highly
branched chains of glucose
molecules. It is one of the
constituents of starch.
amylose
A constituent of starch. It is water
soluble component which
constitutes about 15-20% of starch.
Chemically amylose is a long
unbranched chain with 200-1000
α-(D-) ( + ) glucose units held by
C1-C 4 glycosidic linkage.
amylum
It is also known as starch.
anaemia
A condition in which there is
reduction in the red blood cells or
the amount of haemoglobin per
unit. It causes pallor and fatigue in
human beings.
anaerobic
A chemical process that takes place
in absence of free oxygen. It yields
less energy than aerobic
respiration. e.g., fermentation.
anaesthetic
A chemical substance used to
remove the perception of pain and
other stimuli. General anaesthetics
produce total anaesthesia while
local anaesthetics produce
anaesthesia only at the site of
20
application by affecting the nerves.
e.g., N2O, ethyl vinyl ether,
cyclopropane, ethyl chloride etc.
analgesics
These chemical susbtances are used
for relieving pain. e.g., aspirin,
analgin etc.
analysis
The identification of the
components in a chemical sample.
In qualitative analysis, nature of
pure unknown compound or the
compounds present in a mixture is
determined while in quantitative
analysis percentage composition of
known components is determined.
analytical chemistry
Branch of chemistry which is
concerned with qualitative and
quantitative analysis.
angle strain
The deviation of a bond angle from
its normal value. In fact, greater the
deviation, more strained is the
molecule which leads to greater
reactivity. Thus, cyclopropane with
a bond angle of 60° is more reactive
than cyclobutane (bond angle 90°).
anglesite
A mineral form of lead sulphate
(PbSO4).
angstrom
(Å) A unit of length equivalent to
10−8 cm or 10−10 m. (1 nm = 10 Å).
angular momentum
It is the product of moment of
inertia and angular velocity. For an
electron of mass ‘m’ moving in a
circular path of radius ‘r’ around
the nucleus, angular momentum
= mvr.
 21
anhydride animal starch
A compound that produces acid on
reaction with water. e.g., SO 3 is the
anhydride of sulphuric acid
( H2SO4). anion
SO 3 + H2O → H2SO4
Organic anhydride of carboxylic
acids have general formula
(RCO) 2 O.
anhydrite anionic detergents
(CaSO4) A white solid that
occurs abundantly as the mineral
anhydrite.
anhydrone
Another name for magnesium
perchlorate [Mg(ClO4) 2] .
anhydrous
A salt with no water of
crystallization or a substance that
lacks moisture. e.g., CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2O
(blue colour hydrated salt), CuSO4
(white colour anhydrous salt).
aniline
See AMINO BENZENE.
aniline hydrochloride CH3(CH2)10CH2OH
(C 6H5NH2HCl) A colourless
crystalline salt, highly soluble in
water and used in calico printing. It
is obtained by passing dry
hydrogen chloride through a
solution of aniline in ether.
anilinium ion
The ion C 6H5NH+3 is known as
anilinium ion.
animal charcoal
(Bone black) A porous form of anionic resin
carbon produced by heating bones
and dissolving out calcium
phosphates and other mineral salts
with acid. It is used to make the
cane sugar white.
anionic resin
A
Glycogen is known as animal
starch.
The negatively charged ion formed
by addition of an electron to atom
or molecule. e.g., H− (hydride), Cl −
(chloride), N 3− (nitride), OH−
(hydroxide).
They are sodium salts of
sulphonated long chain alcohols or
hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogen
sulphates, formed by treating
long chain alcohols with
concentrated sulphuric acid’ are
neutralized with alkali to form
anionic detergents. In anionic
detergents, the anionic part of the
molecule is involved in the
cleansing action. Sodium salts of
alkyl benzene sulphonates are an
important class of anionic
detergents. They are mostly used
for household work.
H2SO4
Lauryl alcohol
CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3H
Lauryl hydrogen sulphate
NaOH (aq)
CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3Na
Sodium lauryl sulphate
(Anionic detergent)
An ion exchange material that can
exchange anions, such as Cl − and
OH− by anions present in the
surrounding medium.
A anisole
anisole
[Methoxy benzene (C 6H8O)] A
colourless liquid, used in perfumes.
OCH3
anisotropy
In crystalline solids, properties like
electrical conductance, refractive
index, thermal expansion etc have
different values in different
directions. This type of behaviour is
called anisotropy.
Anisotropy exhibited
by crystalline solids
annealing
A process in which newly shaped
articles are cooled slowly. If they
are cooled quickly, they become
brittle due to high internal strain. It
is generally done in a tunnel like
oven.
annulation
It is the process of fusion of a ring
with a molecule. It involves the
formation of two new bonds.
annulenes
In annulenes, simple single rings of
carbon atoms are linked by
alternating single and double bonds.
H H
H substituent will take the axial
H
H configuration. This is known as
H H H H anomeric effect.
H
H H
H H
[14] Annulene
22
anode
The positive electrode of an
electrolytic cell. It is the electrode
by which the electrons leave the
system.
anode mud
On passing the electric current, the
pure metal generally dissovles
from the anode by oxidation and
get deposited on the cathode by
reduction. The soluble impurities
go into the solution while insoluble
matter settles at the bottom as
anode mud.
anode rays
The rays emerging from holes of a
perforated cathode on the opposite
side from anode and is deposited at
the cathode.
anodizing
It is a process of coating of a metal
such as aluminium with a thin layer
of its oxide by electrolysis.
anomer
Stereoisomers or cyclic forms of
sugars differing in the
configuration at the C1 atom of an
aldose or the C 2 atom of a ketose.
This atom is known as anomeric
carbon and these compounds are
anomers. The α- and β-forms of
glucose are examples of anomers.
anomeric effect
If a pyranose ring has an
electronegative substituent at
anomeric carbon then this
configuration than the equatorial
antacid
Chemical substance which can
reduce or neutralize the acidity in
stomach and raise the pH to some
 23 antiferromagnetism
A

appropriate level. Sodium toxicity for humans and animals.

hydrogen carbonate can be used as
antacid but it can make the stomach
alkaline and trigger the production
of even more acid. Metal
hydroxides such as magnesium
hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide
and magnesium silicate are better
alternatives.
antagonists
Drugs that bind to the receptor site
and inhibit its natural function are
called antagonists. These are useful
when blocking of message is
required.
anthracene
(Molecular formula C14H10) A
colourless or white crystalline
solid. It is an aromatic hydrocarbon
with three fused rings and is
obtained from crude oil. It is widely
used in manufacturing dyes.
Anthracene
anthracite
Anthracite is a form of coal, which
is hard and black with a fixed
carbon content of 92-98%.
anthraquinone
(9, 10-dioxo-anthracene, molecular,
formula C14H8O2) A colourless
crystalline solid, m.p. 285°C. It is
manufactured by condensing
benzene with phthalic anhydride in
the presence of AlCl 3. The product
so obained is heated with conc.
H2SO4 to convert it into
anthraquinone. It is used in
producing dye stuffs such as
alizarin.
antibiotics
Antibiotics are used as drugs to
treat infections because of their low
These chemical substances inhibit
the growth or even destroy
micro-organisms by intervening in
their metabolic processes. These
are obtained from microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi and molds
or synthesized form chemicals.
Examples, penicillins,
streptomycin, chloramphenicol,
ofloxacin etc.
antibonding molecular
orbital
Molecular orbital obtained by
subtraction of wave functions of
atoms. It may be represented as,
∗
ψ ( MO) = ψ A − ψ B
∗
or σ = ψA − ψB
e.g., the molecular orbital formed
by two 1s-orbitals
+ + + –
1s 1s *
σ1s
Antichlor
A substance used to remove
chlorine from materials after
bleaching, e.g., sodium
thiosulphate, Na 2S2O 3.
antidepressant
A class of drugs used to relieve
depression. The most widely used
are the tricyclic antidepressants.
These antidepressants may have
serious side effects and are
therefore restricted to the treatment
of severe psychological disorders.
antiferromagnetism
It is due to the presence of equal
number of domains in the opposite
direction and zero net magnetic
moment. Such substances are
A antifoaming agent
called antiferromagnetic
substances. e.g., MnO.
Alignment of magnetic
moments in antiferromagnetism
antifoaming agent
A substance which prevents the
formation of foam. These
substances are used in the process
of electroplating, paper making
and in water boilers. e.g.,
polyamides, octanol, polysiloxanes
and silicones.
antifreeze solution
A chemical substance added to
liquid in cooling system of internal
combustion engines to lower its
freezing point. Generally, ethylene
glycol (ethane-1, 2-diol) is used as
antifreeze in cold countries.
antihistamine
Drugs that interfere with the action
of histamine. Some antihistamines
are used to prevent histamine from
causing allergic reactions.
Ranitidine prevent histamine,
stimulating the secretion of gastric
juice and are used to treat peptic
ulcers.
antiknocking agent
The compounds which are added
to gasoline to improve its octane
number are called antiknocking
agents. e.g., TEL (tetra ethyl lead).
antimicrobial drugs
Drugs which are used to cure
diseases caused by microbes or
microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi etc. These drugs
include antibacterial, antifungal
and antiviral agents.
antimony
(Chemical symbol-Sb, atomic
number-51, relative atomic
24
mass-121.75) A lustrous metallic
element of group 15, which is a
poor conductor of electricity. The
main source of antimony is stibnite
( Sb 2S 3). The main use of the metal
is an alloying agent.
antioxidant
Chemical substances that slow the
rate of oxidation process.
Antioxidants are used to preserve
food stuffs and to prevent harmful
effects of oxidation in rubber,
plastics and paints. Naturally
occurring antioxidants include
vitamin E and β-carotene.
antiparallel spins
The spining of neighouring
electrons in the opposite directions.
A ferromagnetic substance consists
of small magnetised regions called
domains. In some substances
domains are aligned in parallel and
antiparallel directions in unequal
numbers (ferrimagnetism), while in
some substances domains are
aligned in parallel and anti paralled
directions in equal numbers (anti
ferromagnetism).
antiparticle
An elementary particle with charge
properties opposite to those
normally found. e.g., antiparticle of
electron is positron (positive
electron).
antipyretics
Chemical substances which are
used to bring down body
temperature in high fevers are
called antipyretics e.g., aspirin,
paracetamol etc.
antiseptic
Antiseptics are the chemicals which
either kill or prevent the growth of
 25 Arndt-Eisert synthesis
A

micro-organisms. These are applied arene

to the living tissues such as wounds, An organic compound containing a
cuts, ulcers and diseased skin benzene ring; an aromatic
surfaces. Examples are furacine, hydrocarbon or derivative.
soframycine etc. These are not
ingested like antibiotics. argentiferous
The term applied to silver bearing
apatite mineral deposits.
A naturally occurring phosphate of
calcium, CaF2.Ca 3 (PO4) 3. It is used argentite
as a source of phosphorus and for (Cheif ore of silver as sulphide
making fertilizers. Ag 2S) It is dull grey-black in colour.
aquafortis Mainly it occurs in Mexico, Peru,
An old name for nitric acid Norway, Chile etc.
( HNO 3).
argon
aqua-regia (Chemical symbol-Ar, atomic
A solution containing concentrated number-18, relative atomic
hydrochloric acid and nitric acid in mass-39.95) A noble gas that occurs
the ratio 3 : 1. It dissolves noble in the atmosphere (0.94%). It is
metals like platinum and gold used as gas filled in electric light
which remain unaffected by nitric bulbs.
acid alone.
Arndt-Eisert synthesis
aquamerine The process of conversion of
Blue form of the mineral beryl. carboxylic acid into their next higher
aqueous homologue or to derivatives of a
A solution in water. homologues acid, i.e., ester or amide.
O O
aqueous solution  SOCl 2 
Solution in which water is solvent. R  C  OH → R  C  Cl
e.g., brine solution, sugar solution –SO 2
–HCl
(sugar-solute, water-solvent).
O
aqueous tension 
CH 2 N 2 Ag 2 O, ∆
Pressure exerted by saturated → R  C  CHN2 →
–HCl (Wolff
water vapours. rearrangement)
arabinose H 2O
RCH ==C==O →
(C5H10O5) A crystalline pentose Ketene
sugar derived from plant OH
polysaccharides such as gums. It is
RCH ==C
used as a culture medium.
OH
aragonite O
A mineral form of calcium Tautomerisation 
carbonate ( CaCO 3). → RCH2  C  OH
A aromatic compounds 26

aromatic compounds CH3 Cr2O3

Organic compounds that contain or V2O5
CH2 CH3 or Mo O
benzene ring in their molecules. 2 3

The name aromatic is derived from CH2 CH2

the Greek word ‘aroma’ meaning
sweet smell because most of the CH2
compounds belonging to this class
have sweet fragrance. All aromatic
compounds have a planar ring with
( 4n + 2) π-electrons. (Huckel rule). Arrhenius equation
e.g., benzene. It relates the rate constant for a
reaction to the frequency factor i.e.,
aromatic hydrocarbon it gives the temperature
These hydrocarbons are dependence of rate constants. It can
collectively known as arenes and
be written as
exhibit aromaticity. e.g.,
CH3 k = Ae− Ea /RT
Ea
or log10 k = log10 A −
2.303 RT
where, Ea = activation energy
Benzene Toluene Naphthalene R = gas constant
T = absolute temeprature
A = frequency factor
(Arrhenius constant)
Biphenyl
Arrhenius theory
aromaticity (For acid and bases)
The modern theory of aromaticity Acids are the substance that
was advanced by Eric Huckel in dissocate in water to give hydrogen
1931. Aromaticity is a function of ions, H+ ( aq) or H 3O+ and bases are
electronic structure. A compound the substance that produce
may be aromatic if the ring is planar hydroxyl ions, OH− ( aq).
contains ( 4n + 2) π − -electrons and arsenate salt
exhibits delocalization of Salt of arsenic acid, H 3AsO4.
π-electrons as in benzene.
arsenic
aromatization (Chemical symbol-As, atomic
n-alkanes having six or more number-33, relative atomic mass
carbon atoms on heating to 773 K at 74.92. A metalloid belongs to group
10-20 atm pressure in the presence 15 of the Periodic Table. The most
of oxides of vanadium, common form of arsenic is grey
molybdenum or chromium metallic. Arsenic compounds are
supported over alumina get used in insecticides and as doping
dehydrogenated and cyclised to agents in semiconductors.
benzene and its homologues. This arsenic acid
reaction is known as aromatization [H3AsO4, orthoarsenic acid, arsenic
or reforming. (V) acid] A tribasic acid from which

arsenates are derived. Arsenic acid
is an aqueous solution of arsenic
(V) oxide.
arsenic (III) chloride
(arsenious chloride, AsCl 3) A
poisonous oily liquid. It fumes in
moist air due to hydrolysis with
water vapour. It is covalent in
nature.
arsenic hydride
See ARSINE.
arsenide
A compound of arsenic and other
metal. e.g., gallium arsenide, GaAs
and iron arsenide, FeAs2.
arsenious acid
[H 3AsO 3, arsenous acid, arsenic
(III) acid] A tribasic acid from
which arsenites are derived.
Arsenious acid is an aqueous
solution of arsenic (III) oxide
(arsenious oxide).
arsenite salt
Salt of arsenious acid ( H 3AsO 3).
arsine
(AsH 3) Colourless gas with garlic-
smell, insoluble in water, prepared
in laboratory by the action of metal
and dilute acids on arsenous oxide.
It has pyramidal strucure.
:
As
H H
H soluble
artificial radioactivity
Radioactivity induced by bombar-
ding stable nucleus with high
energy.
27
+ 10n → 24
+ 42He
13 Al 11 Na
27 ascorbic acid
A
artificial sweetening
agent
The non-sugar sweetening agent
that are used to avoid
calorie-intake. Some common
artificial sweeteners are saccharin,
aspartame and alitame. Saccharin is
first popular sweetener which is
550 times sweeter than sugar.
aryl group
A group obtained by removing a
hydrogen atom from an aromatic
compound e.g., phenyl group.
C 6H5-derived from benzene.
aryl halide
These are the compounds in which
the halogen atom is bonded to the
sp 2-hybridized carbon atom of an
aromatic ring. These are also
known as haloarenes. e.g.,
X
X
H3C
Halobenzene p-methyl halobenzene
asbestos
The fibrous varieties of a number of
silicate minerals containing SiO 4
groups linked into chains. It is heat
resistant and chemically inert.
ascorbic acid
1. A colourless crystalline water
vitamin having
chemical formula C 6H8O6. It
occurs in many foods mainly in
citrus fruits, vegetables etc.
2. It required for proper nutrition
and metabolism and its
deficiency produces scurvy.
A asphalt
asphalt
It refers to a natural mixture of
Bitumen. It is a black tar containing
free carbon.
aspirator
An apparatus for sucking a gas or
liquid from a vessel or body cavity.
aspirin
It is non-additive analgesic. It
inhibits the synthesis of compounds
known as prostaglandins which
stimulate inflammation in the tissues
and cause pain. It can be synthesized
by salicylic acid and acetic
anhydride.
OH
COOH
+ (CH3CO)2O
Salicylic acid
OCOCH3
COOH
Conc. H2SO4
+ CH3COOH
Aspirin
(2-acetoxy benzoic acid)
association
The combination of molecules of a
substance with those of another to
form a complex species.
associated colloids
There are some substances which at
low concentrations behave as
normal strong electrolytes, but at
higher concentrations exhibit
colloidal behaviour due to the
formation of aggregates. The
aggregated particles, thus formed
are called micelles. These are also
known as associated colloids. The
formation of micelles takes place,
28
only above a particular temperature
called Kraft temperature ( Tk ) and
above a particular concentration,
called critical micelle concentration
(CMC). On dilution, these colloids
revert back to individual ions.
Surface active agents such as soaps
and synthetic detergents belong to
this class.
astatine
(Chemical symbol-At, atomic
number-85, relative atomic
mass-210) It is a highly radioactive
element with a short half- life
period of 8.3 hours. It can be made
by bombarding bismuth nuclei
with alpha particles.
asymmetry
A property which lacks symmetry,
in molecular or crystal structure,
e.g., central C-atom in lactic acid.
H
*
CH 3  C  OH

COOH
(*C= asymmetric C-atom)
atmolysis
The separation of a gaseous
mixture by using their different
rates of diffusion.
atmosphere
1. atm., a unit of pressure.
2. 1 atm = 101325 pascal = 760 mm
of Hg.
3. Gaseous mixture of air that
surrounds the earth.
atmospheric pressure
A pressure exerted by air
(atmosphere) on earth’s surface. At
sea level, the atmosphere will
support a column of mercury about
760 mm high. It decreases with
increasing altitude.

atom
The word ‘atom’ has been derived
from the Greek word ‘a-tomio’
which means ‘uncutable’ or
‘non-divisible’. The smallest
portion of an element, that can take
part in a chemical reaction.
atomic bomb
A weapon deriving its great
explosive force due to sudden
release of nuclear energy through
the nuclear fission.
Practically, U-235 and plutonium-239
are capable of undergoing chain
reaction in atom bomb.
atomic energy
Nuclear energy, released during
nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
atomic mass
The atomic mass of an element is
numerical number which indicates
how many times an atom of an
element is heavier than 1/12 mass
of carbon-12.
atomic mass unit
Unit used to express mass of
individual isotope of elements. It is
equal to the mass of a portion
approximately 1.66 × 10−24 g or
1.66 × 10−27 kg.
atomic number
The number of protons present in
the nucleus corresponds to atomic
number (Z).
Atomic number ( Z) = number
of protons in the nucleus of an
29 atomic weight
A
atom = number of electrons in a
neutral atom.
atomic orbital
A region around the nucleus of an
atom in which there is maximum
probability of finding electrons.
There are one s-,three p-,five d- and
seven f -orbitals in corresponding
subshells.
atomic orbital wave
function
It describes the behaviour of an
electron when orbiting the nucleus
of an atom.
atomic radii
It is the distance from the centre of
the nucleus to the outermost shell
of electrons.
atomic spectrum of
hydrogen
When hydrogen gas at low
pressure is taken in the discharge
tube and the light emitted on
passing electric discharge is passed
through a spectroscope, the
spectrum obtained is called atomic
spectrum of hydrogen.
atomic volume
The volume occupied by 1 g atom
of an element. It is obtained by
dividing the atomic weight of the
element by its density. It is a
periodic function of the atomic
number.
atomic weight
It is the average relative mass of an
atom. Atomic mass of an element is
a number which indicates as to how
many times an atom of that element
is heavier as compared with 1/12 of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12
(12
6 C).
A atomicity
atomicity
Number of atoms in one molecule
of an element. e.g., atomicity of
argon is 1, oxygen 2 and ozone 3.
ATP
ATP corresponds to adenosine
triphosphate. A molecule of ATP
contain two high energy phosphate
bonds.
atto
(a) A prefix denoting 10−28, e.g.,
1 attometer (am) = 10−18 meter (m).
aufbau principle
The word ‘aufbau’ in German
means ‘building up’. The building
up of orbitals means the filling up
of orbitals with electrons. In the
ground state of the atoms, the
orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies. In other words,
electrons first occupy the lowest
energy orbital available to them
and enter into higher energy
orbitals only after the lower energy
orbitals are filled. The order in
which the energies of the orbitals
increase, is as follows :
1s,2s, 2p , 3s, 3 p , 4 s, 3 d , 4p , 5s, 4d ,
5 p , 6s, 4 f , 5 d , 6p , 7s
1s
2s 2p
3s
3p 3d
4s 4p 4d
4f
5s 5p 5d
6s
6p
7s
30
auger effect
An effect in which an excited ion
emits an electron with radiation. It
is a form of autoionization.
auric
It refers to trivalent gold (Au3+ ).
aurous ion
(Au + ) It is an oxidizing agent,
powerful enough to oxidize water.
Au + ion disproportiomates. It does
not exist as a simple cation in the
aqueous solution.
auto catalysis
Process which takes place when
one of the products of a chemical
reaction acts as a catalyst for the
reaction. e.g., potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) in acid
solution oxidizes oxalic acid
(ethanedioic acid). The Mn 2+ ions, a
product of the reaction, catalyzed
the reaction.
auto clave
Air tight container in which
contents are heated by high
pressure steam and sometimes
contents may also be agitated.
These are used for sterilization or
industrial processing.
auto oxidation
Slow oxidation caused by
atmospheric oxygen. It may be
catalyzed by light and other
components in the system. It occurs
especially in oils, food stuffs.
auto ionization
See AUGER EFFECT.
auto protolysis
Transfer of a hydrogen ion ( H+ )
between molecules of an
amphiprotic solvent such as water.

Avogadro constant
Number of atoms or molecules in a
mole of a substances. It is equal to
6.022 × 1023 mol −1.
auxochrome
A substance used to modify the
colour of the chromophore.
Avogadro law
Equal volumes of all gases under
the same conditions of temperature
and pressure, contain equal
number of molecules.
Mathematically.
V ∝ n or V = kn
The number of molecules in one
mole of a gas has been determined
to be 6.022 × 1023 and is known as
Avogadro constant.
axial ratio
The ratio of the cell dimensions a , b
and c in a crystal; where b being
taken as unity. In a cubic system
a = b = c. In hexagonal and
tetragonal systems a = b ≠ c. In
triclinic, monocinic and
orthorthomi systems a ≠ b ≠ c and
a c
axial ratios are : 1 : .
b d
azeotrope
Azeotropes are binary mixtures
having the same composition in
liquid and vapour phase and boil at
a constant temperature. In such
cases, it is not possible to separate
the components by fractional
distillation. There are two types of
azeotropes called minimum boiling
azeotrope and maximum boiling
azeotrope.
31 azurite
A
azeotropic distillation
Components of an azeotrope may
be separated by this technique. A
third liquid is added to azeotropic
mixture to form new azeotrope
with one of the original
components. e.g., benzene is added
to azeotropic mixture of ethanol
and water to separate out ethanol.
azides
Compounds containing N−3 ion.
azimuthal quantum
number
Azimuthal quantum number ‘l’ is
also known as orbital angular
momentum or subsidiary quantum
number. It defines the three
dimensional shape of the orbital.
For a given value of n, l can have n
values ranging from 0 to n − 1.
azine
An organic heterocyclic compound
that has a hexagonal ring
containing carbon and nitrogen
atoms. e.g., pyridine.
azo compounds
Organic compounds containing
azo group,  N == N  linking two
other groups. These are obtained
by the reaction of diazonium salt
with an aromatic phenol or amine.
azo dye
Azo dyes contain the  N == N 
group.
N==N OH
Azo dye
azurite
[Cu 3(OH) 2(CO 3) 2, hydrated basic
copper carbonate or blue basic
carbonate of copper] It is a minor ore
of copper and is used as gem stone.