CHAPTER 1

Basic Considerations in Process Equipment Design

1.1 Introduction

In modern competitive chemical industry, new plants are being continuously set- up and
existing units modified and expanded. This involves both technical and economic evalua -
tions. Knowledge of the various technical subjects such as thermodynamics, reaction
kinetics, unit operations, process design, equipment design, etc., is a prerequisite to the
establishment or development of any chemical plant. Of these the process along with the
associated equipment, governs the shape and the size of the plant. The purpose of this
book is to present the methods and the procedure adopted in designing process equipment.
The emphasis here is not so much on the study of the actual process, but on specifying the
function, operation and size of the equipment and also the choice of material of
construction and strength considerations.
In early stages of the development of the chemical industry, the equipment was crude
and the operation was essentially manual. During the nineteenth century, more elaborate
processes such as the manufacture of sulphuric acid by chamber process or manufacture
of alkali by the Leblanc process were developed. These processes called for more
sophisticated equipment. A modern chemical process is, in general, even more complex
and involves a series of operations which must be run continuously for many months or
years. It demands equipment of exceptional robustness, ingenuity and reliability.
A variety of equipment is required for storage, handling and processing of chemicals.
Each piece of equipment is expected to serve a specific function although in some cases it
can be 1(54-24/1974) suitably modified to perform a different function. Conditions such
as temperature, pressure, etc., under which the equipment is expected to perform are
stipulated by the process requirements. Although the maximum capacity or size of the
equipment may be specified, it is necessary to assure satisfactory performance even under
certain amount of overloads. The overall satisfactory performance and reliability of the
equipment will depend on the fallowing factors :
 (1) Optimum processing conditions
(2) Appropriate materials of construction
(3) Strength and rigidity of components
(4) Satisfactory performance of mechanisms
(5) Reliable methods of fabrication
(6) Ease of maintenance and repairs ..(T'jtasc of operation and
control
. (,8) Safety requirements,

1.2 The General Design Procedure

It is difficult to suggest a standard design ..procedure, Such a procedure however would
involve the following steps :
Specifying the problem
Analyzing the probable solution
Applying chemical process principles and theories of mechanics satisfying the conditions of
the problem
Selecting materials and stresses to suits processing conditions
Evaluating and optimizing the design
Preparing the drawings and specifications

Specifying the problem

Analyzing the probable solution
Applying chemical process principles and theories of mechanics satisfying the conditions
of the problem
Selecting materials and stresses to suits processing conditions
Evaluating and optimizing the design
Preparing the drawings and specifications
The first step is the recognition and understanding of the goal or objective. There is a
need to specify the problem as precisely as possible. The solution of the problem may be
based on a new method, scheme or. idea or an old idea applied in a new wa,y. Sometimes
this requires a great deal of imagination, ingenuity and inventiveness. Sometimes it is
quite a routine application or revision of an existing idea. The solution may involve a
systemj a process and an equipment to accomplish the specified ; task optimally, subject to
certain constraints. The method, scheme or idea must be analysed quantitatively to ensure
that it can be made to work satisfactorily. After the analysis is made appropriate theories
pertaining to process principles and mechanics must be applied. Use is made of the most
basic principles available. Complex techniques or equations are used only when
absolutely necessary. After selecting correct processing conditions, suitable materials and
stresses, the problem requires a numerical answer. The calculations may require simple
arithmetic, algebra or differential or integral calculus. In many cases exact solutions are
not possible and various approximate techniques, such as graphical and numerical
methods are necessary.
Sometimes assumptions are made because no absolutely accurate values or methods of
calculation are available. Methods involving close approximations are used because exact
treatments would require long and laborious calculations giving little gain in accuracy.
Assumptions and approximations are made only when they are necessary and essentially
correct. In some equipment, only a portion of the total number of parts are designed on
the basis of analytical calculations. The form and the size of the remaining parts are then
usually determined by practical conditions.
Every step is checked both in respect of mathematical calculations and engineering
feasibility. It is necessary to ascertain whether the results are consistent with experience
and are practical. In some problems the final result is obtained by optimisation. This is
carried out by taking into account the influence of all the controllable parameters, that
make the final result a maximum or minimum. It may take several iterations before the
satisfactory solution is obtained.
Experience in designing similar machines or equipment will be helpful in choosing
suitable sizes. A designer should realize the practical limitations involved in the
application of his work. In arriving at the final dimensions of any component, based on
optimum theoretical and economic considerations, the designer should ascertain the exact
shape and the standard sizes in which materials are available and adopt these as far as
possible. In the case of a new equipment, fabrication and testing of a prototype for
satisfactory performance would be essential, before the design is finalised. Design
calculations must be accompanied by sketches. Based on these sketches detailed and
assembly drawings can be made, specifying properly all dimensions, materials selected,
tolerances, fits and limits, required surface finish, etc.
Provision must be made during different stages in the deve lopment of the design to
facilitate assembly and installation of machine or equipment. Similarly problems
conncclcd with dismantling and maintenance should be considered.

1.3 Fabrication Techniques

An economical and reliable fabrication technique must be adopted, lo manufacture the

various components of a machine or an equipment. In fact, the selection of materials and
an appropriate choice of the method of fabrication do form an important aspect,
influencing the design considerations. The fabrication techniques may be classified in two
groups.
(а) Techniques adopted to give an approximate shape to the material, Such methods
are casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing, stamping and welding.
(б) Techniques adopted to impart the final precise dimensions and ensure the desired
surface finish. Such jnethods are planing, shaping, turning, milling, drilling, boring,
reaming, broaching, grinding, honing, polishing, electroplating, coating, ctc.

1.4 Equipment Classification

Classification of chemical equipment is generally based on the particular typc_of unit

operation. Each equipment is therefore designed for carrying out a specific unit operation
such as distillation, evaporation, solid-liquid separation, etc. Equipment may also be
classified to emphasise certain common features, which require similar design
procedures. Such classification leads to three groups.
(A) Pressure Vessel group—This group of equipment has a cylindrical or spherical vessel
as the main component, which has to withstand variations in pressures..and temperatures,
in addition to other loading conditions. The design procedure therefore is based on
satisfying a number of criteria, involving different loading conditions. Such equipment
which covers a major part of this book are included in Chapters 6 to 12.
(BJ( Structural group—This group consists of equipment or components which arc
stationary and have to sustain only dead loads. They are generally made up of structural
sections and must satisfy conditions of elastic and structural stability. Such items are
covered in Chapter 13, and a few others in Chapters 15 and 16.
(C) Group involving rotational motion—This group covers equipment or components where
a rotational motion is necessary to satisfy process requirements. A drive system and
power supply are essential features. Considerations of torque, dynamic stresses, apart
from other loading conditions form the basis of design. Such items are covered in
Chapters 14 to 16.
Each equipment may not strictly belong to only one group, but may have features
involving combination of the above groups. In such cases it may be possible to design
components belonging to each group independently and then combine them to form a
complete equipment.

1.5 Power for Rotational Motion

Rotational motion often involves assessment of power require ments. In arriving at the
maximum horse power an analysis should be made of the mechanical operation of the
equipment in terms of torque at the motor shaft, and also the speed requirements.
Torque— The value of the torque varies according to the stipulated conditions of
working.
(a) Starting torque, i.e., torque required to overcome static friction and produce motion.
(ft) Accelerating torque, i.e., torque required to accelerate the driven equipment to full
speed.
(c) Running torque, i.e., torque required to drive the equip ment or machine under
normal conditions at a specified speed.
On the basis of the above torques, it is possible to classify different types of mechanical
loads.
(ia) Friction loads—In this type of loads, static or dynamic friction is the main component
responsible for torque requirements. Equipment subject to such loads are conveyers,
grinders, rotating filters, rotary driers, etc.
(b) Fluid viscosity loads— In this type of loads, viscous friction between layers of fluid
is responsible for torque. Equipment with fluid viscosity loads are agitators, fans, pumps,
etc.
(c) Accelerating loads—Tn certain loads accelerating motion forms a major portion of
the torque apart from frictional torque. Such equipments are cranes, elevators, etc.
Speed— Equipment with rotary motion may be run (a) at constant speed (b) at two or three
specified speeds or (c) at variable speeds.
Horse Power—The horse i power can be calculated by the following equation:
rrp^2^^' n n

(U)
~~75x60
where T—Torque in kg-m N— R.P.M.
Since during the operation of any equipment, both the torque and speed are likely to vary
according to the loading conditions, it is necessary to draw a horse power duty cycle,
showing the variation of horse power requirement with time of operation (Fig. 1.1).
Based on this it is possible to determine the maxi-
Pig. 1.1 Horse Power Duty Cycle
mum power required as well as the rated power of the prime mover, which usually
consists of an electric motor or a turbine.

Reading References
Dixon J R., Design Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, (1966).
Cremer H.W., Chemical Engineering Practice Vol. IX, Butterwojfhs, London, (1965).
Schwartz M.M., Modern Metal Joining Teclmiquss, John Wiiey and Sons, New York, (1969).