CHAPTER 4

Design Considerations

4.1 Introduction

A large number of factors, which influence the design of components can

now be considered in sufficient detail. It is necessary to consider the
effect and influence of each factor individually, and also in combination
with other factors so that the final design will be based on optimum
considerations. In Chapter I, general principles involved in designing of
machine parts and equipment have been discussed and certain guidelines
have been indicated. For a satisfactory design of any component, various
factors which must be considered are
(1) materials of construction and corrosion
(2) stresses created due to static and dynamic loads
(3) elastic instability
(4) combined stresses and theories of failure
(5) fatigue
(6) brittle fact fracture.
(7) creep
(8) temperature effects
(9) radiation effects
(10) effects of fabrication methods
(11) economic considerations.

4.2 Materials of Construction and Corrosion

Different materials of construction and their properties have been

discussed in Chapter 2. Different modes of failure due to corrosion and
methods used in protective coatings have also been indicated in the same
chapter. In choosing a suitable material of construction, it is necessary to
consider the relative merits of the various materials available. Mechanical
and anti-corrosive properties, effective application of protective coatings,
ease of fabrication and economic considerations are some of the impor-
tant factors, which influence the final choice.
Corrosion of materials should be avoided wherever possible. Complete
corrosion resistance is most desirable but it may be too expensive. As a
general guideline, metals, with corrosion rates upto 0.125 mm per year
are acceptable. In some cases rate of 1.25 mm per year maybe acceptable
but only if the alternative corrosion-resistant material is a very expensive
material like platinum. Protective coatings must be considered as an
important alternative to expensive materials. Quite often it may be

2 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

possible to prevent or reduce corrosion by certain modifications in

design. Similarly poor workmanship in fabrication processes such as
welding, machining, assembly and heat treatment, which cause corrosion
failures can be'avoided by adhering to strict fabrication standards and
carrying out frequent inspection during construction. The designer should
observe a few simple rules based on corrosion principles and sound
engineering practice.
(c) Avoid galvanic couples—A galvanic couple is formed between
dissimilar metals (for example, use of sheet aluminium over steel
structures, or brass fittings in steel piping) and causes severe corrosive
attack. In such cases, electrical insulation should be provided at contact
points by using non-metallic washers, gaskets and nipples. The designer
should try to select materials which are close together in the galvanic
series. Exposed area of the less noble metal should be kepi large relative
to more noble metal.
( b ) Avoid opportunities for concentration cells—Many jobs normally
required in all equipment and structures provide ready opportunities for
concentration cells and crevice corrosion. The designer should avoid
crevices by using welded joints in preference to bolted or riveted joints
wherever practical. Unavoidable crevices as shown in Fig. 4.1 may some-
times be caulked or sealed with an organic compound. Whenever possible
horizontal surfaces exposed to the atmosphere should be avoided, since
these tend to hold moisture and dirt.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3

For vessels, dish-shaped heads are preferable to flat heads. Tanks and
vessels must be provided for complete drainage of

Tl I Tl
T
p-H~ 1 1 1 -1---1--
1ii
Fig, 4.1. Crevices
=3
liquid (Fig. 4.2). Pockets in which stagnant liquids can accumulate
should be avoided. Connecting nozzles must not project

Fig. 4.2. Drainage from a tank

into vessels. Crevice corrosion can be particularly troublesome in heat

transfer equipment. As such, all welded heat exchangers are preferable.
(c) Avoid localized stresses—The designer should take every
precaution to avoid uneven stress distribution in equipment exposed to
corrosive conditions where these are likely to arise in welding,
machining or other fabrication processes. Stress relief through heat
treatment should be specified.
(d) Keep surfaces smooth and streamlined—Rough surfaces are
more susceptible to corrosion than smooth surfaces.
 (e)

4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

Similarly projections and sharp corners provide good starting points for
corrosion-erosion failures. The designer should provide for streamlining
of channels, and also for a generous radius at fillets and rounds. Avoid
notches. Joints and welds should be well finished.
( e ) Specify fabrication and inspection standards—The designer
should specify inspection procedures and ensure satisfactory fabrication.

4.3 Stresses Created due to Static and Dynamic Loads

Chapter 3 deals with several cases, in which different types of stresses are
created due to static and dynamic loads. The nature of these loads is
constant, impact or alternating. To ensure adequacy of design it is
necessary to assess the correct stress distribution in various components.
These stresses result in deformations which may interfere with the
functional operation of the component. Sufficient rigidity must be
incorporated into the design of the part to restrict the amount of defor-
mation to a permissible value. The most widely used criterion to restrict
deformation is to maintain the induced stresses within the elastic region
of the material of construction in order to avoid plastic deformation
resulting from exceeding the yield point. However in special cases where
plastic deformation is limited to small regions in the neighbourhood of
structural discontinuities or stress raisers, failure will not occur provided
that the material remains sufficiently ductile to accommodate these
deformations without rupture. In such cases it is, therefore, of utmost
importance to ensure that the ductility of the original material is not lost
due to fabrication process or during service. The stresses created must be
limited to a permissible value that is accepted as safe for a particular
material and its applications. This value of the stress is known as a design
stress or permissible or allowable stress. It is controlled by a number of
factors such as, the accuraey with which the toads can be estimated, the
reliability of the stresses computed, the uniformity of the material, the
hazard if failure occurs, and other considerations like local stress
concentrations, fatigue etc.
In the case of ductile materials, where failure can be expected to occur
as a result of plastic deformation, the design stress is usually obtained
by dividing the yield stress of the material by a factor of safety.
Table 4.1Kind of load Factor of safety
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 5

Ductile meterial Ductile material F.S.Brittle material

F.S. based on based OQ yield strength F.S. based on
ultimate ultimate strength
strength.

1. Dead or steady 3 to 4 1,5 to 2 5 to 6

lead

2. Repeated load 6 3 7 to 8
applied gradually
but QOt reversed

3. Repeated load 8 4 10 to 12
applied gradually
and reversed

4. Load applied with 10 to 15 5 to 7 15 to 20

medium or heavy
shock

„, Yield stress
Design stress = -------------—r -
Factor of safety
Brittle materials are characterised by remaining elastic upto fracture.
Such materials fail by fracture with little or no deformation. The design
stress, therefore, is to be based on the ultimate strength.
.„ Ultimate stress
Design stress =-------- — -----?—j---------
Factor of safety
Some values of the factor of safety for ductile and brittle materials are
given in Table 4.1.
In the case of thermoplastics, as has been pointed out under material
properties, the behaviour of such materials is not elastic and the
elongations are relatively large. The design stress in these cases is based
on creep data, and the deformations are
to be less than 3 per cent. The design stress should be determined by
taking the lesser of the following two criteria :
(1) Average stress required to produce rupture in 10 s hours at design
temperature, divided by a factor of safety (usually between 1.5
to 2).
(2) Average stress required to produce a total creep strain of 2 to 3
per cent in 105 hours at design temperature.

4.4 Elastic Instability

This is caused due to insufficient stiffness or rigidity in a component or

6 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

structure which is subjected to compression, bending, torsion or a

combination of such loading conditions. In the case of bending and
torsion, stiffness is determined by the extent of deflection and the
angle of twist. Design in such cases is based on limiting the stresses, as
well as limiting the deflections and twists.
In cases of columns, vessels under axial load and vessels under
external pressure, and design is based both on the critical buckling
load and the permissible or design stress. Buckling may be (1) in the
form of bending and deflection of the component as in the case of
medium and long columns, (2) local buckling or wrinkling as in the
case of a vessel with axial load and (3) deformation of shape or
collapse as in the case of vessel with external pressure.
The critical buckling load may be obtained by multiplying the actual
or the working load by a factor of safety. Similarly the permissible or
the design stress is obtained from the yield stress, by dividing it by a
factor of safety. For instance in a thin cylinder under axial
compression, failure may take place by one of the following ways:
(a) buckling of the complete cylinder as a long column or strut
/»= ' -ZJ7T (£uIer buckling) (4.1)
(b) local buckling with formation of axial or circumferential
corrugations on the surface, also known as wrinkling.
f k2E
V3(l=f?) ' (4-2)
(c) plastic yielding when the stress in the material reaches the yield
stress
/.=/. (4-3)
To avoid failure and assure safe design, a factor of safety must be used for
the value of/c in all cases. In the equations above f0 —compressive
stress K!—end condition factor D —diameter of thin cylinder I —
length of cylinder fv —yield stress (J. —Poisson's ratio f —thickness
of cylinder
K2—factor to account for initial imperfections of (he cylinder.

4.5 Combined Stresses and Theories of Failure

Section 3.16 deals with combined action of several stresses acting
simultaneously, from which it is possible to determine resultant stresses or
principal stresses. For components which are subjected to combined
stresses, a procedure will have to be established which will relate the
resultant stress or principal stress to the yield stress obtained from a test of
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 7

the material. This procedure stipulates yielding of the material and conse-
quent failure, if the maximum value of the .stress or strain created by the
combination of stresses, exceeds the conditions at the yield point. Various
theories for the failure of the material have been suggested and are made
applicable according to the nature, of the stresses and the type of material
(ductile or brittle). Some of these theories are described below.

4.5.1 THE MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS THEORY OR RANKINE THEORY

According to this theory, failure of the component will take place if any of
the resultant normal stresses reaches the value of the stress at the yield
point, in simple tension. For ductile materials, the tension and
compression properties are the same and the direction of the stresses (i.e.
tensile or compressive)
will, therefore, not affect the above condition. The condition of failure is

8 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

fRv=fv (4.4)
where /rn —Maximum resultant norma! stress (as per equation 3.40) fv—
yield stress in tension test

4.5.2 THE MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY (GUEST THEORY)

According to this theory failure will take place, if the maximum resultant
shear stress in a component, subjected to combined stresses, reaches the
value of the shear stress in simple tension at the yield point. The
condition of failure is
(4.5)
/fls^resultant shear stress (as per equation 3.41)

4.5.3 THE MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY (SAINT-VENANT'S THEORY)

According to this theory failure will occur if the maximum strain created
due to combined stresses, reaches the strain created in simple tension at
yield point. The condition of failure for a three dimensional stress pattern
is

Jrni, /rni, fuNz, —Resultant normal stresses in three directions.

where ^—Poisson's ratio
E—Modulus of elasticity.

4.5.4 STRAIN ENERGY THEORY

This theory stipulates that failure will occur when the strain energy
stored, under the action of the combined stresses, reaches the strain
energy at yield point in simple tension or compression i.e.,

£ E ---------------+ /2fl.v3) ( / R N J fxNi

(4.7)

fp.N-z

fjW3 + /I?.V3/I?A'L) = RR-

 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 9

4.5.5 DISTORSION ENERGY THEORY OR SHEAR ENERGY THEORY (HENCKY-VON

MISES THEORY)

According to this theory failure of the material, subjected to combined

stresses, will take place when the elastic strain energy required for
distorsion of the material reaches the energy required to produce yielding
under simple tension or compression, This gives for a three dimensional
stress pattern.
1A
/*JV3)A+//WI—/**S)S} Z =/« (4.8)

For a two dimensional stress pattern /rjvz will be zero. The equation for
two dimensional stress pattern can also be written in terms of the actual
stresses.

{ { f x f + ( f y ? - L f v + W))1^ A (4.9)
In making an appropriate choice from among the above theories it is
necessary to consider the relative magnitude of the resultant normal and
shear stresses in the components as also the properties of the material.
When the resultant normal stresses are either all positive (tensile) or all
negative (compressive) the application of maximum normal stress theory
is satisfactory. In cases where some stresses are positive and some
negative the maximum shear stress theory or shear energy theory should
be used.
In all the above theories, the deformation and stress have to be
restricted to elastic region, and hence the value of yield stress ft,, will have
to be divided by a factor of safety.

4.6 Fatigue

In arriving at a safe value of the design stress one of the factors, which
need consideration is the nature of any cyclic load, which induces
alternating stresses or fluctuating stresses. Failure due to fatigue is due to
a slow but progressive enlargement of an initial crack subjected to cyclic
load. It is therefore necessary to ascertain the greatest stress or range of
stress which can be applied to a material an unlimited number of times
without causing failure. This is known as fatigue limit or endurance limit.
The ratio of the endurance limit for reversed stresses to ultimate static
stress is known as endurance ratio. The usual values of the endurance ratio
are:
 steels with hardness less than 400 BHN (at 10° cycle). (0.5) Cast iron

10 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

and cast steel (at 10° cyclcs) (0.4)

Aluminium and magnesium (at 5x10® cycles) (0.3)
Various components or machine elements have usually grooves, holes,
fillets and notches. Such changes in shape interrupt the lines of stress and
create concentrations of stress which cause reductions in the fatigue
strengths of these components. These effects have to be taken into account
by using appropriate stress concentration factors. Fatigue failures can
therefore be avoided by providing smooth and gradual changes in shape,
and eliminating sharp corners in a groove.
Some factors which influence fatigue are (a) material and material
factors (b) type of loading (c) size of the member (d) surface finish (e)
stress raisers (f) surface stressing (g) corrosion (h) temperature.

4.7 Brittle Fracture

Ductile materials are likely to fail due to brittle fracture under the
following conditions:
(a) Presence of a defect of sufficient size or notch.
(b) High localised stresses in the vicinity of the notch.
(c) Operation at sufficiently low temperature.
(d) Wrong selection or treatment of material.
Due to a notch in a ductile material the material surrounding the notch
becomes brittle. The phenomenon is known as 'notch brittleness 1.
Similarly due to low temperatures the material becomes brittle. In all such
cases, ihese materials should be treated as brittle materials and the design
stress should be based on a higher factor of safety.
Brittle failure can occur at levels of nominal stress below yield point,
or even at ordinary permissible levels of stress. It can occur suddenly
without prior indication of any deformation.
5(54-24/1974) 4.8 Creep
Certain materials like thermoplastics and lead at room temperature and
metals at high temperature, exhibit a slow but continuous plastic
deformation which eventually results in failure. This process is termed as
creep. It is a function of stress, temperature and time. With metals, creep
is generally associated with high temperatures. It is essential to know,
whether the rate of creep is compatible with the working life of the
component. A maximum plastic deformation at the end of a certain
period is selected to satisfy the working conditions and the
corresponding stress may be considered as safe. Assuming a safety
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 11

factor, the design stress may be found. In carbon steels upto 350°C,
creep is not significant. Above 400°C temperature ihe design stress is
reduced. In the creep : range even a small increase in temperature often
results in a ! large reduction in creep strengih and consequently in the I
design stress.

i 4.9 Temperature Effects

The effect of temperature on continuous deformation in the form of
creep, has already been referred to. In general with in- I crease in
temperature, there is a reduction in ultimate strength, modulus of
elasticity, and hardness. Materials expand with increase in temperature.
These changes must be taken into account in designing components at
higher temperatures. Stresses are also created, if the expansion due to
temperature | is prevented, or in case the temperatures at different points
in a component are not the same.

4.10 Radiation Effects

Nuclear reactor vessels, are subject to material irradiation, due to neutron
bombardment from the core. Neutrons are classified as fast neutrons and
thermal neutrons. Fast neutrons causfc damage by dislocation or
displacement of the atomic structure of the metal, whereas the effect of
thermal neutrons is one of transmutation of trace impurities that can
substantially change the properties of the material. Typical changes in
such cases are a marked increase in yield point, a smaller increase in
tensile strength, and decrease in ductility. These factors are taken into
account by a suitable factor of safety.

4.11 Effects of Fabrication Methods

Fabrication processes such as casting, hot and cold rolling, sheet forming
and welding give rise to stresses or changes in properties of materials. For
instance in cold forming operations, due to stretching of the material
beyond its yield point the material hardens and suffers a loss of ductility
and toughness. This phenomenon is called strain or work hardening. The
work of stretching is not entirely transformed into heat, but part of it is
retained in the form of strain energy. In joints made by welding certain
amount of stress concentration takes place, due to uneven temperature
rise, structure of weld metal, and welding defects such as porosity, slag
inclusions and shrinkage cracks. Work hardening and residual stresses
may be relieved by heat treatments like annealing and normalising.
4.12 Economic Considerations

12 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN

In many components, the designer has a good deal of

choice in the materials to be selected and the methods of
fabrication. A preliminary estimate regarding the cost of
the material chosen and cost of fabrication may be made.
An estimate, of cost of fabrication should be generally
based on the material cost multiplied by a factor ranging
from 1.5 to 10. The cost data thus obtained, although rather
crude, should be helpful in making the initial selection of
the materials
.The designer should set up a systematic file both for material costs
and typical part costs. The cost .of fabrication may be composed of costs
from several operations, such as material preparation, machining or
processing operations, jointing operations, heat treatment, finishing
operations, etc. Each step must be analysed for cost contribution. Volume
of production is an important factor in cost determination, since it will
usually dictate what method of production will have to be used. Custom
built equipment will be more expensive than mass produced equipment. A
more accurate and reliable cost appraisal may be possible with systematic
filing of costs. Accordingly material cost factors or multipliers can be
evolved on the basis of lower or higher volumes of production. Other cost
factors, which contribute to the total cost are inspection, packaging and
transport.

Reading References
Redford, G.D., Mechanical Engineering Design, Macmillan Co., London, (1966).
Faupel, J.H., Engineering Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
(1964). Ramamohana Rao A., Principles of Engineering Design Strength
Considerations (Vol. I), Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.
Hcnthorne M., Good Engineering Design Minimizes Corrosion, Chem. Eng.
78 (26), 163 (1971)
.CHAPTER 5

Design of Machine Elements

5-1 Introduction
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 13

A variety of machine elements usually form part of the equipment used in

the chemical industry. Such elements are shafts, keys, couplings, bearings,
rivets, bolts, etc. A detailed account of the type, capacity and design of
these elements is available in standard books on the subject. It is proposed
to give here an outline of the design procedure adopted for each element.
In the overall design of chemical equipment, discussed in subsequent
chapters, the design procedure for machine elements suggested here may
be referred to wherever such machine elements are provided.

5.2 Shafts

These are used for transmitting mechanical power with the help of rotary
motion. They form either a direct component of an equipment or are
merely used for transmitting rotary motion from a prime mover to an
equipment. The first type of shaft is known as a machine shaft, while the
second type is known as a counter shaft or a line shaft. The majority of
rotating shafts carry a fairly steady torque and bending moment, the loads
remaining fixed in space in both direction and magnitude.

5.2.1 STRENGTH UNDER STEADY LOADS

The average torque transmitted by the shaft is assessed from the horse
power