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Botany BRAINS PDF
Botany BRAINS PDF
Theme: The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Theme: The Continuity of Life Is Based on
Unit of Structure and Function Heritable Information in the Form of DNA
• The cell is the lowest level of organization that • Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic
can perform all activities required for life material in the form of DNA
• All cells • DNA is the substance of genes
– Are enclosed by a membrane • Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit
– Use DNA as their genetic information information from parents to offspring
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• Each DNA molecule is made up of two long • Evolution explains patterns of unity and
chains arranged in a double helix diversity in living organisms
• Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of • Similar traits among organisms are explained
chemical building blocks called nucleotides and by descent from common ancestors
nicknamed A, G, C, and T • Differences among organisms are explained
by the accumulation of heritable changes
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• Eukaryotic cell division consists of • Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can
– Mitosis, the division of the genetic material in be divided into subphases
the nucleus – G1 phase (“first gap”)
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm – S phase (“synthesis”)
• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell – G2 phase (“second gap”)
division called meiosis • The cell grows during all three phases, but
• Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells chromosomes are duplicated only during the
that have only one set of chromosomes, half S phase
as many as the parent cell
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The Three Basic Plant Organs: Roots, Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues
Stems, and Leaves
• Each plant organ has dermal, vascular, and
• Plants take up water and minerals from below ground tissues
ground • Each of these three categories forms a tissue
• Plants take up CO2 and light from above ground system
• Each tissue system is continuous throughout the
plant
• Three basic organs evolved: roots, stems, and • In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system
leaves consists of the epidermis
• They are organized into a root system and a • A waxy coating called the cuticle helps prevent
shoot system water loss from the epidermis
• In woody plants, protective tissues called
periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of
stems and roots
• Trichomes are outgrowths of the shoot epidermis
and can help with insect defense
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• The vascular tissue system carries out long- • Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are
distance transport of materials between roots and the ground tissue system
shoots • Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is
• The two vascular tissues are xylem and phloem pith; ground tissue external to the vascular tissue
• Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals is cortex
upward from roots into the shoots • Ground tissue includes cells specialized for
• Phloem transports organic nutrients from where storage, photosynthesis, and support
they are made to where they are needed
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• Meristems are perpetually embryonic tissue and • Lateral meristems add thickness to woody plants,
allow for indeterminate growth a process called secondary growth
• Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots • There are two lateral meristems: the vascular
and shoots and at the axillary buds of shoots cambium and the cork cambium
• Apical meristems elongate shoots and roots, a • The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular
process called primary growth tissue called secondary xylem (wood) and
secondary phloem
• The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with
periderm, which is thicker and tougher
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• Roots rely on sugar produced by • In most plants, absorption of water and minerals
photosynthesis in the shoot system, and shoots occurs near the root hairs, where vast numbers of
rely on water and minerals absorbed by the root tiny root hairs increase the surface area
system
• Monocots and eudicots are the two major
groups of angiosperms
• Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a taproot • Many plants have root adaptations with
system, which consists of: specialized functions
• A taproot, the main vertical root
• Lateral roots, or branch roots, that arise from the
taproot
• Most monocots have a fibrous root system, which
consists of:
• Adventitious roots that arise from stems or
leaves
• Lateral roots that arise from the adventitious roots
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• The primary growth of roots produces the • Lateral roots arise from within the pericycle, the
epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
• In angiosperm roots, the stele is a vascular
cylinder
• In most eudicots, the xylem is starlike in
appearance with phloem between the “arms”
• In many monocots, a core of parenchyma cells is
surrounded by rings of xylem then phloem
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Stems
• A stem is an organ consisting of • Many plants have modified stems (e.g., rhizomes,
– An alternating system of nodes, the points at bulbs, stolons, tubers)
which leaves are attached
– Internodes, the stem segments between nodes
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• In cross section, the vascular cambium appears as • Tree rings are visible where late and early wood
a ring of initials (stem cells) meet, and can be used to estimate a tree’s age
• The initials increase the vascular cambium’s • Dendrochronology is the analysis of tree ring
circumference and add secondary xylem to the growth patterns and can be used to study past
inside and secondary phloem to the outside climate change
• Secondary xylem accumulates as wood and • As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of
consists of tracheids, vessel elements (only in secondary xylem, the heartwood, no longer
angiosperms), and fibers transport water and minerals
• Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin cell • The outer layers, known as sapwood, still
walls to maximize water delivery transport materials through the xylem
• Late wood, formed in late summer, has thick- • Older secondary phloem sloughs off and does
walled cells and contributes more to stem support not accumulate
• In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of
perennials is inactive through the winter
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• Lenticels in the periderm allow for gas exchange • Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement
between living stem or root cells and the outside of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves
air – Most monocots have parallel veins
• Bark consists of all the tissues external to the – Most eudicots have branching veins
vascular cambium, including secondary • In classifying angiosperms, taxonomists may use
phloem and periderm leaf morphology as a criterion
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• Some plant species have evolved modified • The mesophyll of eudicots has two layers:
leaves that serve various functions The palisade mesophyll in the upper part of the
leaf
The spongy mesophyll in the lower part of the
leaf; the loose arrangement allows for gas
exchange
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Transport of Water and Minerals into the Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure
Xylem
• At night root cells continue pumping mineral
• The endodermis is the innermost layer of cells in ions into the xylem of the vascular cylinder,
lowering the water potential
the root cortex
• Water flows in from the root cortex, generating
• It surrounds the vascular cylinder and is the last root pressure
checkpoint for selective passage of minerals
• Root pressure sometimes results in guttation, the
from the cortex into the vascular tissue exudation of water droplets on tips or edges of
leaves
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Pulling Xylem Sap: The Cohesion-Tension Sugars are transported from sources to sinks
Hypothesis via the phloem
• According to the cohesion-tension hypothesis, • The products of photosynthesis are transported
transpiration and water cohesion pull water from through phloem by the process of translocation
shoots to roots
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Overview: The Process That Feeds the Photosynthesis converts light energy to the
Biosphere chemical energy of food
• Photosynthesis is the process that converts • Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and
solar energy into chemical energy likely evolved from photosynthetic bacteria
• Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes • The structural organization of these cells
almost the entire living world allows for the chemical reactions of
photosynthesis
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• There are two types of photosystems in the • Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a
thylakoid membrane wavelength of 700 nm
• Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the • The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is
numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at called P700
absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm
• The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is
called P680
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Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the
Cellular Respiration Electron Transport Chain
• In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic
• During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as molecules are broken down in a series of
glucose) is oxidized, and O2 is reduced steps
• Electrons from organic compounds are usually
first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
• As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an
oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
• Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+)
represents stored energy that is tapped to
synthesize ATP
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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• The process that generates most of the ATP is • Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for
called oxidative phosphorylation because it is almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular
powered by redox reactions respiration
• A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis
and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level
phosphorylation
• For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2
and water by respiration, the cell makes up to
32 molecules of ATP
Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate cycle completes the energy-yielding
oxidation of organic molecules
• Glycolysis (“splitting of sugar”) breaks down
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate • In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two mitochondrion (in eukaryotic cells) where the
major phases oxidation of glucose is completed
– Energy investment phase
– Energy payoff phase
• Glycolysis occurs whether or not O2 is present
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Flower
• The citric acid cycle has eight steps, each
catalyzed by a specific enzyme reproductive organ of flowering plants
• The acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle (angiosperms)
by combining with oxaloacetate, forming citrate
• The next seven steps decompose the citrate = a modified, determinate shoot bearing
back to oxaloacetate, making the process a
sporophylls (stamens and/or carpels),
cycle
• The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle
with or without outer modified leaves (the
relay electrons extracted from food to the perianth)
electron transport chain
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Inflorescence development:
Inflorescence:
Determinate - terminal flower develops
A collection or aggregation of flowers
first
Boundaries defined by vegetative leaves
below
Indeterminate - basal flower develops first
Cyme:
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• Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases • Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases
– Prophase I – Prophase II
– Metaphase I – Metaphase II
– Anaphase I – Anaphase II
– Telophase I and cytokinesis – Telophase II and cytokinesis
• Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis
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Crossing Over
• The number of combinations possible when • Crossing over produces recombinant
chromosomes assort independently into chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited
gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number from each parent
• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 • Crossing over begins very early in prophase I,
million (223) possible combinations of as homologous chromosomes pair up gene by
chromosomes gene
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Random Fertilization
• In crossing over, homologous portions of two • Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
nonsister chromatids trade places because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
• Crossing over contributes to genetic variation (unfertilized egg)
by combining DNA from two parents into a • The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4
single chromosome million possible chromosome combinations
from independent assortment) produces a
zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid
combinations
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Pericarp
Fruit = fruit wall (mature ovary wall)
= mature ovary/ovaries plus accessory
parts (if any) Pericarp layers
Endocarp = inner
Accessory parts Mesocarp = middle
= structures other than ovary attached to Exocarp = outer
fruit at maturity
(Pericarp layers may not be present or may be only
two)
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Fruit Classification
Fruit Classification based on:
based on: 2) Dry versus fleshy
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• In the 1920s, A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane • Instead of forming in the atmosphere, the first
hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a organic compounds may have been synthesized
reducing environment near volcanoes or deep-sea vents
• In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey • Amino acids have also been found in meteorites
conducted lab experiments that showed that the
abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a
reducing atmosphere is possible
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Protocells
• Natural selection has produced self-replicating • Replication and metabolism are key properties
RNA molecules of life and may have appeared together
• RNA molecules that were more stable or • Protocells may have been fluid-filled vesicles with
replicated more quickly would have left the most a membrane-like structure
descendent RNA molecules • In water, lipids and other organic molecules can
• The early genetic material might have formed an spontaneously form vesicles with a lipid bilayer
“RNA world”
• RNA could have provided the template for DNA,
a more stable genetic material
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• Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited • Inference #2: This unequal ability of
traits give them a higher probability of individuals to survive and reproduce will
surviving and reproducing in a given lead to the accumulation of favorable
environment tend to leave more traits in the population over
offspring than other individuals generations
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