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CCTV Digital Basics Training Workbook: Security Systems
CCTV Digital Basics Training Workbook: Security Systems
CCTV Digital Basics Training Workbook: Security Systems
April 2005
CCTV Digital
Basics
Training Workbook
Security Systems
Instructor Guide
Table of Contents
About this course ..........................................................................5
Course Prerequisites....................................................................5
Course Map ....................................................................................6
Course Objectives .........................................................................7
How to use this book.....................................................................9
Welcome!......................................................................................10
Unit 1: Defining Digital ................................................................11
Digital vs. Analog .......................................................................12
What is Digital? ..........................................................................14
Video Imagery ............................................................................15
Digitizing .................................................................................15
Sample rate ............................................................................16
Pixel size ................................................................................16
Pixel bit depth .........................................................................16
Bits and Bytes.........................................................................18
Image File Size ..........................................................................19
Î Review .........................................................................20
Unit 2: Video Compression .........................................................21
Defining Compression................................................................22
Benefits of video compression................................................22
Managing Video File Sizes.........................................................24
Non-compression techniques .................................................24
Video compression techniques...............................................25
Video compression standards ................................................27
Î Review .........................................................................29
Unit 3: Networks ..........................................................................31
Defining Networks ......................................................................32
The CCTV market...................................................................32
Network basics...........................................................................33
Network building blocks..........................................................33
Basic network types................................................................34
Half-duplex vs. Full-duplex communications ..........................34
Bandwidth...............................................................................35
Converting Bytes to bits..........................................................36
Bandwidth for digital video......................................................36
Network Communications ..........................................................37
Protocol interactions ...............................................................37
Communications handshake ..................................................37
Network protocols ......................................................................38
Ethernet ..................................................................................38
TCP/IP....................................................................................38
UDP........................................................................................39
ISDN.......................................................................................39
DSL ........................................................................................39
Network devices.........................................................................40
Hubs and Switches.................................................................40
Routers ...................................................................................41
Gateways ...............................................................................41
Modems..................................................................................42
Î Review .........................................................................43
Unit 4 – Network Addresses .......................................................47
What are Mac and IP addresses? ..............................................48
IP address standards..............................................................49
Subnets ..................................................................................50
Domain Naming System (DNS)..................................................51
Multicasting ................................................................................51
Firewalls .....................................................................................52
Î Review .........................................................................53
Unit 5 – Network Transmission Medium....................................55
Network Connections .................................................................56
Cabling Specifications................................................................56
Network cabling terminology...................................................56
Categories of twisted pair cabling...........................................58
Fiber Optic ..............................................................................58
Network Interface Card ..............................................................59
Repeaters ..................................................................................59
Î Review .........................................................................60
Unit 6 – Network Pitfalls..............................................................63
Digital CCTV Networks ..............................................................64
Possibilities and Problems......................................................64
Factors for CCTV – Network Integration ....................................65
Bandwidth and storage requirements .....................................65
Connectivity ............................................................................66
Connectivity Tests ..................................................................66
Firewalls .....................................................................................68
Communicating with IT...............................................................68
Appendix ......................................................................................69
Course Prerequisites
This is a foundation course and assumes you are familiar with basic analog video technology. The Bosch Security
Systems provides a CCTV Analog Basics Training course that is recommended as a prerequisite to this CCTV
Digital Basics course.
The material and instructions in this document have been carefully checked for accuracy and are presumed to be
reliable. However, Bosch Security Systems assumes no responsibility for inaccuracies and reserves the right to
modify and revise this document.
Course Map
In this course, you will complete six (6) units. The recommendation is to progress
through each unit in sequential order. There is flexibility in the training order for units 3,
4 and 5, but unit 6 requires all previous units be completed before starting this final
section. It is preferred that you complete each unit before moving on to the remaining
ones. However, your instructor may elect to deliver sections in a different sequence to
accommodate the needs of the students or facilities.
Course Objectives
The following are the course objectives for each unit of training.
As a learning guide
Each module covers several related topics. Topics are arranged to build upon Check your skills:
previous prerequisite experiences or previous topics. For this reason, you should work
through the topics in sequence. We organized each topic into explanatory concepts. Fill in the blank
questions or complete
the activity to reinforce
As a review tool your understanding.
Any method of instruction is only as effective as the time and effort you are willing to
invest in it. For this reason, we encourage you to spend time reviewing the reference
material.
Additional Reference:
Margin locators These notes will direct
Throughout this book you will find in the page margins numbers that correspond to the you to a specific
projected PowerPoint used by your instructor (such as U3-10). These numbers refer documentation
to PowerPoint slide number that show in the lower right corner of each slide. Use resource for more
these markers as your guide to help synchronize the proper workbook page to the information on a topic.
projected visual aid.
Demo or Discussion:
Your instructor will lead
a demonstration or a
classroom discussion
that relates to the topic.
Sometimes, you will be
asked to complete an
exercise that relates to
the topic.
Welcome!
Your instructor:
_____________________________________________
Class hours:
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Describe the components of digital imagery.
• Describe two factors that can impact pixel resolution
• Define a “bit” and how it is used in digital video
• Define a “byte” and how it is used in digital video
• Identify the differences between digital and analog signals.
• Describe at least three advantages of digital vs. analog related to CCTV.
Topics covered
• Digital signals
• Main components of a CCTV system
9 Flexibility in the storage, file transfer, 8 Video storage limited by hard drive
copying and archiving space
Digital communications use such discrete terms as: Pulse Code Modulation, data
communications, and video digital signals of Wavelet, AVI, JPEG, and MPEG.
Analog communications use continuous terms such as: AM and FM modulation,
high fidelity, and video analog wave signals of Y/C and composite.
Video Imagery
A digital camera uses the lens to focus the light from a scene onto a Charge Coupled
Device (CCD) within the
camera. The CCD is an imaging
sensor that captures the scene
light values, and converts this
information into an analog signal
of continuous electrical voltage
levels. This voltage level varies
in proportion to the different
levels of light.
There are different sizes
available for CCD imagers.
Common CCTV imager sizes,
called camera formats are:
(inches): 1/3, ¼, ½, 2/3 and 1. The
format of the CCD alone does
not determine the image quality.
Other factors need to be taken into account.
Digitizing
CCD Resolution is
Within the CCD, the area of the video image is broken down into small quadrants in often measured in
grid-like fashion. Each small grid area is called a Pixel. A Pixel is one picture element, megapixels.
and is a sensor that is the smallest component that captures the video image. The Each megapixel = 1
number of pixels (sensors) that are on the CCD surface rates the CCD. A CCD with a million pixels.
greater number of pixels can capture more detailed visual information.
The analog signal that comes from the CCD imager is received by a microprocessor Explain Pixels using
within the camera, called a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). This microprocessor “the cup” analogy:
converts the analog signal into a digital signal. This Analog-to-Digital (A/D) signal The smaller the cup
conversion is called Digitizing. (pixels), the more
The quality of the digital image is dependent upon the quality of both the CCD and the cups you can get into
DSP analog-to-digital conversion. Image quality is impacted by three factors: an area. This gives
you greater image
y Sample Rate resolution.
y Pixel Size The drawback of
smaller cups (pixels),
y Pixel Bit Depth the less water they
can hold. This relates
to less sensitivity to
light. There is a Pixel
tradeoff to size:
Smaller pixels –
Higher resolution, but
less light sensitivity
Sample rate
U1-11 How frequently the
analog signal
values are looked at
(sampled) to obtain
a signal
measurement is the
Most CCTV Cameras Sample Rate.
have the following pixel
The DSP
resolution:
determines the
sampling rate. This
Normal active pixels: determines the level
of signal resolution.
510 H x 582 V
The higher the
(NTSC)
sample rates, the
500 H x 582 V more frequent are
(PAL) the signal capture
readings, which,
increases the ability
High Resolution to capture finer
active pixels: analog signal changes.
768 H x 492 V For video signals, sample rates are usually determined at various Hertz frequency
(NTSC) levels. (Professional digital audio sample rate is 48 KHz. Digital video sample rates
are in the range of 5-60 MHz.)
752 H x 582 V
(PAL) Pixel size
Pixel Size that is on the CCD defines spatial or image resolution. The size of the
pixels are usually counted in pixels/inch or mm. The smaller the pixels, the greater
Analog TV resolution is
level of detail captured.
based upon horizontal
lines of resolution Pixel bit depth
(TVL)
This defines brightness or chroma resolution. It determines how finely the pixels can
break down the levels of light it receives, and these fall within a fixed range of values.
Each level of scale or depth is called a Bit. This is can be referred to as Pixel Bit
Depth or Bit Depth. The higher the Bit Depth value, the higher the image resolution is
for brightness or chroma.
U1-12
Since digital imagery works on the Binary value system (1 or 0 – on or off), each Bit
must record the light as either a 1 or 0 value. For a simple pixel depth of one Bit, the
assigned light value can only be a value of either a one or a zero. This digitally
translates into image values of white or black. This 1 Bit Pixel Depth creates what is
often called a half-tone image. Even using only black and white dots, an image can be
created that appears to have different shades of grey by varying the placement of
these black or white dots.
For a bit depth of five, the brightness resolution capability becomes 32 different levels
of brightness that can be created. A bit depth of 8 can yield 256 different levels of
brightness.
U1-13
To create digital CCTV color, the Primary Colors of Red, Green, and Blue are U1-14
required. Each color requires its own Pixel and Pixel Bit Depth. If each color uses five
bits, then you end up with a 15 Bit color system. This digital brightness resolution
combines to produce 32,768 different possible colors.
For a 15 Bit color system, a pixel represents one of the primary colors (RGB). That
pixel can produce one of 32 discrete variations of that color. When one pixel each of
red, green, and blue are next to each other, they create what is perceived as the final
color seen in that one image area (one of 32,768 colors possible).
For each video frame captured, a video file is created. That file size is dependent
upon the following:
y Total number of pixels on CCD based upon its dimension
(ie. 768 x 492 = 377856 pixels)
y Pixel Bit Depth as determined by the Digital Signal Processor (i.e. 8 bit)
Since CCTV video is motion imaging, full multiple images or image files are produced.
The rate of images captured, displayed, or recorded is referred to as Images Per U1-18
Second (IPS).
Thus for every second of video captured, digital data is being created at a very high
rate. The need to reduce this file size becomes obvious when considering signal
transmission and video file storage requirements.
Reducing digital video signal data file size is called Compression. This is the next
topic in this training workbook.
Î Review
Complete the review questions below. When you are done, review your answers with
your facilitator.
Place either an A (for Analog) or a D (for Digital), before each item below, depending
what you think it best represents.
_A__ 1) Time consuming video searches _A__ 11) PAL, NTSC
_D__ 2) Ability to manipulate & compress signal data _D__ 12) DSP
Fill in the blank
questions or complete _D__ 3) Recording can incorporate encryption _D__ 13) Bit
the activity to reinforce _D__ 4) More users may slow IPS _A__ 14) VCR
your understanding.
_A__ 5) Requires dedicated transmission path _D__ 15) DVR
Check the students _D__ 6) May not be real time video _D__ 16) Hard drive
understanding by
_A__ 7) Provides real time video and quality _D__ 17) Mbps
reviewing their
responses. _D__ 8) Recorded video not degraded with playback _D__ 18) JPEG, MPEG
Try to clarify any
_D__ 9) Flexible and fast search of recorded video _D__ 19) Digitize
areas of confusion
before continuing. _A__ 10) Continuous values _D__ 20) Discrete values
Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define video compression.
• Identify the 2 main benefits of video compression.
• Identify and describe different video compression techniques.
• Describe the different video file formats and their intended uses.
• Determine the relationships between image capture, compression type, file size and
record time.
• Determine the image capture and compression options for a given need, using a
reference table.
Topics covered
• Benefits of compression
• Compression types
• Determining video storage needs
U2-5 y Greater storage capabilities – provides more image data in less storage
space. This reduces file storage cost.
y Faster file transfer rates – allows for increased flexibility and speed in
Note: Bandwidth will be sharing and transmitting video data. This reduces transmission bandwidth
covered in more detail requirements.
within
Unit 3 - Networks. In CCTV, the key challenge of video file compression is in achieving the proper
balance between file size compression and image quality.
File compression is expressed as a ratio:
Original file size – to – New file size
(such as 30:1)
Current common CCTV compression ratios are in the range of 15:1 up to 100:1. The
higher the compression ratio is, the greater the file compression. This usually results
in lower image quality.
U2-6
Table 2.1 shows different video file sizes resulting from different levels of file compression and image capture
rates. This information is also shows how much recording time is possible based upon these variables and the
memory storage size.
y Reduce the image per second (ips) captured and/or recorded. With 20 ips
you create 1/3 the digital file size that 60 ips generates. No file compression
algorithms are used.
U2-8
U2-9
Intra-frame
compression has the
advantage of providing
One method is to use “blocks” of pixel data (i.e. 8x8 pixel groups), which are easily retrievable, high
statistically analysed for pixel value similarities or redundancies. These pixel data quality video frames.
similarities are then converted to a new digital value for this block area. For scenes
with broad expanses of similar color/detail (i.e. blue sky), great compression results
are achieved with very little image degrading.
Even in image areas with lots of detail, there are still pixel levels with color or
background redundancies that can be compressed with little loss of image detail. As
compression ratios are increased, this repeated “blocking together” of pixel data for
analysis and compression will eventually negatively impact image quality. This will first
be notice where contrast edge lines exist, and in areas of fine detail
Inter-Frame Compression accounts to the sequence of video frames. For this multi-
frame compression to work, the data from previous frames is needed. The algorithm
captures periodic “reference frames” (i.e. every 1/2 second) and looks for only the
differences within successive frames, which are then captured and stored. This
compression technique takes advantage of the fact that any given video frame is
U2-10 probably very similar to the frames around it. (Also known as temporal or conditional
Inter-frame refresh compression.)
compression can
obtain 100:1
compression in minimal
motion scenes, such as
in a static warehouse.
U2-11
The above illustration represents a combination, or two stages of video compression
techniques. Frame 1 is compressed using an Intra-frame algorithm (JPEG). The
succeeding frames use this same compressed data, and check each succeeding
frame to look for image differences. This is the function of the Inter-frame algorithm.
Since only the scene differences between frames are accounted to, the compression
algorithm can produce high compression ratios.
A certain number of frames down the sequence (say 4 frames), a reference frame is
performed to cross check for differences with the previous frames. With this check, it
will estimate the motion and scene to anticipate the compressing of the coming
frames using this “predicted” data. When differences within the scene are detected,
the Intra-frame algorithm will only need to compress the scene differences. Periodic
Intra-frame compression is used (~ every 10-20 frames).
Inter-frame compression has the capacity to dramatically reduce bandwidth and
storage requirements of CCTV video. With stationary camera placements, and scenes
that often have little activity, the video sequences captured will exhibit high degrees of
frame-to-frame correlation. Even video situations that change regularly due to traffic
activity and/or camera pans, this compression technique can still deliver substantial
file reductions. This is due to most algorithms ability to track and detect repeating
patterns of activity – called motion estimation. Thus, Inter-frame compression with its
frame-to-frame conditional refresh characteristics lends itself well to both the CCTV
security monitored environments, and the need to store and archive recorded video
information.
Inter-Frame compression requires more computer memory and processing power
than does Intra-Frame compression. This is because it captures and holds in memory
multiple video frames for cross frame comparisons.
MPEG – This term has evolved to represent a family of digital video lossy
compression, which uses both the intra-frame and inter-frame algorithms standards
and file formats. This family of standards includes MPEG-1, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4.
MPEGs were created by the Moving Pictures Expert Group and are ISO industry
standards.
MPEG-1 – This was originally created for the storage of video onto CD-ROM media.
This standard is slightly below the quality of VHS. MPEG-1 not only defines a
compression standard, but also a resolution and transmission standard. Video
standards are a resolution of 352x240 pixels at 30 frames per second (fps), with a
preferred data transmission rate of 1.5 Mbits/s. These were selected because they are
the standards for uncompressed audio and popular MP3 audio files. MPEG-1 is
compressed in non-real time and decompressed in real time. Compression rates of
30:1 are typical, with compression up to 100:1 for low motion video.
MPEG-2 – This version was created specifically for digital TV. The compression of
video uses both the intra-frame and inter-frame algorithms. MPEG-2 provides a
number of quality options (called profiles and levels), which allows for professional
video transmission rates up to 15 Mbits/s. Video resolution standards of 720x480 and
1280x720 at 60 fps, along with full CD quality audio are specified. MPEG-2 also
provides support for video interlacing, thus meeting standards for broadcast TV,
NTSC, HDTV, and DVD-ROMs. Encoding (compressing) video into MPEG-2 data
requires significant computer processing power. Decoding (decompressing) the
MPEG-2 data stream needs only modest computer processing.
U2-15 MPEG-4 – This algorithm of lossy, inter-frame compression standard is Wavelet
based. It uses object coding, which identifies motion and isolates this from stationary
backgrounds. It is primarily designed for use with: web streaming media, CD
distribution, video conversation (videophone), and broadcast TV. The compressed
files are designed to transmit video mixed with graphics, text, 2-D and 3-D animation
layer over a narrow bandwidth, using low bit rates of 4800 bps to 4 Mbps.
Compression rates of color images is at 20:1 up to 300:1, with grayscale images at
20:1 to 50:1. MPEG-4 is an ISO standard.
Wavelet – Wavelet uses whole frame vs. pixel group compression. Wavelets are the
simple pairing up of input values, comparing the differences, and passing the sum of
U2-16 the different values (coefficients). The distribution of most image data is concentrated
around a small number of coefficients. This results in efficient compression. Because
Wavelet compression works on filtering the overall image, it provides higher
compression ratios than MJPEG, without the blocky artifacts. Compression of color
images is in the range of 20:1 to 300:1, with grayscale images from 10:1 to 50:1. The
trade off of this algorithm is speed. It is slower than MJPEG, thus it may not be the
best choice for real-time 30 frames/sec applications. JPEG 2000 is a wavelet
U2-17 compression.
Table 2.2 - Compression Summary
MPEG 1 MPEG-2 MPEG 4 Wavelet M-JPEG H.320/261
Bandwidth 20 kbps -
Requiremts
1-3 Mbps 5-15 Mbps 0.5-4 Mbps 1-4 Mbps 10-26 Mbps
2 Mbps
Web
Data storage Data storage Image quality Image quality Data storage
Compression streaming,
Strengths
& & & & &
video phone &
Transmission Transmission Image retrieval Image retrieval Transmission
data storage
Eazeo,
HiQ VideoJet, NetCam2, VideoJet,
Products VideoJet
(MPEG-2) DiBos 8 Divar DiBos
(JPEG)
Î Review
Complete the review questions below. When you are done, review your answers with
your facilitator.
Fill-in the blanks for the following statements:
1. The process of taking digital file data and reducing the file size is called:
____compression _______________________________________________ .
frames only. It is also known as full frame refresh: If scoring results use
Intra-frame (or single frame) compression ____________________________ . these values:
6. Identify two methods of reducing digital video file sizes that do not use All 20 correct = 100%
19 correct = 95%
compression techniques: 18 correct = 90%
a) Reduce the video frame size _____________________________________ 17 correct = 85%
16 correct = 80%
b) Reduce the images per second (ips) _______________________________ 15 correct = 75%
14 correct = 70%
7. The term that describes a conditional refresh video compression techniques is 13 correct = 65%
called: Inter-frame (or multi-frame) compression ________________________ 12 correct = 60%
11 correct = 55%
8. With any video compression technique, there is always a trade off or compromise 10 correct = 50%
between achieving reduced files sizes________________________________ , 9 correct = 45%
8 correct = 40%
and maintaining an acceptable level of image quality ____________________ . 7 correct = 35%
6 correct = 30%
9. Video compression is expressed in terms of a before and after ratio ________ . 5 correct = 25%
4 correct = 20%
10. Identify two main benefits of using video compression. 3 correct = 15%
a) Requires less storage space _____________________________________ 2 correct = 10%
1 correct = 5%
b) Provides faster transmission rates_________________________________
Match the following video compression standards to the descriptions below. Write the
terms in the blank spaces provided.
Video Compression
Standards
JPEG MPEG H.320
M-JPEG MPEG-1 H.261
WAVELET MPEG-2 MPEG-4
Unit 3: Networks
Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define the elements of network traffic.
• Describe how network traffic is controlled and checked.
• Define Bits and Bytes, and their interrelationship.
• Convert Bytes to Bits.
• Describe bandwidth and how it impacts network traffic.
• Calculate network bandwidth requirements.
• Identify and describe the functions of different network components.
Topics covered
• Network traffic and bandwidth
• Network hardware components
Bandwidth
Bandwidth can have two different meanings within the CCTV environment. This
depends upon if you are referring to the bandwidth or carrying capacity of a digital
network medium, or the frequency of an analog electronic signal (analog video/audio). U3-7
IT usually refers to
this medium capacity
as “Transmission
Rate” or
A typical analog TV broadcast video signal has a bandwidth of 6 MHz. A cable system
“throughput”
bandwidth occupies 50 to 300 MHz.
Make sure they all
understand the term
bandwidth as it
relates to digital. This
will be important to
comprehend as they
progress through this
training program.
Example: To calculate a video signal compressed to 15 KB digital file size, and the
scene is captured at 30 images per second, the network bandwidth requirements for
this signal is:
15,000 x 8 x 30 = 3,600,000 bits/sec (3.6 Mbps)
Normal network communication traffic will consume some of the available bandwidth
U3-9 capabilities of a system. Network managers design in a buffer to account for this
ongoing traffic. Approximately 65% of a network specified bandwidth is usually
available for data traffic, such as video transmission.
Use the camera(s) bps value(s) to determine how many CCTV connections can be
Bandwidth will be put into a given bandwidth of a video only network.
covered further in
Unit 5 – Network Example using 3.6 Mbps in video output per camera:
Transmission Medium 100 Mbps network connection x 65% available = 65 Mbps (bandwidth)
(100,000,000 x 0.65 = 65,000,000 bps)
Network bandwidth / camera bit output
65,000,000 / 3,600,000 = 18 camera connections
U3-10
UDP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that uses IP and is an UDP is the
option to the TCP protocol. It offers a limited amount of service in that it does not communications
divide the message into packets and reassemble it at the other end (called datagrams protocol use in the
in UDP). Separate computer programs that use UDP must take on the function of Bosch Business
checking that all the data has been received and is in the right order. Since UDP has Integration Systems
less communication rules to follow (no checking of transmissions), it reduces the (BIS) product.
network communications traffic, thus reducing network bandwidth requirements. UDP
is good when communicating very small data packets (like alarm codes).
ISDN
U3-14
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a protocol for digital transmission
over the telephone network, often referred to as POTS (Plan Old Telephone Systems)
It uses the existing telephone lines and required no additional wiring to be run. Voice
and data packets are integrated on the lines using different frequencies to transmit
information simultaneously. An adaptor is required on both ends of the transmission
line, and if on a shared network, an ISDN router is needed. The ISDN configuration
can deliver between 128 Kbps to 384 Kbps. (vs. 56 Kbps modem rate). ISDN are
usually used on WAN telephone networks.
ISDN is distance sensitive, a factor that impacts transmission rates. The network
range is up to 18,000 ft or 3 miles (5.5 km) without a repeater in use. Since it is a dial
up service, cost of usage will depend upon connection time. ISDN is good for remote
access use: were ever transmission of circuit data or switching data is needed; or
backing up dedicated private lines or LAN-to-LAN connections in case they fail.
Multiple channels (B & D) are setup for transmission. Two B channels at 64 Kbps
each can be segmented (2 to 30), which are used for data, voice and other services.
The single 16 Kbps D-channel carries the control signal information. This protocol is
loosing popularity where higher speed cable modem and DSL network options exists.
DSL
The DSL (Digital Subscription Line) is similar to ISDN service in that it provides
voice, video and data packets in a digital connection over POTS networks. Where it
differs from ISDN is that it is an “always on” service and has higher transmission
rates. There are two basic types available, depending upon the provider: Symmetric
DSL (SDSL) and Asymmetric DSL (ADSL). The SDSL uses upstream and
downstream capacity to carry data in both directions. ADSL delivers higher speed
downstream and slower speed upstream. For video downloading, ADSL will provide
faster transfer rates. These transmission rates range from 128 Kbps (upstream) to
1.54 – 8 Mbps
downstream. This
can enable
continuous video
transmission. DSL
is distance sensitive
(18,000 ft or 3 miles
– 5.5 km, without a
repeater). This can
also be extended by
integrating this local
loop with a fiber
optic network
connection.
Since the service is
“always on,” the
usage cost will be
fixed.
U3-16 A Switch, like a hub routes data to different nodes. But it does so by reading the
specific IP addresses. The Switch has the capability to read the packet destination IP
address and forward that data only to the correct port(s). The destination IP address
needs to be within the same network group or domain.
Both hubs and switches support any type of packet protocol.
Routers
These are devices that forward data packet to different networks by reading the U3-17
destination IP addresses (header) of the packet. Routers are connections between at
least two different network systems (i.e. LANs, WANs, internet) and are located with
gateways – the network connection points.
The router uses the header data and programmed tables to identify the best path to
forward the data packet to its destination. They use communication protocols (i.e.
ICMP) to communicate with each other and for configuring the best transmission route
between two hosts. Routers do very little filtering.
Gateways
These function as nodes on network and act as an entrance point to other networks.
On large enterprise network systems, the gateway often acts as a proxy server and a U3-18
firewall. They also allow different network protocols to interface with each other.
Gateways route the traffic from its own network system to the outside network (i.e.
internet). For home computers, the Internet Service Provider (ISP) performs the
gateway function.
The gateway is associated with both a router, which forwards the data packet
according to header data and forwarding tables, and the switch, which provides the
actual path for the packet in and out of the gateway.
Modems
Modem is short for modulator/demodulator. They perform the conversion of analog
signals to digital data and digital data to analog signals. Modems can be an internal
board in a computer, or an external component. If external, it often uses a RS232
connector.
At lower data transfer rates, the modem communication protocol to format the data
almost universal. This allows most modems to communicate with each other. At high
transmission rates, more proprietary protocols may exist.
Modems have characteristics that can allow for some configuring options. A
communications software package usually comes with the modem to setup the
following functions:
Bps – This is the data transfer rate. At very slow rates, modems are measured in
baud rates (i.e. 300 baud = ~25cps). At higher rates, they use the bps term. Common
transmission rates are 2.4 Kbps, 2.8 Kbps, 56 Kbps up to about 128 Kbps. The data
transfer rate between modems is only as fast as the slowest modem.
Data compression – Some modems perform compression techniques to increase
data transfer rates. The modem on the receiving end needs to be able to decompress
the data packet using the same compression technique.
Flash memory – This allows for updating the communications protocols. If it doesn’t
have flash memory, then it will be using conventional ROM, which can not be
modified.
Î Review
Complete the review questions below. When you are done, review your answers with
your facilitator.
Match the network type provided below to the proper description for the following 7
questions. Write the word in the blank provided.
Internet ISDN LAN
Fill in the blank
Client/Server Peer-to-Peer Point-to-Point questions or complete
the activity to reinforce
WAN POTS ASAP
your understanding.
1. _Point-to-Point ________ A network that consists of two computers connected
directly to each other through a single cross-over cable. This is the most basic
form of computer networking.
5. _WAN ______________ This network system can cover multiple sites and
building locations, but is usually associated with one organization.
Match the terms provided below to the proper description. Write the word in the blank
provided.
Ethernet Handshake Half-duplex
ISDN Hub Full-duplex
UDP Gateway Frequency
TCP/IP Switch Bandwidth
DSL Router Analog
Protocols Modem Digital
bps ips packets
10. When signal transmission between two computers can travel in only one direction
at a time is called: half-duplex__________________________ communications.
11. The data that is packaged into small units for network transmission is referred to
as data packets__________________________________________.
13. The number of cycle changes per second and is measured in Hertz refers to the
frequency or bandwidth_______________________ of an analog signal.
17. __Ethernet ___________ A suite of network protocols that defines the cabling,
network design, and software interface standards and options. It is one of the
most widely used LAN protocols.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define the different types of network addresses.
• Describe how IP addresses are defined and grouped for usage.
• Describe subnets and their function
• Define DNS and its function
• Describe multicasting and how it can be used for CCTV.
• Describe the function of firewalls.
Topics covered
• IP and Mac addresses
• Data packets and addressing format
• Routing of data packets
• Subnets
• Multicasting
• Firewalls
IP address standards
IP addressing specifications (protocols)
require that each system attached to an IP-
based network be assigned a unique 32 bit U4-7
address value. This address is a two level
hierarchy system for identification. The first part of the internet address value identifies
the network. The second part of the IP address identifies the specific machine (host)
on that stated network.
The dividing point
Two Level IP Address Hierarchy between the two
Network Number or Prefix Host (Machine) Number hierarchy levels of the
IP address is different
for each class.
The table below shows a configuration example of an IP address.
Dotted Decimal Notation
10010001 . 00001010 . 00100010 . 00000011
Binary values
(146) (10) (34) (3) >
IP address values 146.10.34.3
There are five basic classes for IP address values. They reflect the type and size of
the network. The first octet values of the IP address identify the network class. These
IP classes are:
Class Class address
Network Types
Type range U4-8
Addresses for large networks with many
devices. The first octet value identifies the 1 – 126 First octet
Class A network; the remaining octets identify the values
hosts. This class represents 50% of all XXX.xxx.xxx.xxx
available IP address values.
Addresses for medium-sized networks. The 128 – 191 First octet
first two octets identify the network, the values U4-9
Class B
balance the hosts. This class represents 25%
of all available IP address values XXX.XXX.xxx.xxx
Addresses for small networks (fewer than 254 192 – 223 First octet
devices). The first three octets identify the values U4-10
Class C
network. This class represents 12.5% of all
available IP address values. XXX.XXX.XXX.xxx
There are groups of “special” IP address classes specified for internal private use
only. These address standards are NOT routable on the internet.
y Class A: 10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.254
y Class B: 172.16.0.1 to 172.31.255.254
y Class C: 192.168.0.01 to 192.168.255.254
The following are reserved IP addresses used for the stated purposes:
y For loop-back addresses used for testing: 127.0.0.1
y For broadcast to all networks or all hosts (all 1’s): 1.1.1.1
Subnets
U4-11 As the use of both the internet and corporate networks grew, the existing two-level IP
addressing hierarchy became strained in meeting the diverse needs efficiently.
Without subnets, if an organization that had multiple sites or internal networks, it
would be required to have multiple connections to the internet. Each corporate site
network (LAN) would require its own internet IP address.
Subnets were introduced in 1985 to address these shortcomings. This added another
level of hierarchy to the IP addressing structure to the three IP classes (A, B, C). The
standard host number was divided into two parts: a new subnet number, and the host
number on that subnet.
2 Level
Network Number or Prefix Host Number
Hierarchy
3 Level
Network Number or Prefix Subnet Number Host Number
Hierarchy
The subnet structure is not visible outside an organization’s private network. From the
outside (internet side), the
U4-12 prefix numbers are the same
for that organization. But with
the internal subnets, an
The decimal number
organization can have
of 255 equals
different routers to support
11111111 in binary
different business needs.
numbers. These
This allows them to add a
binary one (1) values
new level of complexity to
in the subnet mask
their private IP address. With
are indicating that the
subnetting, an organization is
host numbers in the
free to deploy additional
subnet are to be
subnets (LANs) to their
used. (A zero value
network without obtaining a
would indicate a host
new network number from
number to be
the internet.
ignored.)
The subnet mask is part of
the IP address for that
subnet number. It is a series
of numbers (1 and 0) that
tells the organization’s
gateway server which numbers to look at underneath the mask. This will provide the
routing address for the company’s internal subnet (LAN routing). Subnet masks are
designated by the IP class:
y Class A: 255.0.0.0
y Class B: 255.255.0.0
y Class C: 255.255.255.0
Domain names identify different nodes on the public internet, just as the binary
number IP address does. Humans prefer remembering names of sites rather than an
number IP address. The Domain Naming System (DNS) system allows the user to
use either type of identifier for domains.
Domains are structured in a hierarchical tree like fashion. The root represents the top-
level domains. This includes: com, org, edu, gov and numerous country ones like ca
(Canada), fi (Finland).
Below this is the second level of domain naming structure. These are registered
names like bosch.com, or aol.com. Beyond this are local domains that are defined
and administered by the overall domain owner. (such as: bosch.us.com) Each domain
level is separated by a period.
The Domain Naming System is a name resolution system that lets users locate
computers on a network by using the domain name. The DNS works in a client/server
fashion. DNS servers respond to requests from DNS clients (called resolvers).
Internet Service Providers (ISP) are organizations provide up local DNS resolvers and
servers. The DNS servers maintain databases for domain names (host names) and
their corresponding IP addresses. An inquiry to a DNS server with a domain name
(such as, www.bosch.com) would return an IP address of 126.120.67.1 (example
only).
This database of host names is distributed among multiple servers. The use of DNS
would be helpful to a CCTV installer as they integrate their system into an existing
computer network system. Identifying specific nodes (IP addresses) for
interconnectivity will be required. U4-14
Multicasting
In analog CCTV systems, a video signal could be connected to more than one The difference between
receiver. Typically the camera is connected to a monitor for viewing, and in parallel, to a “webcam” and a
a DVR/VCR for recording. The video could also be fed into a matrix or a transmitting CCTV internet camera
unit. If the signal requires a larger distribution, then amplifiers are used. is the IP address
association. Webcams
Digital networking allows for different distribution methods of the data packets. These
require a computer to
include: Multicast, Unicast, Broadcast, and Multi-unicast. These are briefly explained
operate through, and
below:
the computer owns the
Multicast – The data IP address. A CCTV
packets are copied and internet camera has its
those single copies are sent own IP address and
to specific nodes on the does not use a
network using a multicast computer to send its
(Class D) IP address. The signal out.
single copies of data
packets are replicated on
the network on an as- U4-15
needed basis. Only those
nodes that need the data
will receive it. This is helps
maintain network efficiency.
The number of viewers has
no impact on the camera
nor network bit rate
demands.
There are network requirements to implement multicasting. A Level 3 network switch
on the network and the IT network administrator is required to setup the Class D IP
multicast address and know all the IP addresses that are to be included in the
transmission of data.
The efficiencies of multicasting allow for new possibilities in digital CCTV network
system designs. By proper selection and use of video compression techniques,
coupled with multicasting signal distribution, the access of video on most digital
network systems becomes feasible
U4-16 Unicast – Individual data packets are distributed to each node within a designated
group. For small groups this is easy to implement, but has significant restrictions as
the receiving group grows. Since each node gets its own data packet, the network is
required to carry the packets times the number of receiving nodes. This quickly uses
up bandwidth for the same information.
Broadcast – The data packets are copied and those single copies are sent to all
U4-17 nodes on the network system by use of a broadcast IP address. The single copies of
the data packets go out to all nodes on the network system – even those not
needing/requiring the information. This can create unneeded network traffic,
especially if only a small number of users actually need the information.
Multi-unicast – This is similar to multicasting, but uses one connection. It functions as
multiple, single users receiving data. I does not require special network equipment
and is limited to the number of users that can be connected to (~5).
Firewalls
U4-18
A firewall is both hardware and software with the function of providing controlled
access into or out of a network system. On the network is a designated gateway
server that acts as an entrance point to a private network. A software program is
installed on the server, which acts as a screening tool for network communications in
and/or out of that network.
The function of the firewall is to protect the private network from “outside” users and
other networks. It can also control what outside resources and data the internal users
have access to.
Firewalls are the first point of contact into a private network from other networks. This
gateway server and firewall represents the domain IP address for that network. The
server receives the data packets and reads the header information. The server,
working with the network switcher, will forward the incoming data packets to the
appropriate computer node on the network.
There are a number of screening methods that firewalls can employ to limit or restrict
network access, either in or out. Simple tools can use acceptable domain names
(previously approved IP addresses) for access. Other techniques are to skim the data
packets for virus content. Another method of control is by setting threshold levels for
data transfers. Firewalls not only control network access, but can also log network
usage, and provide alarm signals for network overloads or virus attacks.
The gateway server provides a set number of access communication ports in and out
of the private network environment. The level of access through these ports can be
customized. Some ports may allow only password access or allow for only encrypted
data. Other ports may only allow one way data flows (i.e. out from, but not into the
U4-19 network).
Firewalls are essential tools in maintaining the integrity and reliability of a network
system. For a CCTV provider working within a network environment, the awareness of
a firewall is important. Interface early with the IT administrator to understand the level
of access through any firewalls and the bandwidth limitations of both this gateway
server and the network system in general.
Î Review
Complete the review questions below. When you are done, review your answers with
your facilitator.
Match the network terms provided below to the proper description. Write the word in
the blank provided.
Subnet mask Muliticast Network number
DNS Dynamic IP address Host number Fill in the blank
questions or complete
Gateway server IP address Domains
the activity to reinforce
Firewall Subnets MAC address your understanding.
Class A Class C Broadcast
1. ___MAC address ______ Every component has a unique 12 digit hexadecimal
Check the students
number that identifies it. This number is referred to as the hardware address understanding by
when connected to a network. reviewing their
responses.
2. __Dynamic IP address__ A network software address that is assigned to and Try to clarify any
areas of confusion
used by a node when it logs onto a network. This address is returned to the
before continuing.
database to be used again when the node logs off the network.
If scoring results use
3. _Network number _____ The first part of a two level IP address. This identifies these values:
the domain.
All 15 correct = 100%
4. ______IP address _____ The 32 bit software address used on a network 14 correct = 93%
13 correct = 86%
system. This identifies the domain and host. 12 correct = 80%
11 correct = 73%
5. __Class C ___________ A class type for an IP address, which is designated 10 correct = 66%
for small networks (<254 devices). The first three octets of the address identify 9 correct = 60%
8 correct = 53%
the network and the assigned decimal ranges are 192 – 223. 7 correct = 46%
6. __Class A ___________ A class type for an IP address, which is designated 6 correct = 40%
5 correct = 33%
for large networks. The first octet of the address identifies the network. This class 4 correct = 26%
represents the largest percentage of IP addresses available. 3 correct = 20%
2 correct = 13%
7. _Subnets ____________ These are used to create private internal IP 1 correct = 6%
addresses within organizations. They are not seen outside the local network.
10. __Host number _______ The second part of a two level IP address, which
identifies the specific device on the network.
15. ___Gateway server ____ A hardware device on the network that acts as the
entrance point to another network.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Identify the different network transmission options.
• Describe the characteristics of the different transmission methods.
• Identify transmission limits for different medium.
Topics covered
• Network medium types
• Transmission characteristics
The following table represents the Ethernet cable types and their specifications.
Maximum
Category Data Rate & Usual Application
Frequency tested
CAT 2 4 Mbps IBM cabling for token ring networks
16 Mbps
CAT 3 Ethernet 10Base-T voice & data
10 MHz
20 Mbps
CAT 4 Some 16 Mbps token ring networks
20 MHz
100 Mbps
100 Mbps TPDDI, 155 Mbps ATM
CAT 5 1000 Mbps (4 pair)
No longer supported, replaced by 5E
100 MHz
1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet, better near-end cross
CAT 5E
100 MHz talk resistance then CAT 5
Super fast broadband applications, Most
CAT 6 250 MHz
popular cabling for new installs
10 Gbps Support for 10 Gigabit Ethernet
CAT 6E
625 MHz (10GBase-T)
Full motion video. Govt. and mfg.
CAT 7 600 MHz environments, shielded cable pairs and
overall cable.
U5-6
Fiber Optic
U5-7 Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core, surrounded by several layers of
protective materials. It transmits pulsating light beams verses the electrical signals
sent through copper wire. Because this transmits light, it is immune to electrical and
U5-8 RF interference.
Fiber optic has the ability to transmit more data, at faster speeds and over greater
U5-9 distances than either coaxial or twisted pair cabling. The cost of fiber optic cable has
come down in recent years, making it competitive to copper wire. It is more fragile and
requires special skills and tools to modify and install.
U5-10
Repeaters
Network protocols define the network standards and capabilities. While cables have
limits in
transmission Attenuation – The loss
distances, a device of signal strength,
called a repeater usually due to the
allows the network distance a signal has
transmission to travelled. This loss Is
expand beyond usually referred to in
these medium decibels (dB).
distance
specifications.
Repeaters in digital For analog signal
communications are transmissions,
a device that amplifiers are used to
receive the digital restrengthen signals.
signal, removes Unfortunately, they also
unwanted noise, amplify noise as well as
and regenerates the the information.
signal so it can be sent further on the network system. For electromagnetic binary
data, this is in the form of a voltage being present or absent (on or off). For fiber
optics, this would be in the form of light impulses. U5-11
Digital signals dependency on the presence or absence of voltage, results in the
signals dissipating more quickly, compared to analog signals. Analog signal amplifiers
are typically spaced at 60,000 ft (18,000 meter) intervals. Digital signal repeaters are
required at 328 to 20,000 ft (100 to 6,000 M) intervals, depending upon the cable.
In fiber optics, repeaters consist of a photocell, an amplifier, and a light-emitting diode
(LED) or infrared-emitting diode (IRED) for each light signal amplified.
On different cable Ethernet systems the protocols specify the distance and number of
repeaters allowed.
Î Review
Complete the review questions below. When you are done, review your answers with
your facilitator.
Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer.
1. With digital CCTV signals, you can send the signals using this medium:
a) CCTV coaxial cable on a closed, d) Through RF or microwave
dedicated CCTV system transmission
Fill in the blank
questions or complete b) On the internet e) On an Ethernet network
the activity to reinforce c) On a private IT network system f) < All items are correct >
your understanding.
2. Ethernet networks are specified for the following type of cabling:
The correct answers a) 10Base2 d) 10Base5
are within the < > b) Fiber optic e) Cat 5E
marks.
c) Coaxial f) < All items are correct >
7. A network device that extends the transmission range of a signal over cable:
a) Modem d) Switch
b) < Repeater > e) Gateway server
c) Router f) NIC
8. The transmission distance limit for 1000Base-LX Fiber Optic cable is:
a) No limit with Infrared diode d) 1 Giga bps
b) 328 ft. (100 M) e) < 6560 ft. (2000 M) >
c) 5000 ft with 4 repeaters f) 1300 nm
9. For a 10BaseT network system, the maximum transmission distance with the
use of repeaters is:
a) < 1640 ft. (500 M) > d) 500 ft. (152 M)
b) 328 ft. (100 M) e) No limit when using an LED signal
c) 984 ft (300M) f) None of these items
Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able to:
• Identify at least 3 potential factors that can impact CCTV connectivity to networks.
• Identify at least 3 factors that can impact CCTV bandwidth requirements.
• Identify and describe how different network components can limit network
communications.
• Identify and describe 3 computer based tests for network connectivity.
Topics covered
• Network communications and connectivity problems
• Testing network connections and basic troubleshooting
• Network qualifying considerations for CCTV
Discuss the benefits 8 Poor communications with those responsible for the network system(s) that
of this new CCTV is to integrate into
technology. 8 Lack of proper financial budgeting
Ask the class if there
is any concerns or 8 Improper product specifications
anxiety about
interfacing with
8 Network bandwidth and traffic levels
computer network 8 Firewall restrictions
systems.
Their level of 8 Network addressing
knowledge around IT 8 Network connectivity
systems may be a
factor in their 8 System compatibility
success with
migrating into this Preventing many of the pitfalls associated with digital CCTV network systems starts
new industry wide with the planning phase of such a project. Understanding the needs of the customer
technology shift. and the realities of their expectations is critical for system design considerations.
Since digital CCTV components will probably be integrated into existing network
systems, the designer and/or installer will be interfacing with those responsible for
managing and maintaining such systems.
CCTV integration success hinges around good communications and mutual
understanding by all parties involved for such issues as: network specifications and
capabilities, CCTV component requirements, and video performance expectations.
Much of this shared technology may be new to the parties on both sides of the
equation. For company IT departments, the terminology, and requirements of a CCTV
system on “their” network will be foreign to them. For a CCTV provider, the technology
and “lingo” of IT networks may be new to them also.
This Basic training program is the first step in closing that communications gap.
video file size (bytes) x # bits x IPS captured = BPS bandwidth Review CCTV video
(per camera) compression options.
Factors that need consideration for determining transmission rates (bandwidth) U6-4
requirements include:
y How many cameras, including fixed vs remote control needs (PTZ)
y Level of scene activity (busy, medium, quiet, cyclical)
y Image resolution required
y Video compression options
y Alarm activating/monitoring options
U6-5
Factors that will impact the need for digital storage memory space include:
y The number of cameras
y The frame rate of capture (ips)
The topic of image
y Compression options storage requirements
y The image resolution requirements was briefly covered in
this training program
y Amount of recorded data to be saved/archived (see Table 2.1 in
y Type of recording durations (continuous, event or alarm driven) Unit2).
Connectivity
U6-6 The type of network determines the protocols and requirements for cabling, system
capacity, type of network communication, network hardware, and node addresses.
Integrating CCTV cameras and monitoring/control stations requires setting up proper
component addresses on the network. Effective collaboration with the network IT
department is required.
Factors that impact CCTV connectivity include:
y Obtaining nodes and IP addresses for the various components
y Understanding any routing or subnet masking issues
y Type of signal transmission required (i.e. unicast or multicast)
y Type of transmission medium used (i.e. Ethernet or RF)
y Type of communications protocol used (i.e. TCP or UDP)
y Network gateway/firewall issues
IPCONFIG
Internet Protocol
Configuration is a
tool used to find
and renew IP
addresses to a
computer, router or
other address
sensitive network
device. Sometimes
when installing a
new component
(node) onto a
network, that
device may be
“blind” to the
network. The use
of a few DOS
commands can be helpful in setting up a node onto a network.
Type: ipconfig /all – This provides all the settings of your node and information on
the network you are connected to. U6-8
Type: ipconfig /release – This releases the assigned IP address for the computer
you are on.
Type: ipconfig /renew – The computer you are on will be assigned a new IP
address.
PING U6-9
By “pinging” an
IP address,
you are
checking for
communication
response
between two
nodes. (The
one you are
sending from,
and the one
the ping is sent
to.) You can
perform a ping test to anything that has an IP address anywhere in the world.
U6-10
Computers have a time frame to receiving communication responses (default is
usually about 5 seconds). This communications response timeout is programmable.
A number of factors can cause not receiving a response to a ping test:
y Bad network connection
y The node sending to could be down or off
y A firewall blocking issue
y The ping message is being filtered out
y The communications timeout is too short
The command for sending a ping test is: ping IP address here
U6-12 Firewalls security techniques are effective defenses from unauthorized network
communications. They are usually the first line of defense. Additional security can be
achieved by encrypting data
Appendix
The following resources were researched and information from these sources may have been “leveraged” from in
writing of this training manual. Efforts were made to make this an all inclusive list, but information researched from
other non-listed sources may have also been reviewed.
y About.com
y Array Microsystems, Inc.
y Distancelearning.ksi.edu
y Securityinfowatch.com
y Snellwilcox.com
y VCS.com
y Whatis.com
www.boschsecurity.us
Customer Service: (800) 289-0096
Technical Support: (888) 886-6189