Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.

Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

The band theory of solids

1-1 structure of atoms . hydrogen atom
1-2 many- electron atoms
1-3 degeneracy of energy levels in free atoms
1-4 formation of energy bands in crystals
1-5 filling of energy bands by electrons
1-6 division of solids into conductors , semiconductors and dielectrics

2-Band structure of semiconductors

2-1 free electrons and holes
2-2 types of semiconductors
2-3 Intrinsic (pure)
2-4 Extrinsic (doping)
2-5 the general equations of intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductor
- semiconductor in Equilibrium
- none- Equilibrium Excess carriers in semiconductor
2-6 movement of change carrier in semiconductor (major an min carriers)
2-7 Hall effect and carrier density
2-8 photoconduction and absorption of light
2-9 Avalanche breakdown , Breakdown devices
1- UJT
2- SCR
3- Triac
4- Diac
5- SCS

3-Contact phenomena
3-1 Metal – semiconductor contact
3-2 Fermi-level in semiconductor

4- Semiconductor diodes and junction transistors

4-1 P-N junction (Zero applied bias , forward biasing , reverse biasing )
4-2 junction transistor – Bipolar transistor
4-3 Tunnel Diodes
4-4 Field effect transistor (JFET ,MOSFET[ DE-MOSFET,E-MOSFET])
4-5 Semiconductor injection ( Diode ) laser
4-6 semiconductor at present and future

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

The atom:

The word atom has been derived from the Greek word (tomio) means
uncutablr or nondivisible

Atomic Structure:

Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons,
which is encircled by moving electrons. Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged, the charge magnitude being 1.602 x 10-19 C, which is negative in sign for
electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are electrically neutral. Masses for
these subatomic particles are infinitesimally small; protons and neutrons have
approximately the same mass, 1.67 x 10-27 kg, which is significantly larger than
that of an electron, 9.11 x10_31 kg. Each chemical element is characterized by the
number of protons in the nucleus.

Atomic number (Z):

For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic number also equals the
number of electrons. This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1 for
hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest of the naturally occurring elements.

The atomic mass (A):

The atomic mass of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of
protons and neutrons within the nucleus. Although the number of protons is the
same for all atoms of a given element, the number of neutrons (N) may be variable.
Thus atoms of some elements have two or more different atomic masses, which are
called isotopes.

The atomic weight :

The atomic weight :of an element corresponds to the weighted average of the
atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.

The atomic mass unit (amu) :

may be used to compute atomic weight. A scale has been established whereby 1
1
amu is defined as of the atomic mass of the most common isotope of carbon,
12
12
carbon 12 ( C) (A =12.00000).Within this scheme, the masses of protons and
neutrons are slightly greater than unity, and

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

A=Z+N

The atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a compound may be

specified on the basis of amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole of material. In
one mole of a substance there are 6.022 x 1023 (Avogadro’s number) atoms or
molecules. These two atomic weight schemes are related through the following
equation:
1 amu/atom or (molecule) = 1 g/mol

Atomic Models
During the latter part of the nineteenth century it was realized that many
phenomena involving electrons in solids could not be explained in terms of
classical mechanics. What followed was the establishment of a set of principles
and laws that govern systems of atomic and subatomic entities that came to be
known as quantum mechanics. An understanding of the behavior of electrons in
atoms and crystalline solids necessarily involves the discussion of quantum-
mechanical concepts

1-J.J. Thomson (b. Dec. 18, 1856, England d. Aug. 30, 1940,) held that atoms are uniform
spheres of positively charged matter in which electrons are embedded. He realized
that electrons existed by improving Crooke’s tube.

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

The model failed to interpretation the following points (Drawbacks):

- Electron distribution
- Nuclei presence
- Energy levels and sublevels
- Electron spin and its angular momentum

2-Ernest Rutherford. (b. Aug. 30, 1871, New Zealand; d. Oct. 19, 1937, England)
The model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core called a
nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around which the light,
negative constituents, called electrons, circulate at some distance, much like
planets revolving around the Sun. Rutherford atomic model has been alternatively
called the nuclear atom.

The model failed to interpretation the following points (Drawbacks points):

- Electron distribution
- Energy levels and sublevels
- Electron spin and its angular momentum

Niels Bohr In 1913 he proposed his quantized shell model of the atom to explain
how electrons can have stable orbits around the nucleus. The motion of the
electrons in the Rutherford model was unstable because, according to classical
mechanics and electromagnetic theory, any charged particle moving on a curved
path emits electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electrons would lose energy and
spiral into the nucleus. To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the
Rutherford model by requiring that the electrons move in orbits of fixed size and
energy. The energy of an electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for
smaller orbits. Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to
another. The atom will be completely stable in the state with the smallest orbit,
since there is no orbit of lower energy into which the electron can jump

Quantum Numbers
Using wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four
parameters called quantum numbers. The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an
electron’s probability density are specified by three of these quantum numbers.
Furthermore, Bohr energy levels separate into electron subshells, and quantum
numbers dictate the number of states within each subshell. Shells are specified by
quantum number.

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

The Number of Available Electron States in Some of the Electron

Shells and Subshells
Principle shell Subshells No. of states No. electrons
Q.NO. Per subshell Per shell
1 K s 1 2 2
2 L s 1 2 8
p 3 6
3 M s 1 2 18
p 3 6
d 5 10
4 N s 1 2 32
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

* principal quantum number n:which may take on integral values beginning with
unity; sometimes these shells are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, and so
on, which correspond, respectively, to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , Note also that this
quantum number, and it only, is also associated with the Bohr model.This quantum
number is related to the distance of an electron from the nucleus to the electron
shells or to the electron orbit.
**The second quantum number, l,: signifies the subshell, which is denoted by a
Lower case letter—an s, p, d, or f; it is related to the shape of the electron subshell.
In addition, the number of these subshells is restricted by the magnitude of n.
l takes values from 1 to n-1 and called orbital quantum No.

***The energy states for each subshell is determined by the third quantum
number, ml. For an subshell, there is a single energy state, whereas for p, d, and f
subshells, three, five, and seven states exist, respectively (Table 2.1). In the
absence of an external magnetic field, the states within each sub shell are identical.
However, when a magnetic field is applied, these subshell states split, with each
state assuming a slightly different energy. ml takes 2 l+1 values and called
magnetic quantum No.

****Associated with each electron is a spin moment, which must be oriented either
up or down. Related to this spin moment is the fourth quantum number, ms, for
which two values are possible one for each of the spin orientations.

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

Hydrogen atom spectrum:

A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen. The electrically

neutral atom contains a single positively charged proton and a single negatively
charged electron bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force. Atomic
hydrogen constitutes about 75% of the mass of the universe
The wave Numbers (\) for Hydrogen atom spectrum wave determined by
the relation:-
 1 1
 = = R ( 2 - 2)
𝐶 𝑛 𝑚
2
2𝜋 𝑚𝑒 4
R= = Rydberg constant = 10973.7 cm -1
𝑐ℎ83
C= 3x10 m/sec .
: Frequency .
n,m : Integer and m > n .
Bohr Hypothesis:-
The electron transition takes place according to Selection rules,
and the conclusion of Bohr Hypothesis as follows:-
1- An electron in an atom may only be bound with certain energies
1
which for one electron atom or ions are proportional to 2 where n is
n
integer
1
𝐸∝
𝑛2
2- It may also only have certain angular moment a I = n h / 2𝜋 .
3- The transition of electron between these level may not be
understood classically.
The Hydrogen atom consist of nuclear and one electron move
around it in the one of stable orbit which define by n= 1,2,3,4,------
-----

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Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

Palmer series
Lyman
series

Paschen series
n=1

n=2

n=3
n=4
n=5
Brackett series

Pfund series

1- Lyman series: from any orbit to nf = 1.

2- Balmer series: from any orbit to nf = 2.
3- Pashen series: from any orbit to nf = 3.
4- Brackett series: from any orbit to nf = 4. I.R
5- Pfund series: from any orbit to nf = 5.

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 Semiconductor Devices……………… .………… Lecture 1……………………... Prof.Dr.Abdulhadi AL-Ogaili

Energy levels of H-atom:-

Bohars second postulation that there are only certain discrete energy levels in
the hydrogen atom is especially important because it has been found to have wide
application throughout atomic physics.
Energy levels are most expressed in electron –volt (ev) , if En is in jouls it may
be converted in to electron volts by dividing by the 1.6x10 -19 .
𝑬𝒏 𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝟒 𝒁𝟐 𝟏
𝑬(𝒆𝒗) = = − .
𝒆 𝒆 𝟖 ∈𝟐° 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
up on substituting the values of the constant in this equation and letting Z=1,
𝟏𝟑.𝟔
we find that the energy levels of H-atom are given by 𝑬(𝒆𝒗) = − 𝟐
𝒏
If the Hydrogen is illuminated it may absorb energy from a photon , and the
electron is excited and then the transition may be construct may series of spectrum
as shown in following figure.
principle quantum No. Energy (ev)
n= 0

n=5 -0.54
pfund series
n=4 -0.85
Brackett series
n=3 -1.51
paschen series
Hβ
H

n=2 -3.39
Balmer series
=950oA
=1216 oA

=912 oA
=1020 oA
=973oA

n=1 -13.6
Lyman series

H.W:- Determine the spectrum region of Hydrogen series Lyman, Balmer ,

Paschen , Brackett , and pfund .