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DIAGNOSTIC TESTING AND ON-LINE CONDITION MONITORING OF CABLE

SYSTEMS BASED ON PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS

B.T. PHUNG, Z. LIU, T.R. BLACKBURN

University of New South Wales
G. BURGESS P. McMULLAN, H. ZHANG
Endeavour Energy Ausgrid
AUSTRALIA

SUMMARY

The health of high voltage power cable networks is primarily determined by the state of the
electrical insulation in these cables. The presence of partial discharge (PD) is indicative of
insulation weakness caused by defects or service-induced deterioration to the cable insulation.
PD monitoring is considered the best method available to detect developing insulation
problems and readily lends itself to trend analysis. Furthermore, the ability to perform on-line
monitoring is desirable. However, the main difficulty in implementing in-service PD
monitoring is the high level of on-site interference which often engulfs the low-level PD
signals. Effective and practical methodologies for interference rejection are thus required.
This has been the subject of on-going collaboration between UNSW and Australian utilities in
developing techniques for on-line monitoring of PDs on strategic network assets. Digital
signal processing algorithms were developed to not only de-noise the signal but also to extract
statistical features either in the time domain or the frequency domain for the classification of a
variety of PD types. The fusion of outputs from different classifiers can further improve PD
classification. The main focus has traditionally been transmission (33/66/132kV) and
distribution (11/22kV) cables but the PD sensor and signal processing development have also
provided valuable spin-offs for PD monitoring of other equipment in transmission and zone
substations including indoor switchboards. A number of units - Partial Discharge Monitors
(PDM) - have been built and made available to the utilities for field trial. The PDM units have
evolved in their design as field experience with them grows. The PDM uses clip-on, field-
coupled, PD sensors that are able to be quickly and easily connected and disconnected from
cables. The continuous on-line PD records can also be monitored and downloaded remotely
over long time periods. The utilities experience from the use of the PDM is presented here.

KEYWORDS

Partial discharge, on-line condition monitoring, cables, electrical insulation

toan.phung@unsw.edu.au
1 OVERVIEW

High voltage cable systems are arteries delivering electrical energy across the power grid, and
thus their reliable functioning is of paramount importance to the power utilities and societies
at large. In particular, the health of the cable insulation plays a critical role. However, cable
disconnection from service to enable maintenance and off-line testing is disruptive to network
operation and so on-line condition monitoring is the preferred approach [1-11]. Continuous
in-service monitoring of cables in the network provides progressive trending behaviour – a
very effective diagnostic strategy. This enables early detection and advanced warning of any
deterioration in the cable insulation that might lead to unplanned power blackouts. Thus, it
helps to ensure a reliable network operation. Such an online insulation monitoring and fault
detection scheme will also play an integral role in the emerging development of the Smart
Grid.
There are a number of diagnostic methods that are being used in practice to assess the cable
insulation. Although no particular diagnostic is able to provide an accurate assessment of the
insulation, it is generally accepted that the most effective and adaptable diagnostic for on-line
application is partial discharge (PD) measurement. The presence of PD activity is indicative
of insulation degradation or excessive localised electric stress. Measuring the very small and
short duration current pulses produced by the PD is invariably affected by noise and
electromagnetic interference. The determining factor on the viability and success of on-line
monitoring systems is the ability to reject or mitigate this problem. Indeed this is considered
the key issue where most research efforts have been focussed on. Unlike the well-shielded
laboratory environment, the interference problem is unavoidable and much worse in the field
and particularly in on-line condition monitoring applications. Common examples are corona
discharges from nearby sources, network switching transients, radiated wireless
communications, broadband power line communications, etc. In a typical HV substation, it is
not unusual to encounter interference that is an order of magnitude or more above the PD
signal of interest. To extract the PD signals, denoising techniques need to be developed to
effectively handle various types of noise so that the on-line monitoring diagnostic is still
sensitive enough to detect very subtle changes in the insulation condition - a requirement for
trend analysis.
This paper presents details of the development of the on-line PD monitoring system for cable
insulation assessment. The system hardware design and configuration are described followed
by discussion of various methods developed to remove the noise or interference from the
measured signal. Also discussed are methods to extract statistical features either in the time
domain or the frequency domain for the classification of PD types.

2 ON-LINE MONITORING OF PARTIAL DISCHARGES

Spanning over more than two decades and on-going, there has been close collaboration
between the University of New South Wales (UNSW) and Australian power utilities in
applying PD measurements to on-line condition monitoring of strategic network assets.
Historically, the interaction began around 1990 using a computer-based PD measurement
system, known as the CDA-3 [1,12], for on-line monitoring of power transformers.
Subsequently, the scope of was extended to underground power cables with support from the
Australian government and the Australian Strategic Technology Program (ASTP). The latter
comprises electricity distribution and transmission businesses, established to foster research
that will enhance the effectiveness of asset management and network performance of the
electricity networks. Their support has enabled UNSW to develop a fully working system

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known as the Partial Discharge Monitor (PDM). A number of PDM systems have been built
and deployed successfully in the field [7,8]. The PDM is being used regularly and extensively
by one utility for monitoring of its cable network.
Figure 1 illustrates the general configuration of the PDM system. A separate sensor
arrangement (one or multiple passive PD sensors) is mounted on each cable of the three
supply phases. The sensor outputs are connected via 50coaxial signal cables to the data
acquisition unit. These signal cables were made to have the same length. In PD location
applications which require comparing the signal arrival times from different sensors, this is
necessary in order to cancel out the propagation time delay in the signal cables.

Figure 1: General configuration of the Partial Discharge Monitoring (PDM) system

Figure 2 shows two different forms of non-intrusive sensors developed for measuring PDs.
Both can be easily attached to or removed from the cable while the cable remains in
operation. One form is the high frequency current transformer (HF-CT), constructed using a
toroidal soft-ferrite core. The core can be split open to enable mounting on the lead that
connects the cable screen to ground. This grounding connection is normally installed at one
end of the cable termination. Figure 2(a) shows the HF-CTs installed on 33kV XLPE cables
of a feeder circuit in a zone substation. The other sensor is a clamp-type unit as shown in
Figure 2(b). It is a flexible metallic ring, designed for clamping tightly around the cable itself.

(a) High frequency current transformer (b) Clamp sensor

Figure 2: Two different sensor types for PD measurement in cables
The HF-CT pass-band is 100kHz - 50MHz. The detection sensitivity is ~50pC for a local
discharge near the sensor. For the clamp sensor, its response covers the higher frequency
range with an upper cut-off of ~500MHz. However, the sensitivity decreases more rapidly

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with the distance. Therefore, the HF-CT is better suited for monitoring long cables where PDs
may occur far away from the sensor. Figure 3(a) compares the signal attenuation of the 2
sensors when tested on a single-core 11kV XLPE cable. On the other hand, the clamp-type
sensor can give better noise rejection and improved confirmation of the position of a localised
discharge. The propagation velocity in cables is typically about two thirds the speed of light.
Thus a pair of clamp sensors positioned at 2m apart on the same cable would show a
detectable difference of 10ns between the times of arrival. This provides a very useful means
to determine the direction of the traveling signals for diagnostic purposes.

Figure 3: Signal attenuation comparison [2]

The data acquisition unit comprises electronic circuits to perform signal conditioning and
processing. High-speed communication between this unit and a local computer (laptop PC) is
via a USB port. The digitised data is transferred to the computer for data storage, analysis,
and display according to user’s settings. The computer is connected to a wireless modem via
an RG45 network port. This enables remote interrogation through the broadband wireless
3G/4G network between the monitoring system and other remote computers. For fire-walling
requirement, security of communications is achieved using a virtual private network (VPN)
which enables the monitoring system to safely exchange data across a public network such as
the Internet. For future development, it is possible to integrate the monitoring system into the
communications network based on the IEC 61850 protocol for substation automation.
Figure 4 shows two versions of the PDM system, namely PDM-I and PDM-II. With the
PDM-I, the sensor signals from up to 12 inputs can be selected using a channel distributor,
controlled by either manual switching or software. The circuit to capture PD signals consists
of a filter (high-pass, band-pass), a gain control and several broadband amplifiers in cascade.
The overall voltage gain is adjustable, up to 60dB maximum. The output signal is fed into a
peak-and-hold circuit to stretch the short-duration PD signal into a rectangular pulse prior to
digitising the pulse magnitude. Phase-resolved analysis of the PD activity in relation to the
50Hz power frequency cycle is very useful for identification of the insulation defect type and
also for possible interference. The phase information is obtained by recording the 50Hz
supply from one of the phases, either via the local 230V mains supply or a standard Rogowski
Coil CT wrapped around the HV cable itself. Based from this information, appropriate phase
shifting (+/-120o) is carried out by software to generate the phase reference for the other two
phases. A gating circuit is also included to facilitate the rejection of interference.
The design concept of the PDM-I is similar to the CDA-3 system in that electronic circuits
were utilised for processing the analog waveforms to extract the PD pulse parameters [1,12].
Thus the system is able to capture and analyse data on the fly, effectively in real-time. On the
other hand, the PDM-II system is an improved version of the earlier CDA-2 system [1]. The
concept is based on digitizing the signals at a sampling rate high enough to capture the rapid
changes in the signal magnitude. Furthermore, the memory buffer must be large enough to

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capture the sampled data over a full 50Hz cycle. The PDM-II is equipped with a dual channel
digitizer that can sample at up to 100MHz on each channel independently. Its key advantage
is ability to apply sophisticate signal processing on the captured waveforms. The trade-off is
the large amount of sampled data to be processed. At the fastest sampling rate, each AC cycle
of 20ms will result in 2 Mbytes of data. As a result, the system is only able to capture a
snapshot of real-time data which may not be effective unless the PD activity is steady. In
summary, the PDM-I offers fast, quasi real-time performance but is best suited to ‘quiet’ test
sites where the SNR is high. The PDM-II is suitable for noisy locations; its software-based
signal processing enables the system to extract low-level PD signals buried in the noise.

(a) (b)
Figure 4: (a) The PDM-I system, and (b) PDM-II system

3 SIGNAL PROCESSING AND DIAGNOSIS

The problem of interference has long been a major limitation in achieving adequate sensitivity
to monitor on-line the subtle trends in insulation condition change. A number of methods
were developed and implemented either in hardware circuits or software algorithms. The
choice of appropriate methods to use depends on the particular site situation.
Interference can be minimized by choosing a detection frequency band which yields high
signal to noise ratio (SNR). Measurements carried out on cable samples with artificially
created insulation defects in the laboratory show that most of the PD signal energy is
concentrated in the high frequency region from ~1MHz to a few hundred MHz. However,
there are also strong broadcast communications signals within that part of the spectrum. The
use of filtering and choosing a proper pass-band within this range would give a better SNR.
This was considered in the design of the HF-CT to achieve a desirable frequency response [1].
Interference can arise from signal coupling and when happen, simultaneous pulse occurrence
is detected on all three cables. The coupled signals would have a relatively smaller magnitude
and thus can be rejected on this basis [1]. Another effective method is by comparing the
polarity of the pulses. The PD signal produced in one cable can propagate through the
common earth link and be picked up by sensors installed on cables of the other two phases of
the supply. Thus the polarity of the pulse picked up by the sensor installed on the source cable
would be opposite to the polarity of the pulses picked up by the sensors on the other two
cables. Figure 5 is an example. However, this method may not work in three phase cable
circuits with cross bonding. The third method to eliminate inter-phase coupling is by using
phase-position gating. Most PDs normally cluster over one area in each of the 50Hz ac half-
cycle. Therefore any activities occurred outside the ‘normal windows’ must be either noise or
pick-ups from other phases. The latter can be explained from the 120o shift between the three
phase supplies.

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For common-mode interference, its rejection can be achieved by comparison of the recorded
signals from the three phases. In Figure 6(a), the common-mode interference results in pulses
occur on all channels exactly at the same time. Furthermore, the waveshapes and their relative
magnitudes are very similar. On the other hand, Figure 6(b) shows a pulse detected by only
one channel. This suggests a valid discharge in that particular cable.
In some situations, noise gating using hardware is a viable method. This requires the use of an
additional sensor that is able to detect the external interference but insensitive to the internal
discharges from the cable, e.g. an antenna to pick up radiative interference. The output from
this so-called interference sensor is then used to generate the gating signal, as shown in Figure
7(a). While the gating signal is active, any pulses appear at the PD sensor will be ignored.
In other situations, noise gating using software is a better approach. Figure 7(b) shows an
example where this was applied to remove the strong conductive interference from the audio
frequency injection control signal (AFIC, periodically injected into the supply network for
metering purpose). The two polar plots compare the before and after gating, the former shows
no apparent pattern but the latter clearly indicates PD activity.
Differential measurement is a method widely used for noise cancellation. However, the
implementation of this technique using electronic circuits may not be effective, especially for
high-frequency application, as it requires exactly matched sensors (difficult to fabricate) and
signal transmission paths. Thus the software-based differential method was developed to
enable adjustment of slight time-shift and/or attenuation between the signals [15].

Figure 5: Pulse polarity. Figure 6: (a) Common-mode interference, (b) valid PD.

(a) (b)
Figure 7: Noise gating by (a) hardware, and (b) software.
The PDM-II enables more sophisticated signal processing to be applied to the recorded
signals for interference rejection, denoising and PD classification. The shape of the pulse is a
useful feature which can be characterised in either the time domain or the frequency domain.
The time-domain features often used are the pulse rise time, decay time, pulse width, and
area. Recent work proposed new features, namely short-time energy and short-time zero-
crossing counts, which can be used effectively in the denoising process [16]. The sampled
data captured over the AC cycle is divided into many small non-overlapping segments from
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which these features are extracted. A high rate of zero-crossings implies the segment contains
noise whereas a comparatively low rate indicates the presence of a PD signal. Further
verification is carried out based on calculation of the short-time energy of the signal. The
method has been tested with laboratory data and also real data collected from monitoring
cables in a number of substations, as illustrated in Figure 8.
The signal waveform can also be analyzed in the frequency domain in terms of signal power
or magnitude spectrum [2]. The signal frequency characteristics can be extracted using the
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). However, this only works well for stationary or slow varying
signals but not for randomly transient signals. Thus, the Short-Time Fourier Transform
(STFT) is often used instead which provides more effective temporal localisation for the
latter. Nevertheless, an inherent limitation of the STFT is its inverse relationship between the
time and frequency resolutions, i.e. improved time resolution can only be achieved at the
expense of the frequency resolution.
The Wavelet Transform (WT) provides an elegant solution to the resolution problem by using
short analysis windows at high frequencies and long windows at low frequencies [18]. The
signal is decomposed into different levels (sub-bands) where each level corresponds to a
unique time and frequency resolution. Signal de-noising is achieved by discarding the wavelet
coefficients that are related to noise and using the remaining coefficients to reconstruct the
signal. The process involves appropriate selection of threshold levels to differentiate a PD
signal from noise [9]. Due to varying noise levels in practical situations, it is desirable to be
able to automate this process. It is worth noting that apart from the WT-based approach, a
signal gain booster applied to the STFT-based technique has recently been proposed (Figure
9) which is equally as effective [10]. Despite the progress made to date, there is not yet a
single effective method that is able to de-noise PD signals under various types of noise and
interference encountered in real substations.

Figure 8: Short-time energy and zero crossing. Figure 9: STFT with signal booster.
Finally, it should be noted that the acceptable PD levels vary significantly with the cable type.
Oil-paper cables are more resilient and typically can tolerate large PDs up to ~6000pC. On the
other hand, XLPE cables are not as tolerant and ~200pC is probably the maximum limit. For
on-site measurements, the interference levels can be as high as ~8000pC. Thus although the
new generation of standard digital PD measuring systems may be adequate for on-site testing
of oil-paper cables, specially-developed systems are necessary for XLPE cable insulation
assessment. In practical situations, other complications can arise. For example, faulty sections
of old oil-paper cables are often repaired (replaced) using XLPE cables.

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Detecting the presence of PDs is the first step. Having achieved this goal, the next step is PD
diagnosis which aims to identify the type of the cable insulation defect based on the observed
PD patterns. Knowledge of where the discharge occurred and physical mechanism (treeing,
surface or void discharges, corona) will help in assessing the degree of its harmfulness and
enable appropriate corrective actions to be taken [13,14]. The analysis of PD results is
challenging and complicated because the PD activity is essentially a stochastic physical
process. The magnitude of the PD pulses varies as well as the time and rate of occurrence.
The characteristic behaviour of the PD activity, derived from its measurement and recording,
is one of the most effective diagnostic techniques for assessing insulation condition. However,
the simplistic approach of a single averaged value as representing the PD level (and similarly
for its repetition rate) is far from adequate for the purpose of detecting small, gradual change
and deterioration of the insulation. Pattern classification tools such as the probabilistic neural
network, support vector machine, artificial neural network with back propagation, and sparse
representation classifier, have all been used as PD classifiers. The fusion of classifier outputs
has been utilised to improve the accuracy of the classification [20]. There are many types of
fusion techniques, including linear score weighting and artificial neural network fusion.

4 SITE MEASUREMENTS
The PDM system has evolved over the years since it was first applied to on-line cable
monitoring applications. Once the system is installed at a site, unattended continuous
monitoring can be effected for long periods (days or weeks) and it can be remotely
interrogated. Prior to installation, a ‘spot check’ should be carried out to establish the typical
noise level at the test site.
There have been many on-site measurements on utilities cable networks. This enables
continuous hardware and software improvement of the system. The university provides
voluntary management and reporting of measurement data to utilities in exchange for the
opportunity to use the PDM at real sites to gather in-service data for research purposes.

(a) (b)
Figure 10: (a) Monitoring 11kV XLPE cable joint with clamp sensors, (b) Time delays.
The PD cable monitoring work has produced a number of real, positive outcomes for the
utilities involved. Historically, the first successful case was an 800m long 3-core XLPE 11kV
cable. Separate source test gave 3000pC at 2Uo (12.7kV), measured at substation end using
conventional IEC60270 method. Since there is a joint at middle of the cable, it was speculated
that that could be the source and so 3 clamp sensors were installed around the joint as shown
in Figure 10. By measuring time delays between the 3 sensor signals and knowing the
propagation velocity (0.2m/ns), results indicate fault in section between Blue and Red sensors
(0.5m-0.7m from Blue sensor) which is the location of cable joint. After repairing joint, this

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cable passed PD test. Another relevant case involved a cable joint failure on single-core 132
kV paper cables (from a different utility). After repairing the faulty joint, it was decided to
monitor the 4 cable joints at that site with 3 clamp sensors for each joint. As shown in Figure
11(b), off-line calibration shows the location of the injection source can be determined. Live
measurements show intermittent disturbances from one of the joints during the 150kV DC
test, shown in Figure 11(c). The cable circuit was returned to service. Although some
activities were observed during subsequent monitoring, they were intermittent and so the
investigation is still in progress.

Figure 11: 132kV paper cable joints (a) sensor locations, (b) calibration, (c) live signals
An interesting case study of late involved a zone substation with two 33kV feeders and three
33/11kV transformers. Feeder no.2 is XLPE cable of ~3km length with capacitance of
~1.4F. The length of XLPE cable connecting the 33kV bus to transformer no.1 is ~40m.
With the installation of the new feeder no.2, it was proposed to perform PD tests. Pre-
commissioning off-line tests indicated intermittent PD activity on cables but only at test
voltage well in excess of service voltage. Post commissioning on-line spot checks indicated
intermittent PD activity at normal service voltage. Thus, it was decided to install the PDM-I
system for continuous monitoring over an extended period. The trend results showed
significant level of signal activity, particularly during periods coincident with hot summer
afternoons. Further examination of the phase-resolved scatter plots showed clear evidence of
classic PD activity. Localisation using the clamp sensors indicated the PD source was near the
switchgear-end termination of the 33kV cable on the Red phase that connects transformer
no.3 to the switchgear. This cable was then taken off-line for forensic examination, and the
problem was identified coming from the faulty plug-in cable connectors.
Subsequently, remedial action was carried out on transformer no.3 at the switchboard by
upgrading the cable connectors with semi-conductive paint at end of the earth screen semi-
conductive layer. Immediately after the remedial work, trending results showed no PD
activity. However, the remedial work was not applied to the other two transformers and so it
was considered useful to re-deploy the PDM-II at this site again in 2011 (after a 2-year gap).
HF-CTs were placed on the cable fault screen earth leads at the 33kV switchboard end of the
transformer tails. To verify the system functionality, on-line performance check was carried
out by injecting calibration pulses through another HF-CT and monitoring the response from
the PD sensors.

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Clamp sensors were used to detect the signal direction and no PD source of concern was
observed on either of the incoming 33kV feeders. As shown in Figure 12, the PDM-II trend
and scatter plot data clearly indicates a PD source, with magnitude in the range 1000 to
2000pC, associated with white phase of transformer no.2. There is some evidence of other
less serious PD sources on other phases of transformer no.2 or transformer no.1. In contrast,
no PD source of concern was observed on transformer no.3.

Figure 12: PDM II trending and scatter plot results

Based on this finding, remedial action has been approved to be applied to transformer 1 and 2
in order to rectify the PD faults. This clearly demonstrates the practical value of the PDM
systems in monitoring the cable sealing ends. A further PD survey is planned following
remedial work on transformer no.1 and no.2 plug connectors.

5 CONCLUSION
It has been shown that the PDM systems, developed through collaboration between power
utilities and universities, provide an effective means for on-line condition monitoring of
network assets such as power cables. Practical and effective techniques for rejecting noise and
interference have been developed and demonstrated. The system has been tested in the field
on many occasions by utility staff. To date, its use has resulted in a number of cases of
successful detection and location of the PD fault. Successful implementation of the PDM will
extend the life of the cable system and thus add considerable intrinsic value to the essential
electricity networks in Australia.

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