Weil Logging-"A 25-Year Perspective: Donaid Snyder and David B. Fleming

GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 50, NO. 12 (DECEMBER 1985); P. 25Q4.-2529, 21 FIGS., 1 TABLE.
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Weil logging-"A 25-year perspective
Donaid D. Snyder* and David B. Fleming*
ABSTRACT duced early in the period along with the cement bond
Developments in the field of weil logging over the last logging method. Interest in measurement of shear-wave
25 years are reviewed. Surface and borehole instrumen- velocity has produced riew direct shear-wave measure-
tation have evolved significantly, taking advantage of ments as weil as improved acoustic probes for full-
modern digital and analog integrated circuits. Most waveform acoustic logging.
open-hole petroleum weil logs are now recorded digi- Other interesting or promising methods which have
tally, Digital logs are also frequently acquired in cased- been developed or improved during the period include
hole petroleum, mineral, and geotechnical applications. the borehole televiewer, the borehole gravimeter, and
Nuclear weil-log measurements have become accepted the nuclear magnetic resonance log. The digital com-
and reliable. New measurements include borehole computer pro vides powerful capabilities for weil-log anälysis
pensated density and neutron-porosity, sidewall epi- both at the weil site and in the office. Analysis of com-
thermal neutron-porosity, and most recently litho- plex sand-shale and catbonate formations using two or
density. The neutron decay log, developed early in the more logs in a simultaneous solution of a litho-porosity
25-year period, has undergone a number of major im- model is now routine. Powerful signal processing tech-
provements since its introduction. Pro bes which make niques are being applied to "deconvolve" welllogs, to
speetral measurements of natural gamma-ray emission, enhance or synthesize images of the wellbore, and to
and gamma-ray emission from neutron interactions estimate or extract infotmation from full-waveform
with matter have also been developed. Resistivity acoustic logs.
measurements are now made with probes which com- While new or improved measurernents have been in-
bine three or more sensors each with different depths of troduced and log analysts now have access to powerful
irtvestigation so that information about the borehole computers and graphic work stations, understanding of
invasion profile can be acquired. Acoustic logging meth- the petrophysical significanee of the measurements lags
ods have expressed major devélopments and improve- behind the basic hardware measurement and interpreta-
ments. The compensated sonic measurement was intro- tion technology.
INTRODUCTION borehole. Archie (1960) defined the term "petrophysics" as the

science wherein the physicochemical and petrological relation-
We present a review of welllogging developments over the ships of rocks and their geologie significanee are studied. Since
last 25 years. Segesman (1980) published a 50 year historical well logging employs geophysical measurements in a borehole,
review of weil logging in the 50th Anniversary Issue of GEO- many use the term "borehole geophysics" interchangeably with
PHYSICS. Johnson (1962) and Allaud and Martin (1977) also the term "well logging." [Ed. Note: Some scientists reserve
published historical reviews of weil logging. The history of the term" borehole geophysics" to borehole-to-surface, surface
well logging and the history of the Society of Exploration to-borehole, and cross-borehole techniques.] Boreholegeophys-
Geophysicists closely parallel each other, and significant de- ies is the subject of a review presented elsewhere in this issue
velopments in the field of welllogging are similar to and occur (Dyck and Young, 1985). We believe that weil logging is the
in the same time framework as those relating to the other application of boreholegeophysieal and other measurements to
major subdivisions and specialties of applied geophysics. petrophysies. Borehole geophysies mayalso be applied on a
Because weil logging is a broad subject we are limiting the larger scale, possibly involving transducers on the surface or
scope of our review to petrophysieal measurements made in a in other boreholes.
weil ot borehole and on rocks which actually interseet the In this review, we emphasize those developments which we.
Manuscript reviewed by W. E. Glenn.

Manuscript received by the Editor March 5, 1985; revised manuscript received May 1, 1985.
*675 Industrial Blvd., Delta, CO 81416.
,:<') 1985 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved
2504
Weil Logging·Last 25 Vears 2505
deern significant or which we have learned are held significant "The recording of log data on magnetic tape, in a form
by our colleagues. Because GEOPHYSICS is only one of many compatible for input to modern high-speed data-
processing equipment has made possible the application
technical joumals in which information about weil logging is of all this sophisticated equipment to the processing of
disseminated, we indicate our perception of GEOPHYSICS' role the data. This development is perhaps more of a
during the 25-year period ofthis review. We cite "classical" or challenge than a solution to aspecific problem.
"representative" contributions to the subject of weil logging To use the techniques of data processing iri log interpre-
from other journals, but our references are by no means com-
tation will require the efforts of many people and some

prehensive. Segeman's (1980) paper contains an excellent bibli- reshaping of the basic ideas of log interpretation. Many
ography covering the entire 50-plus years of well-Iogging his- ideas that have been rejected as too complicated in the
tory. past must be reconsidered, and a new attitude must be
developed in this regard for the future. Even the design
In our review, references are made to various well-logging of logging tools will be effected. "
service companies in conneetion with certain logging tools
and techniques. These references acknowledge a particular Digital data acquisition using instrumentatiort which was
company's contribution to the developments under discussion essentially identical to the system outlined by Moran et al
and are not meant to infer that a particular company has a (1962) continued through the 1960s into the 1970s. As predie-
unique or superior method or capability. ted, many new techniques were developed for processing and
interprering digital well-log data. To benefit the log analyst at
WELL-LOG DATA ACQUISITION the weil site and to permit important decisions such as weil
completions, etc. to be made without delay, major well-log
One of the most significant developments in geophysics service companies set up telemetry links between the well site
during the last 25 years has been the application of the digital and a centrally located data processing center. During the late
computer to all aspects of our science, Well logging has been
an exception. Segesman (1980) termed the modern period of
well logging (by our definition, the last 25 years) "the digital
age." The recognition of the benefits and the utility of the
flO.
digital computer with regard to geophysical and well-Iogging SOlllC LOG
problems, coupled with growing availability of computers to GAlVO SIGIAL
our industry in the late 1950s, led immediately to the desire to
acquire well logs in digital as well as analog form.
(AllElA DlIYEIF........"'""'iF......_=~~· ....~_"'I,
Digital acquisition fOOT lAllEI +.
Broding and Poole (1960) described an early weil-log data

acquisition system used for acoustic logging. A block diagram
of their system is shown in Figure la. The system featured a
single-channel analog-to-digital (A/D) converter coupled to a
paper tape punch which was depth driven at the rate of 1
digitization per foot of log. The basic data acquisition system
was also adapted to digitizing paper records using a hand-
following curve tracer. Paper tape recordings of the well logs (A)
were used to calculate interval velocity logs and synthetic seis-
mograms on the computer. The authors suggested that many
other petrophysical parameters could be computer-derived if
logs were available in digital form, and they predicted that in TRAN5LATION
the future well logs would be recorded in digital as weil as COMMUTATION ANO
analog format. QUANTIZATION RECOROING
A classic paper by Moran et al. (1962) described the acqui- AHALOG ANALOO
TO
sition and processing of dipmeter data using a digital data INPuTS DIGITAL
CDNVERTER
acquisition system containing most of the elements of those in
common use today. A block diagram of this Schlumberger
data acquisition system is shown in Figure 1b. The instrumen-
tation featured (1) a multichannel input multiplexor so that TAPE
more than one data channel input multiplexor so that more RECORDER
than one data channel could be digitized, (2) a high-speed,
8-bit, A/D converter (240 conversions/s), (3) digital depth en- DEPTHS
coding, and (4) magnetic tape recording. The magnetic tape
recording unit recorded at a density of 200 bpi and at the rate
of 2.4 inches/s, A 600 ft reel of magnetic tape could hold 50 (B)
minutes of dipmeter log. Although the data acquisition system
was applied to acquiring dipmeter data, Moran and his co- FIG. 1. Functional block diagram ofearly digital weil log data
workers emphasized that the system was more generally appli- acquisition systems. (a) after Broding and Poole, 1960, (b)
cabie. In their words Moran et al., 1962.
2506 Snyder and Fleming
1960s and early 1970s, systems such as the Schlumberger open-hole petroleum logging services utilize an onboard min-
DART®l system allowed thé transmission of the digitally re- i/microcomputer both to acquire and to record data and to
corded weil logs by phone line or radio link to the central perform basic reduction and interpretation data processing at
data processing center (Eaton and Decker, 1966). More recent- the weil site immediately following data acquisition. Fur-
Iy, the development of minicomputers and subsequently thermore, many cased-hole petroleum and minerals logging
microcomputers enabled much necessary weil-log data pro- service companies engaged in uranium and coal exploration
cessing to be completed at the weil site. However, even before and evaluation are utilizing similar acquisition technology.
minicomputers were placed onboard the logging truck, efforts

were underway to develop a weil-site computing capability. PROBE AND MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY
An early effort to pro vide weil-site computing capabilities
through the use of analog computing devices is described by Although less visible, dramatic improvements in basic probe
Tixier et al. (1965). and measurement technology were brought about by the
miniaturization and integration of electronic circuits. These
The weil-site computer improvements resulted in probe electronics which are more
rugged and reliable, and which operate over a broader tem-
The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the introduetion of the perature range.
minicomputer. Small enough to be installed in a logging truck, Standard oil field well-Iegging tools commonly have a
the minicomputer was fully capable of controlling digital data specified maximum operating temperature of approximately
acquisition, digital recording on magnetic tape, and playback 175°C (350°F). To log at temperatures above 175°C, the elec-
to incremental plotters or other suitable graphical display de- tronies in the probë must be designed using electronic cornpo-
vices. An early reference to a minicomputer-controlled log nents such as junction field-effect transistors (jFETs) and spe-
data acquisition system may be found in Buckner (1972). cially fabricated thickfilm hybrid circuits which operate satis-
However, credit for the commercial introduetion of a factorily at these elevated temperatures. In addition to the
computer-controlled weil logger goes to Gearhart-Owen (now electronic components, speciallogging cable in which the con-
Gearhart Industries) who introduced its Direct Digital Log- ductors are insulated with TFE or PFA Teflon are required.
ging Service (DDL®)2 (Burgen and Evans, 1975). A unique Finally, all "O"-ring pressure seals must be made of elasto-
feature of the DDL was that the computer was used to drive mers such as Viton or KaIrez or of metal alloy (Veneruso and
the primary graphic display device (laser camera), thereby Coquat, 1777). Using these special components, logging
eliminating much of the duplication contained in so-called probes were constructed to operate satisfactorily at temper-
"hybrid" systems containing both analog and digital record- atures exceeding 275°C (52SOF) and pressures exceeding 138
ing capabilities (see Figure 2). Schlumberger introduced its MPa (20 000 psi). In conneetion with the development of elec-
Cyber Service Unit (CSU®)3, a similar minicomputer-based tronies suitable for geothermal weil instrumentation, McCor-
weil-log data acquisition and processing unit a year later mick et al. (1979, 1982)described an integrated circuit technol-
(Eaton et aL, 1976). Although not reported in the literature ogy based on thermionic emission which allows the fabri-
until 1978, a parallel development was also being developed in cat ion of integrated circuits using triode-like thermionic de-
the mineral logging industry in support of uranium explora- vices, Experimental tests demonstrated that these devices and
tion. As reported by Kincade et al. (1978), Century Geophysi- the simple circuits into which they were incorporated are ca-
cal was field-testing its first generation COMPU-LOGger®4 pa bie of extended operation at temperatures up to 500°C
at the same time that the DDL was undergoing its field trials. (930°F).
During this period, driven by the uranium boom of the Modern analog and digital electronic circuits have certainly
1970s, much well-Iogging technology was being developed in- been responsible for qualitative changes in theelectronic
dependent of the petroleum logging industry, Today, all major packages in probes. Equally important was the introduetion of
sophisticated data telemetry systems into the probe. In many
pro bes today, digital data acquisition takes place in the probe.
@lTrade and service mark of Schlumberger
®2Trade and service mark of Gearhart Industries Older tools send pulse frequency or analog data to the surface
®3Trade and service mark of Schlumberger throtigh the logging cabie. Modern probes telemeter digital
®4Trade and service mark of Century Geophysical data to the surface. Many of the newer digital acquisition
systems in pro bes are under microprocessor control. Unfortu-
nately, commonly available analog and digital integrated cir-
ANALOG cuit components generally limit the maximum operating tem-
TO
D1GITAL
COMPUTER perature specificatien to about 150°C (300°F).
I
N
CONVERTER Here we discuss developments and improvements to well-
D
U logging probes. To facilitate our discussion, we chose to sub-
C
T divide well-Iogging measurements into four groups: (1) nuclear
I
o
N
measurements, (2) eIectrical measurements, (3) acoustic
measurements, and (4) other measurements.
Nuclear welllogging
Many nuclear logging methods, including natural gamma-

FIG. 2. Functional block diagram of the "Direct Digital Log- ray logs, neutron-gamma, neutron-thermal neutron logs, and
ging" system (Burgen and Evans, 1975). gamma-gamma logs, were developed and in relatively routine
Weil Logglng.Last 25 Years 2507
use prior to 1960 (Segesman, 1980). However, it was not until lumberger (Alger et al., 1971). Although originally thought to
late in the middle period of logging history (1940-1960) that be a porosity measurement which is independent of lithology,
problems in nuclear probe sensitivity, stability, and calibra- it was soon discovered that the presence of strong neutron
tions were satisfactorily solved. In 1960 (at the beginning of absorbers coupled with nonoptimum detector spacings can
the period covered by this review) the nuclear logs were just produce anomalous porosity readings (Allen et al., 1972).
beginning to be regarded as indispensible measurements for For a period, the dual-spaced thermal neutron log replaced
formation evaluation. The past 25 years have seen old nuclear the epithermal neutron log as the neutron porosity device
well-Ioggingtechniques refined and many new ones developed. routinely run by the major wireline service companies. It is
New or improved logging techniques include gamma-ray spec- now recognized that there is a place for both measurements
troscopy (passive and neutron-induced), pulsed neutron meth- and, hence, probes with both therm al and epithermal neutron
ods, the epithermal neutron porosity log, the dual-spaced ther- detectors have been introduced. A combination probe which
mal neutron log, the compensated gamma-gamma density log, includes both a dual thermal neutron as weil as a dual epi-
and the Litho-density log (LDL®)5. therm al neutron measurement was recently described (Davis
Neutron porosity logging.-By the end of the middle period et al., 1981).
of well-Iogging history, the neutron-thermal neutron and neu-
Pulsed neutron logging.-At the close of the 1950s, pet-
tron gamma logging techniques were well-established. How-
rophysicists in the West and in the Soviet Union were hard at
ever, it was recognized that these measurements were signifi-
work developing applications for the neutron generator (CaId-
cantly influenced by rock matrix chemistry and were not,
weIl and Mills, 1959; Mardoek, 1960). The neutron generator
therefore, the most ideal porosity logs. The matrix effect on
utilizes a high-voltage Van de Graff accelerator to accelerate
the thermal neutron or neutron gamma logging measurements
positive ions of deuterium into a tritium target, resulting in
is a result of elements in the rock or fluid chemistry which
the emission of 14 MeV neutrons. Neutrons at this high-
have high thermal neutron absorption cross-sections. The ab-
energy interact with matter principally through inelastic scat-
sorption of thermal neutrons near the detector eauses the ther-
tering. An inelastic scattering event causes the immediate
mal neutron count rate to be low (porosity estimates too
emission of a gamma-ray partiele called a "prompt gamma
high). Similarly, a gamma detector would detect a higher
ray" whose energy is characteristic of the atomie nucleus in-
count rate from the capture gamma rays emitted as a result of
volved. Af ter the high-energy neutron has been moderated
neutron capture again giving anomalous porosity estimates.
through inelastic and elastic scattering to thermal energy (.025
This problem was virtually eliminated with the introduetion of
eV), it may be absorbed or "captured l l" by an atomie nu-
the Sidewall Neutron Porosity log (SNp®)6 by Schlumberger
cleus. The probability that the nucleus of a given element will
(Tittman et al., 1966). The epithermal neutron method detects
capture a thermal neutron is called the "microscopie thermal
neutrons whose energies are greater than the thermal energy
neutron capture cross-section" for that element. Chlorine and
level (i.e., .1-100 eV). Above the thermal energy, the neutrons
boron are examples of elements which have relatively high
emitted by alpha-Beryllium neutron sourees principally inter-
microscopie thermal neutron capture cross-sections, When a
act with matter by the mechanism of elastic scattering. The
nucleus captures a thermal neutron, it emits a "capture"
higher-energy neutrons lose energy or are moderated prin-
gamma ray whose energy is characteristic of the nucleus in-
cipally through their elastic scattering interactions with hy-
volved. Moreover, the new isotope formed by the capture of
drogen nuclei. Therefore, the epithermal neutron population
the therm al neutron is generally radioactive and will decay
detected by the detector is representative of the hydrogen den-
with some characteristic half-life and will again emit gamma
sity or "hydrogen index" of the rock. In many cases, such as
rays and other subatomie particles in the decay process.
in clean limestones and sandstones, the hydrogen index is the
The neutron accelerator is being used in conjunction with
water- or oil-saturated porosity of the rock. The original epi-
gamma detectors to realize four different types of logging
thermal neutron measurement was a sidewall measurement
measurements: (I) prompt gamma ray spectroscopy, (2) ther-
with the souree and single epithermal detector deployed in a
mal neutron decay or lifetime, (3) capture gamma ray spec-
skid or "shoe." The measurement is, therefore, sensitive to tooi
troscopy, and (4) detection of neutrons.
standoff from mudcake and borehole geometry.
Many of the perceived deficiencies of the epithermal neu- The carbon/oxygen (C/O) log is an example of a logging
tron log were addressed with the development of the dual- method based on simpIe prompt gamma-ray spectroscopy
spaeed neutron porosity log (Allen et al., 1967). The dual- using a pulsed neutron souree. Although the principle of C/O
spaeed neutron log uses the ratio of the count rates observed logging has been known since the 1950s, it was not until the
at two thermal neutron detectors located at different spacings early 1970s that practical techniques, including the necessary
from the souree. hardware, were finally developed (Loek and Hoyer, 1974;
Provided the proper detector spacings are used, the Culver et al., 1974; Schultz and Smith, 1974). The C/O log
measurement will respond to liquid-filled porosity while re- detects the prompt gamma rays emitted by carbon and
maining relatively insensitive to borehole diameter, tooi stand- oxygen, respectively, after these nuclei have undergone inelas-
off, and borehole and formation fluid chemistry. Moreover, tic scattering with a high-energy neutron. The C/O log is used
the effects of mudcake, casing, and cement are small. The first to detect hydrocarbons behind casing. It is particularly useful
commercial version of the dual-spaced neutron probe, the for reservoir evaluation where the salinity is low. In addition
Compensated Neutron Log (CNL®)7, was introduced by Sch- to the C/O ratio, presently available commercial logs detect
gamma rays resulting from thermal neutron capture events
®5Trade and service mark ofSchlumberger from calcium and silicon to compute a silicon/calcium ratio
®6Trade and service mark ofSchlumberger (Si/Ca). The Si/Ca ratio is a lithology indicator. The method is
®7Trade and service mark of Schlumberger operated either in a statie mode or at a very slow, continuous
logging rate. Statie measurements take from 1 to 10 minutes gates are much closer to the edge of the neutron pulse than
each. conventional pulsed neutron systems. These rates are analyzed
The neutron decay log, known by various trade names such in real time to determine the time constants for the decay
as TDT®8 (Thermal Decay Time) and DNLL®9 (Dual Detec- curve, assumed composed of two exponential functions. The
tor Neutron Lifetime Log), measures the time rate of decay of short time constant was related to the effects of the borehole.
the thermal neutron population around the detector after a The long time constant is related to the formation (Schultz et
short pulse from the neutron generator. The decay curve, al., 1983). Therefore, the TMD log, introduced by Welex, is
characterized by counting capture gamma rays received in two borehole compensated. The neutron decay logs are used to log
or more time gates spaeed after the neutron pulse, may be for hydrocarbons behind casing. The tools can be run continu-
approximated as a simple exponential decay which is related ously at a reasonable speed (i.e., 5-10 m/minute), Therefore,
to the macroscopie thermal neutron capture cross-section of while neutron decay logging and C/O logging have much the
the rock. The method was developed in the West by Lane same purpose and application, the neutron decay log is pre-
Wells (Youmans et al., 1964). However, there was a consider- ferred over the C/O whenever the salinity of the formation
able body of Russian literature describing similar techniques water is sufficient to give the water a high thermal neutron
prior to its commercial deployment in the West. cross-section.
Since their introduetion in 1964, thermal neutron decay The neutron generator has been combined with a gated
probes have undergone numerous improvements. The gamma-ray spectrometer in a tool recently developed by Sch-
TDT_K®10 system added a second gamma detector and used lumberger called the GST®12 (Gamma Ray Spectrometery
three dynamically positioned counting gates (Dewan et al., Tool) (Westaway et al., 1980; Flaum and Pirie, 1981). Using a
1973). The additional gate permitted the detection of the back- 256 channel spectrometer, the GST probe may be operated in
ground gamma rays. The sliding gate system was used to two modes. In the Capture-tau mode, the probe acquires a 256
minimize the effect of the borehole. The additional gamma channel capture gamma-ray spectrum plus a three-gate ther-
detector allows estimation of porosity in addition to the basic mal neutron decay measurement similar to the TDT-K
measurement of the macroscopie neutron cross-section. The measurement. In the Inelastic Mode, a 256-channel spectrum
TDT-M tool (Hall et al., 1982)incorporates 16 counting gates from prompt gamma rays is accumulated. Using data ac-
on both the near and far detectors. quired from the GST probe, subsequent data processing
The most recent improvement to neutron decay logging was allows identification and estimation of the elemental content
introduced by Welex (Smith et al., 1983b). The TMD®l1 of eight elements: C, 0, Cl, H, Si, Ca, Fe, and S. The GST
(Thermal Multigate Decay) log measures the gamma-ray probe therefore combines the functions of the C/O and chlo-
count rate at each detector for six time gates after the neutron rine logs with that of a TDT-K log.
pulse generator is turned off (Figure 3). The first two counting There have been two methods developed for the direct assay
for uranium which use the neutron generator-the DFN (De-
@8Trade and service mark of Schlumberger. layed Fission Neutron) method and the PFN (Prompt Fission
@9Service and trademark of Dresser.
@1°Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
@IITrade and service mark of Welex @12Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
NOTE: ONE BACKGROUND CVClE

AFTER EACH 1250BURSTS
TOTAl
COUNTRATE TOTAl
/' COUNTRATE~
I, Il
I
~
\\
HHHI I I HHHI I I --i ~---_I.l"\_(----_i
GATES-' 1 234 5 6 12 3 4 5 6 BACKGROUND
I~ 8OOJ.ls-~- 8OOJ.ls~t-5ms-~--n-- 55ms .,
TIME ..
FIG. 3. TMD pulsing and gating parameters (Smith et al, 1983).

Weil Logging-Last 25 Years 2509
Neutron) method. The DFN technique detects delayed fission turn in uranium exploration and production than to their
neutrons which are radiated from fission produets of uranium technical shortcomings.
produced by high-energy neutron bombardment (Givens et al.,
1976). The PFN method detects neutrons produced directly as Induced gamma-ray spectroscopy.-Gamma-ray spec-
the resuit of the fission process. In both cases, fission is caused troscopy mayalso be used with any available neutron souree
by neutron bombardment from a 14 MeV neutron generator. such as the alpha-Beryllium and Cf-252 neutron sourees.
The DFN technique, developed by Mobil, was commercialized However, these steady-state neutron sourees emit neutrons at
by Century Geophysical (West and Hallenburg, 1978). An energies substantially lower than the 14 MeV neutron gener-
aiternative DFN technique, utilizing a steady-state Cf-252 ator. Inelastic scattering interactions from neutrons emitted
neutron souree which was physically moved or "shuttled," from these steady-state neutron sourees have a low probabil-
was developed and commercialized by IRT of San Diego, CA ity. Therefore, the induced gamma radiation will be derived
(Steinman et al., 1980). The PFN technique using the 14 MeV primarily from neutron capture and from the decay of short-
neutron tube was developed by Sandia Laboratories but was lived isotopes activated by the neutron radiation.
never commercialized (Bivens et al., 1980). A comparison of The chlorine log is an example of an induced speetral
methods for the direct assay of uranium, which inc1udes the gamma-ray logging method using a steady-state neutron
DFN and PFN methods, was published in Wilson et al. souree (Peatross, 1976; Fletcher and Waiter, 1978). The chlo-
(1980). The published comparison was not able to designate a rine log measures gamma rays related to the capture of ther-
"winner" from among the methods evaluated. Based on con- mal neutrons by chlorine which is a constituent of the forma-
tinued research on the PFN technique at MobiI, Givens (1984, tion water. In addition, the logs measure gamma rays which
pers. comm.) feels that the PFN detection method is superior are directly or indirectly related to the amount of hydrogen in
to the DFN technique described in his original paper. Unfor- the formation. Induced speetral gamma-ray logging methods,
tunately, none of the direct uranium assay methods has been particularly the chlorine log, are alternatives to the pulsed
commercially successful. However, the commercial failure of neutron decay logging method.
these methods may have been due more to the general down- A high-resolution speetral gamma-ray probe was developed
&&J
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OF WINDOW BOUNDARIES
(Ktv)
FIG. 4. Diagram of speetral window positions on a typical passive gamma spectrallog. (George et al., 1979).
by Princeton Gamma Tech. The pro be contains an intrinsie gamma tools are outlined in Pickell and Heacock (1960). The
germanium detector, a 4000 channe1 multiehannel analyzer, review artiele by Tittman and Wahl (1965), which describes
and a digital transmission system (Goldman and Marr, 1979). the first generation Schlumberger probe designated the For-
The probe, when combined with a Cf-252 neutron source, has mation Density Log) (FDL®)14, is considered by many a
a broad range of applications in induced gamma-ray spec- classic paper. In the last 25 years Schlumberger has developed
troscopy. It has been applied to in-situ assay of coal, copper, a second and a third generation gamma-gamma density probe.
and iron. The advantage of this probe is its energy resolution The dual-spaced density probe (Wahl et al., 1964) is still in
«0.1 percent) which is nearly two orders of magnitude better general use today with a second detector added to the pro be
than the sodium iodide scintillation detectors typically used as at an intermediate spacing between the souree and the far
gamma-ray detectors. The disadvantage of the intrinsic ger- detector. The short-spacing detector is much more sensitive to
manium detector is that it has a very low detection efficiency the density of the material immediately adjacent to the face of
relative to the same volume of Na I. Therefore, the pro be must the probe (Figure 5). The density computed from the near
be run very slowly or in the stationary mode to acquire data detector is used to correct or to "compensate" the density
with satisfactory counting statistics. computed from the far detector for the effects of tooi standoff
due to mudcake or borehole rugosity.
Passive gamma-ray spectrometry.-All major petroleum A second improvement in the density tooi was introduced
well-Iogging service companies now offer a passive speetral more recently. The LDT (Litho-density Tooi) uses two detec-
gamma-ray measurement. Although these pro bes use the same tors to determine a compensated density log in the same way
type of scintillation detectors (Nalor CsI), the degree of spec- the conventional compensated density measurement is made.
tral resolution varies from simple four channel systems (i.e., However, the gamma rays detected by the far detector are
potas siurn, uranium, and thorium windows, plus gross gamma analyzed into two groups or energy windows (Figure 6).
counts) to full 256 channe1 speetral detection introduced by Gamma rays having energies of 150 KeV and higher are used
Gearhart and Welex (Loek and Hoyer, 1971; George et al., in the density computation because they are subject prin-
1979; Serra et al., 1980; Smith et al., 1983a; Mathis et al., cipally to the Compton scattering process upon which the
1984). The high-resolution spectrometer with 4 000 channel density computation is based. A second energy window de-
speetral resolution described in Goldman and Marr (1979) tects gamma rays with energies less than 100 KeV. These low
was also applied to passive gamma speetral analysis. However, energy or "soft" gamma rays can interact with matter by the
the high resolution afforded by the germanium detector is nor mechanism of photoelectric absorption. Elements with a high
warranted for petroleum applications. Petroleum applications atomie number Z are more likely to interact with the soft
for the gamma speetral log are principally in rock type identi- gamma rays than those with lower atomie numbers. Thus,
fication and stratigraphic correlation. For this purpose, the while the high energy or "hard" gamma ray count rate is
four-channel speetral log is sufficient (see Figure 4). Now, with
the availability of weil-site computers, the speetral data are ®
14
Trade and service mark ofSchlumberger
being stripped on site (in some cases in real time) to yield the
four logs of primary interest (K, U, Th, and Gross Count
Gamma Rate). In open holes, the Compensated Speetral Na-
tural Gamma Log (CSNG®)13 tooi developed by We1ex also
acquires a 256 channel gamma spectrum over a low energy
range (0-350 KeV). These data are analyzed to determine an
effective photoelectric cross-section parameter (Pe) as defined
in Bertozzi et al. (1981) in conneetion with the Litho-density
measurement.
The speetral gamma log also found a wide range of appli-
cations to nonpetroleum related problems. The reduced four-
channel speetral log pro vides assays for uranium and evapo-
rite deposits because the background effects from common
nonre1ated gamma emitters can be removed or "stripped"
from the channe1 of interest. The speetral gamma log was
found useful in conneetion with coal seam evaluation, in the
study of igneous rocks with application to hydrothermal alter-
ation and mineralization, and in hazardous waste disposal.
The high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometer, because of its
superior energy resolution, is capable of resolving individual
speetral photopeaks. This capability allows measurement of
gamma-ray emission at 1 MeV from Pa-234 (first daughter
product of U-238). The high-resolution spectrometer has been
used to assay uranium ore using its natural gamma-ray emis-
sions (Goldman and Marr, 1979).
Gamma-gamma density.-The gamma-gamma density log
was developed in the late 1950s. The details on early gamma-
13
@ Trade and service mark of Welex. FIG. 5. The dual spacing density probe (Schlumberger, 1972).
Weil Logging-Làst 25 Years 2511
related primarily to density, the soft gamma count rate is depth of investigation, information on the fluid invasion pro-
affeeted primarily by the atomie number. The LDT log uses file outward from the borehole is acquired. Typical of the tools
the ratio of the soft to hard gamma ray channels (S/H) to introduced is the Dual Laterolog (DLL®)lS (Figure 7), introe
compute a parameter Pe which is the photoelectric index. The duced in 1970, which combines a deep focused Laterclog
theoretical basis for the LDT log was published in GEOPHYS- (LLd) and a shallow Laterolog (LLs). The LLs is designed to
les in Bertozzi et al. (1981). As suggested by the choice of the respond principally to the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri).
name Litho-density, the parameter Pe is used as a lithology
Ot her dual Laterolog pro bes include a pad-deployed microlog

indicator. to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone immediately ad-
jacent to the borehole (Rxo). These combination resistivity
Electrical properties measurements pro bes provide sutlicient measurements to make a simplified
interpretation of the invasion profile including Ri, Rt, and the
Weil logging and formation evaluation began with the depth of invasion (Di).
Schlumberger brothers' measuring the formation resistivity in
a borehole. In petroleum formation evaluation, the resistivity Induction Jogs.-The induction log for measuring formation
or conductivity of the fluids which saturate the formation is a conductivity was introduced by Schlumberger in 1949 (DolI,
key parameter for estimation of oil saturation. Oil and gas 1949). As with the resistivity logging methods, early efforts
usually have a much greater resistivity than the formation were directed toward improving its vertical resolution and
water. Similarly, there is a large contrast between the dielectric minimizing borehole effect so that better estimates of forma-
constant of oil and water although this property contrast has tion resistivity were made. The development of the basic in-
not been exploited until comparatively recently. duetion log culminated at the beginning of the modern period
The early and middle years in the history of weil logging with the introduetion by Schlumberger of the 6FF'40 induc-
saw electrical logging methods develop along two parallel tion probe (Tixier et al., 1960). Theoretical calculations upon
paths basect on different fundamental principles but with the which the computation of conductivity were based originally
same objective: to measure formation resistivity. The two neglected EM propagation effects. The importance of the so-
methods are (1) resistivity logging and (2) induction logging. It called "skin effect" was rccognized by Duesterhoeft and Smith
was not until 10 years ago that methods for measuring the (1962). The induction log, which properly compensated for
dielectric constant in a borehole became available in the West. skin effect, pro vides better measurements of formation resistiv-
ity at the low resistivities often encountered in petroleum geo-
Resistivity Jogging methods.-Resistivity logging methods logic environments than do galvanic resistivity measurements.
are those in which low-frequency ac current is transmitted In the last 25 years, the main effort has been to combine
into the formation through galvanic electrode contact and a induction measurements having different depths of investi-
resistivity is calculated from a voltage measurement V, the gation in order to acquirc resistivity data relating to the bore-
transrriitted current J, and an electrode geometry factor K.
Prior to the modern period of weil logging, developments in
resistivity logging were directed to improving the vertical reso- ® 15Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
lution of the method and measuring the true formation resis-
tivity. Basically, the objective was to reduce the effect of the
borehole component of the measured resistivity to the point
where it was negligible. These efforts led to the development of LLd LLS
the so-called "focused " logs and the Laterolog (DolI, 1951;
Owen and Greer, 1951). ~-
In the last 25 years, there has been an effort to modify these .....-_ I
electrode arrays so that they respond principally to a particu- ---
lar zone or radial annulus of the borehole. Using a combi- .....-- - - - - - _._~,I --A 2 •
nation of resistivity measurements, each having a different _--- lil
~----
COUNT/SEC/qy ..,..,AlEGION OF PHOTOElETRIC EFFECT

/ I p e z INFORMATIONl
(lOW il
EGION OF COMPTON SCATTERING
(MEOll--H~ lp INFORMATION ONlY)
(HIGHl) /
SOURCE ENERGY
662 lleV
..... --------
I ...,6.--
FIG. 6. Schema tic diagram illustrating the variation of the

pulse height spectrum at the detector as a function of atomie
numbers. The diagram also shows the relative positions for
the S and H speetral gates on the LDT pro be (after Bertozzi et
al., 1981). FIG. 7. Schematic of the dual Laterolog (Schlumberger, 1972).
hole invasion profile. Induction probes today combine two constitutive property which provides such a contrast. Early
induction measurements (one deep focused and one medium measurements of dielectric constant in the borehole were re-
focused) with a shallow focused Laterolog. As with the dual ported in Russian literature [Daev (1965)]. Based on this early
Laterolog probes, the dual induction probes provide the infor- work, Meador and Cox (1975) at Texaco developed a probe
mation necessary to determine the parameters of a simple which meäsured the dieleetrio constant. A commercial probe
invasion model. offered by Gearheart incorporates features and principles of
Induction logs use multiple transmitting and receiving coils the Texaco developmertt which are covered by patents (Berry
to improve the vertical response as weil as to remove, as much et al., 1979). A similar logging measurement called the
as possible, the borehole effect. The transmitters and receivers DPTI!)16 (Deep Propagation Tool) is offered by Schlumberger
are connected in series. The direction and number of turns on (Huchital et al., 1982). Schlumberger also developed a sorne-
each coil are used to determine the weighting effect that each what different probe called the EPT®17 (Electtomagnetic
transmitting-receiving coil pair has on the resulting composite Propagation TooI) which operates at a much higher fre-
signal. Electronically, the multicoil induction probe has only a quency, The lower-frequency probes operate at 10-50 MHz
single receiver (all receiving coils are connected in series) and a and are similar in principle to induction probes. Transmitters
single transmitter (all transmitting coils are connected in and receivers are induction coils. Figure 10 illustrates the ge-
series). Figure 8 shows the coil spacings for a typical deep ometry of the probe discussed in Cox and Warren (1983). The
induction probe (ILd). EPT probe of Schlumberger operates at 1.1 GHz and employs
An interesting new approach to the induction measurement waveguide type antennas mounted on a deployable sidewall
was published in Martin et al. (1984). This induction probe pad. The configuration of the transmitters and receivers for
employs a single-coil transmitter and four independent single- that probe is reminiscent of a compensated acoustic probe
coil receivers with spacings as shown in Figure 9. Each re- (Figure 11). The advantage of the lower-frequency probes is
ceived signal is detected independently. Af ter receiver re- that they have a much larger radius of investigation than the
sponses have been digitized, they are weighted and combined
numerically to determine a conductivity log whose vertical 16
@ Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
and radial response characteristics are virtually identical with @1 "Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
the conventional multicoil focused induction logs. This
method has the advantage that the signal may be weighted
and combined in a numberof different ways to produce con-
ductivity logs with different vertical and radial response
characteristics. On the other hand, the tooI requires four iden-
tical receiver circuits, each with precisely known and stabIe 90mm dia
gain and phase characteristics. Thus, while a digital induction
probe has some interesting advantages, it is not c1ear whether
the probe described in Martin et al. (1984) is stabIe enough to
produce data as good as the data from more converttional
multicoil induction probes. It is unfortunate that the paper did
not show a comparison of induction logs made by the two
techniques.
High-frequency eJectromagnetic Jogging methods.-
Petroleum formation evaluation depends upon detecting a
property contrast between a water-saturated and an oil-
saturated reservoir. In cases where the formatibn water is
saline (i.e. < 1 n· m), the resistivity contrast between oil and
formation water is evident and provides the basis for the de-
tection and estimation of oil saturation. However, when the
formation water is less saline, the contrast between the resis-
60
tivity of the oil and the water becomes less distinct. Therefore,
a well-Iegging measurement which responds to some property 3·35m
difference between water and oil and which is independent of
water salinity would be useful. The dielectric constant is a 30
20
ILd
-13 +Rl -R2 -12 +11 -R3
-I . H H
. I
~ Tl
I I
I I
30 30 30'
30"
I _ S.p. & VOLTAGE
REFERENCE
.0"
I
FiG. 8. Transmitting and receiving coil spacings €In a typical FIG. 9. Coil geometry on the digital induction log (Martin et
deep induction pro be (Martin et al., 1984). al., 1984).
microwave frequency probe which responds to the properties acoustic waveform log in the interpretation of the cement
of the flushed zone. However, they are sensitive to the salinity bond was noted earlier in the classic paper by Pickett (1963)
of the pore fluid and to the matrix rock chemistry. The micro- on the applications of the acoustic "character " log. Pickett's
wave frequency probe is more independent of the salinity of paper has greatly influenced many aspects of acoustic logging
the pore fluid. Theory for the interpretation of the microwave during the last 20 years. .
measurement made by the EPT probe of Schlumberger was
published in GEOPHYSICS in Freedman and Vogiatzis (1979). Borehole compensated sonic logs.-The compensated bore-
hole sonic log was introduced by Schlumberger in 1964

(Kokesh et al., 1964)and represents a significant improvement
Acoustic measurements over the basic single transmitter/two-receiver pro bes described
in Summers and Broding (1952). The compensated probe,
The acoustic velocity log which measures the "transit time"
shown schematically in Figure 12 has two transmitters and
or "slowness" of the P-wave as it travels along the borehole
four receivers. The compensated acoustic measurement elimi-
between a transmitter and two or more receivers, was deve1-
nates the so-called "hom" effect seen on noncompensated
oped in the ear1y 19$08 independently by Mobil and Shell
acoustic logs near washouts. It also compensates for probe
(Summers and Broding, 1952; Vogel, 1952). Although orig-
"tilt" in the hole which causes errors in the computed transit
inally developed to provide velocity information to aid in seis-
time on single-transmitter tools since the borehole path at the
mie interpretation, the acoustic slowness was soon recognized
two receivers is unequal.
as having petrophysical significanee as an indicator of poros-
ity (Wyllie et al., 1956).
The borehole televiewer
The cement bond log.-Among the ear1y developments in
acoustic logging in the modern or "digital" age was the The borehole televiewer, an acoustic device employing an
cement bond log (Grosmangin et al., 1961). The cement bond ultrasonic transceiver which rotates azimuthally while the
log, or CBL as it is called, is based on the measurement of the pro be is drawn up the drill hole, was developed by Zemanek
amplitude of the compressional arrival between an acoustic and coworkers at Mobil Research (Zemanek et al., 1969,
souree and a receiver. A significant improvement to Schlum- 1970). A schematic drawing which illustrates the principle of
berger's original cement bond log was the introduetion of the the televiewer is shown in Figure 13. This tooI records only
recording of the acoustic waveform as a microseismogram by the amplitude of the first reflected arrival of the acoustic tran-
Welex (Harcourt et al., 1964). However, the utility of the sient which is assumed to be the reflected energy from the
TO
RECORDER
TO
RCVR SURFACE
ELEcr
LONG
RCVR
COIL
XMTR
elECT - DOWNHOLE •
XMTR POWER
BTRY
FIG. 10. Block diagram of a 20 MHZ dielectric logging system (Cox and Warren, 1983).
2514 SnYcier and Fleming
FIG. 13. Schematic drawing illustrating the principles of the

borehole te1eviewer operation (Zemanek et al., 1970).
FIG. 11. Schematic drawing of EPT antenna pad showing

principle of two-receiver measurement of transit time (Calvert
et al., 1977).
borewall. The reflection amplitude is used to modulate the

sweep intensity of an oscillographic recording device. Each
sweep corresponds to one revolution of the televiewer's acous-
tic transceiver. The sweeps are synchronized with a directional
reference provided by a fluxgate magnetometer. An example of
the te1eviewer output is shown in Figure 14.
The televiewer was originally developed to help identify and
evaluate fractured reservoirs. Unfortunately, subsequent to its
development, interest in fractured reservoirs waned and there
was little demand for televiewer surveys. Presently, interest in
televiewer surveys is reviving and we are informed that
Schlumberger has built or is building a number of new tele-
viewer probes so that the service will be available to c1ients.
An interesting extension of the basic borehole televiewer
principle was reported in Broding (1981) and is called Sonic
Volumetrie Scan (SVS) logging. The SVS log detects not only
the amplitude of the reflected acoustic arrival, but also the
arrival time. These data are recorded on specia1ly modified
video recording equipment. Figure 15 illustrates the standard
rectilinear greyscale televiewer plots of the two kinds of data.
In the plot at the right, the arrival time was used to modulate
the sweep intensity giving a display related to borehole cali-
-r: LUWER TRANSMITTER per. The plot on the left was modulated by the reflection
I amplitude giving the standard reflectivity display originally
FIG. 12. Probe geometry for a compensated acoustic measure- presented in Zemanek et al. (1969). A much more dramatic
ment (Kokesh et al., 1964). presentation of the SVS data is shown in Figure 16. Using
image synthesis techniques, the image of a damaged section of
casing is shown. It appears that the SVS log is applicable in
cased-hole logging particularly in casing inspeetion and
cement-bond evaluation. The improvements to the borehole
televiewer reported by Broding [including (1) the recording of
reflection transit time, and (2) the image reconstructionJ 7040
added an exciting new dimension to cased-hole inspeetion and
are helping to renew interest in the televiewer. Recent contri-

butions to the literature in Pasternack et al. (1983) and
Rambow (1984), who report work which closely parallels that
of Broding, indicate that there continues to be significant in-
terest in the televiewer among major petroleum research
groups.
Cement evaluation probe.-An acoustic logging method
which contains some of the attributes of the borehole tele-
viewer was developed by Schlumberger for evaluation of the 7050
cement bond between the casing and the cement annulus. The
tooI, designated the Cement Evaluation Log (CET®)18 has
eight directional acoustic transducers spaeed at 45 degree in-
tervals in a helical path around the probe (Figure 17). A ninth
transducer is used to measure the f1uid velocity. These trans-
ducers are pulsed sequentially and the amplitudes of the
casing arrival and its subsequent reverberations are measured.
The casing arrival is used to con trol the gain of the receiver
circuitry. The amplitude of the casing reverberations occurring
after the primary casing arrival is a measure of the cement
bond between the casing and the cement (Havira, 1982). The 7060
CET, therefore, incorporates principles which were effectively
illustrated in the image reconstructions performed from SVS
data (Broding, 1984) into a probe which can efficiently and
economically evaluate the casing/cement interface.
Shear-wave logging.-It has been c1ear from the beginning
of acoustic logging that it would be desirabIe to measure both
shear velocity and compressional velocity. Once both shear
and compressional veloeities are known, these data may be
combined with a density log to compute the dynamic elastic
moduli of the rock (Geyer and Myung, 1970). Based on lab-
oratory measurements, Pickett (1963) was able to demonstrate 7070
a significant correlation between the ratio of compressional to
shear velocity and lithology. Others also note that the velocity
ratio is a sensitive indicator of gas saturation. Thus, the last 25
years have seen continuous research into methods for reliably
extracting or measuring shear velocity information from
acoustic logging devices.
Long-spaced acoustic probes-The shear-wave energy ar-
rives at the receiver after the arrival of the compressional
wave. On conventional acoustic logs with shorter spacings (3
to 5 ft), the shear arrival is distorted by interference with late
arriving P-wave energy, thereby complicating precise esti- 7080
mates of the shear arrival times. For this reason, several ver-
sions of conventional acoustic probes with longer spacings (8
to 15 ft) were developed. The longer spacing acoustic pro bes
allow sufficient time for the two head waves (compressional
and shear) to separate in time. The geometries of the Schlum-
berger multipurpose sonic sonde and the Mobil LSAL are
shown in Figure 18. (Morris et al., 1984; Williams et al., 1984). N E s w N
These tools are typical of other long-spaeed acoustic pro bes
FIG. 14. Typical output from the original borehole televiewer

®18Trade and service mark ofSchlumberger (Zemanek et al., 1970).
developed by major oil and logging service companies. Using program include compressional and Stoneley wave speeds,
full-waveform acoustic transient logs recorded from these borehole caliper, and fluid and formation densities.
probes, reliable shear veloeities may be extracted by means of
digital data processing techniques outlined in recent papers Direct shear-wave logging probes.-As indicated above,
such as Willis and Toksöz (1983), Ingram and Morris (1981), there are cases, particularly in so-called "slow" formations,
and KimbalI and Marzetta (1984). When the shear velocity is where it is impossible to detect shear velocity by processing
less than the borehole fluid velocity (i.e., < 1 613 mis), there is the conventional sonic waveform log. In recent years, there-
no S-wave energy in the acoustic wave train and, therefore, the fore, considerable effort was devoted toward the development
S-wave velocity arrival time cannot be picked. However, the of a logging device which would directly generate and detect
velocity of propagation of the Stoneley wave is sensitive to S-wave traveltime in a manner similar to the way convention-
changes in the formation shear velocity. Recent papers (Ste- al sonic logs are produced. These efforts commenced with a
vens and Day, 1983; Liu, 1984)have indicated some success in paper by White (1967) in which a direct shear logging device
estimating shear velocity by an inversion of the theoretical dubbed the HULA log was proposed. Kitsunezaki (1980) first
formula for the Stoneley wave velocity. Inputs to the inversion realized a shear-wave logger based on principles published by
FIG. 15. Rectilinear grayscale plots of SVS data. The left channel represents time (caliper). The right channel represents
reflection amplitude (reflectance). (Broding, 1982).
FIG.
Weil Logglng-Last 25 Years
16. Image reconstructions from an SVS log showing cement channeling behind casing (Broding, 1984).
2517
White. However, Kitsunezaki's probe was required to operate pairs, and these pairs are sequenced so that each quadrant of
in the static mode (i.e., measurements were made with a the borehole is tested sequentially. The received waveforms for
stationary probe). The first continuous S-wave logging tooi each of the quadrants are transmitted to the surface and dis-
was reported in Zemanek et al. (1984). Using asymmetrie played in variabie density or other suitable full-waveform dis-
dipole transmitters and receivers, the Shear Wave Acoustic play. The principal propagation modes around the circumfer-
Log (SWAL)is able to detect S-wave slowness (transit time) in ence of the borehole are refracted S-wave and a guided fluid
wave. The amplitudes of both these propagation modes are
the same way that P-wave slowness is measured with a con-

ventional acoustic log. diminished by the presence of a fracture. Dresser has an-
nounced a commercial version of the CAD probe, called the
Circumferential acoustic logging.-The detection of frac- CAL®19 (Guy and Fertl, 1984).
tures is an important application for acoustic logging meth-
ods. Full-wave acoustic logs are useful for detecting fractures Other logging measurements
which are not vertical. However, the detection of vertical frac-
tures such as those produced by hydraulic fracturing requires Other logging measurements which do not fit logically into
some other logging method. The borehole televiewer has been the categories chosen to subdivide our discussion are not dis-
used to detect fractures at all attitudes. Another device, called cussed. However, several methods are discussed because they
the CAD (Circumferential Acoustic Device) was developed by are of general interest to exploration geophysicists (e.g., bore-
Shell especially for detection of high-angle fractures (Vogel hole gravity), because they are widely used logging methods,
and Herolz, 1981). The tooi has four long arms: one pair of or because they hold great promise.
opposing arms contains cylindrical-shaped piezoelectric trans- Borehole gravity.-Within the Earth, the vertical gradient of
mitters, the other pair contains matching receivers. The four
gravity is related to the density of the rock. If relative gravity
arms, spaeed at 90 degree intervals around the tooi body, are
can be measured at discrete points in a borehole and if the
independently deployed against the side of the borehole. Adja-
density is a function only of depth (i.e., horizontal bedding),
cent pairs of transducers are activated as transmitter-receiver
then estimates of the vertical gradient of gravity are linearly
related to density. There was interest in making borehole
gravity measurements even before the 25 year period covered
by this review (e.g., Smith, 1950). Goodell and Fay (1964)
described a borehole gravimeter based on the vibrating string
principle developed at Shell Development in the 1950s. How-
ever, that early meter did not have the sensitivity necessary to
pro vide density estimates useful for formation evaluation. In
the mid 1960s, however, two borehole gravity meters were
independently developed having sensitivities of 0.01 mGal or
better. The Esso meter described in Howell et al. (1966) was
BULK HEAO-------l':"!!'".., based on the vibrating string principle. The LaCoste and
FIXEO TRANSOUCER - - - -......
Romberg meter reported in McCulloh et al. (1967) is based on
the zero-length spring principle. Borehole gravity surveys are
i:srtl=fF"---- MOVABLE TRANSDUCER
currently offerred by EDCON (Denver, CO) who use second
generation LaCoste and Romberg meters. These meters have a
ADJUSTING SCREW 105 mm (4t inches) diameter and may be operated at temper-
atures up to 120°C (250°f) and at pressures of 83 MPa
(12 000 psi). A thermally insulated probe housing with a diam-
eter of 133 mm (5t inches) is also available allowing the gra-
,
CD TRANSOUCER vimeter to operate satisfactorily at temperatures up to 230°C
(450°F) for up to 24 hrs. The second generation LaCoste and
Romberg borehole gravimeter may be leveled in holes which
are deviated up to 14.5 degrees. A carefully run borehole grav-
ity survey using these meters can yield relative gravity values
with expected errors of less than .005 mGal. These data can be
reduced to an apparent interval density log in which the
average density over an interval of 6 m (approximately 20 ft) is
known with an expected error of about 0.01 g/cm' (EDCON,
ENTRALIZER
1977). Density values computed from borehole gravity data
3/"
OD 3/ 8
are not generally affected by borehole geometry. Caton (1981)
gave an excellent discussion of the reduction and analysis of
borehole gravity data. LaFehr (1983) discussed anomalous ef-
feets whieh eause conventional borehole gravity reduetion to
ealculate an "apparent" density rather than a true formation
OD4~
COMPENSATION / density. He offered two alternate methods for computing
better densities from a borehole gravity survey.
FIG. 17. The cement evaluation log (CET). Trade and service
mark of Schlumberger. ® 19Trade and service mark of Dresser
Weil Logging-Last ~5 V,ars 2519
SURFACE
CONTROL ......- -.... 6tLOG
PANEL
DIGITIZER
DIGITAL
ANO
STACKER RECO~OER
TRANSMITTER
T15'
7 CONDUCTOR
LOGGING CABLE
TYPICAL RECEIVED SIGNALS
COMPRESSIONAL TUBE
"J-
R2
5'
---L-
15'
(R1).----WV--IoJ\''IIII1IIV~''\.~IV------
20'
(R2).,-----"""---.J'\/\II/\I"'''''''''''
30 HZ - 30 KHZ
RECEIVER
o 2 3 4 5 6 MS
(a)
Mud at
Sonic
Measurement
Telemetry
Section
Tooi Module
Sonic
o ToW i n c h J - - - - - - - - r - - . . , - - - - - - - + - - i
Logging
Receiver
I
Section 3.5ft o
o
o
o Eight Wideband
Ceramic Receivers
Cyber Service Unit
(CSU)
o _ Telemetry
o
-+---'"0 Cartridge
GammaRay
(optional)
Sonic
Digitizing Array Processor Unit
TwoCeramic Cartridge
Receivers
Sonic
Sonic
Logging
Logging -Receiver
Sonde Section
Sonic
TwoCeramie -Logging
Transmitters Sonde
Caliper
(optional)
Sonie Array Tooi Hardware
Multipurpose Sonic Sonde Configuration
(b)
FIG. 18. Configurations for two long-spaeed acoustic probes. (a) LSAL probe configuration (Williams et al., 1984), (b)
Schlumberger's acoustic waveform logging system (Morris et al., 1984).
2520 Snyder end Fleming
The dipmeter.-We began our discussion ofthe last 25 years 4-arm High Resolution Dipmeter (HDT®)20 probe was intro-
with a review of the development of digital weIl-log acqui- duced (Allaud and Ringot, 1969). All major weIl-logging ser-
sition systems. It's not surprising that Schlumberger's early vice companies now offer a four-arm dipmeter log. lts advan-
pioneering work in digital weIl-log data acquisition was first tage is that three independent values of formation dip can be
applied to a dipmeter (Moran et al., 1962). Modern dipmeters computed from combinations of three of the four pad resistivi-
combine the functions of a deviometer with three or more ty curves. Last year Schlumberger described a further refine-
pad-deployed microresistivity sensors. Probe attitude is sensed ment in their four-arm dip tooI which they dubbed the Strati-
with a two- or three-axis accelerometer. Probe orientation graphic High Resolution Dipmeter (SHDT®)21 (Chauvel et al.,
with respect to magnetic North is generally sensed with a 1984). The resistivity pads on the SHDT each contain two
three-component fluxgate magnetometer (Figure 19). The mi- micro-focused resistivity sensors located 3 cm apart (see Fig-
croresistivity traces must be correlated or otherwise matched ure 18). These additional curves provide information regard-
over short intervals to determine the depth shifts produced by ing the stratigraphy of the formations logged. Also in 1984,
bedding planes which interseet the berehole. The dipmeter Geosource described a 6-arm dipmeter (Morrison and Thibo-
probe Schlumberger described in Moran et al. (1962) was a daux, 1984). The advantage of more arms is that at any given
three-arm dip tooI. A further improvement in the basic dipme- depth up to 20 independent solutions of dip may be computed
ter was added in 1969, again by Schlumberger, when the thereby improving the ability to grade the dip picks.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) logging.-No review
of weIl logging would he complete without mention of the
GAMMARAY nuclear magnetic resonance logging method. The NMR
method, described in Brown and Gamson (1960), uses a
periodically pulsed de magnetic field to realign someof the
ELECTRONICS atomie nuclei with magnetic moment (principally hydrogen) in
a direction different from that of the Earth's magnetic field.
While the polarizing field is off, the receiving circuitry mea-
FLEXJOINT sures both the amplitude and rate of decay of the Larmor
3 AXIS precession frequency which is produced as the polarized nuclei
, ACCELEROMETER
INCLINOMETER precess about the Earth's magnetic field. The amplitude of the
AZIMUTH, DEVIATION
SPEED CORRECTION received signal at the beginning of precession is related to the
amount of fluid (hydrogen) in the pore space which is free to
polarize in the direction of the applied field. Hence, the log
produced is called the Free Fluid Index (FFI) log. The rate of
signal decay may be used to infer something about the type of
fluid saturating the rock.
Parameters measured by laboratory and borehole NMR
apparatus (i.e., FFI and relaxation time) were related to mov-
able fluid and to permeability in sandstone reservoir rock
(Seevers, 1966; Timur, 1969). For this reason, there continues
to be great interest in NMR. Unfortunately, realization of a
compietely satisfactory borehole NMR measurement has been
illusive. At present, only Schlumberger offers an NMR log.
SHDT DIPMETER TOOL The Schlumberger probe, called the Nuclear Magnetisim Log
(a) (NML®)22 is a second generation probe.
OperationaIly, the NML log must be run in a drill hole in
HOT
which the borehole fluid has been doped with magnetic addi-
SHOT tives to eliminate the NMR effect of the borehoIe. Moreover,
the general concensus is that an SIN ratio problem which
limits the quality of the data remains (at least at toIerabIe
3cm logging speeds). An NMR technique based on a somewhat
n different measurement principle was recently described in
Jackson (1984). This technique, called the "inside out" tech-
nique, uses a statie magnetic field in conjunction with a radio
frequency magnetic field to generate an NMR signal in a
toroidal-shaped region concentric with the borehole. Although
the technique eliminates the borehole effect without the need
PAD COMPARISON
for doping the mud, it is limited to statie mode measurements.
Improvements in the "inside out" NMR method must await
(b) development of substantially stronger permanent magnets.
FIG. 19. Schematic drawing showing: (a) elements of Schlum-
berger's SHDT dipmeter probe, (b) Details of earlier micro-
resistivity pads (HDT) and the new high-resolution strati- @2°Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
graphic pads. Trade and service marks of Schlumberger. @2'Trade and service mark of Schlumberger
(Chauvel et al., 1984). @22Tradeand service mark of Schlumberger.
Weil Logglng-Last 25 Vears 2521
WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION tessence of improved interpretation. Progress has been made,
however, and judging from the literature, additional contri-
Development of digital weil-log data acquisition was driven butions in this area will be forthcoming. G. Olhoeft (1985, this
by recognition of the new possibilities for interpretation using issue) treats the subject of "rock properties " in detail. How-
the processing capability of computers. Standard borehole ever, we mention some highlights for completeness.
corrections could easily be applied, and formation evaluation
based on the solution of a complex lithology and fluid model Electrical properties.-Archie's law, which relates the bulk
using several logging traces as input was now feasible. Moran resistivity of a rock to its porosity and the resistivity of its
et al. (1962)c1early showed that digital acquisition of dipmeter pore fluid, has been one of the basic equations for formation
data was essential to process the large amounts of data pro- evaluation since first published (Archie, 1942). However, when
duced by the dipmeter. The 1960s were the years in which the the rock matrix includes conducting material such as c1ay or
utility of the computer for weil-log interpretation was recog- perhaps sulfide minerals, the bulk resistivity does not obey
nized. However, eomputerized weil-log analysis was of necessi- Archie's law. In petroleum formation evaluation, a model
ty performed on large, mainframe computers located at een- which correctly prediets the bulk resistivity p, as a function of
tralized processing centers. Desire to improve processing the pore water resistivity p.;; and the porosity <I> is important
turnaround between the field and the computer processing to estimating oil saturation in shaly reservoirs. In mining, such
center led to the development of weil-log data telemetry sys- a model is equally important since the induced-polarization
tems. However, from a practical standpoint computer-aided method is used to identify rocks containing disseminated sul-
weil-log interpretation has not been widely available to the fides. Important contributions toward the understanding of
practicing weil-log analyst until comparatively recently. the e1ectrical properties of clay-bearing porous rocks were
Minicomputer-based systems for interactive weil-log interpre- made by Waxman and Smits (1968), Clavier et al. (1977), and
tation were described in Martner and Brigham (1975), and Bussian (1983). More recently, Vinegar and Waxman (1984)
Smith and Souder (1975). These early systems included graph- published a model for the complex resistivity (i.e., lP) response
ics CRT terminals and hardcopy devices for display and sev- of shaly sand.
eral appropriate devices for input of the weil-log data (i.e., Acoustic properties.-Much laboratory and theoretical
digitizer, magnetic tape, etc.). A block diagram of the hard- work has been performed during the last 25 years to
ware described in Smith and Souder is reproduced in Figure understand better the factors which affect the propagation of
20. Today, we recognize the systems described by theseearly elastic waves through porous media. Important papers pub-
workers as a "graphics work station." Moreover, with devel- lished in GEOPHYSICS during this period include those of
opment of personal computers, the basic computer system Geertsma and Smit (1961), Rosenbaum (1974), and Kuster and
along with the necessary peripherals is within -the financial Toksöz (1974a, b). These papers provide the basis for under-
means of most small consuIting firms and even individuals. standing how various petrophysical properties affect the prop-
The "work station" coupled with appropriate software agation veloeities of the two so-called head waves (i.e., com-
brings to all log analysts no matter where they are located the pressional and shear waves) as weil as providing models for
capabilities and infinite possibilities of computer-aided log in- the attenuation of wave amplitude in a two-phase medium.
terpretation, In recent years, a number of commercial com-
panies have developed computer-aided log interpretation soft- Nuclear preperties.v-Understanding of the relationship be-
ware which runs on specially configured mini- and micro- tween the measurements made with the various nuclear
computer based work stations. Examples of these work sta- probes and important petrophysical properties has come
tions include the TERRASTATION by Terrasciences (Figure about largely through laboratory measurements using en-
21) and the SOLUTION CENTER by Energy Systems. The vironmental models which simulate the borehole and the adja-
former is IBM PC based while the later is based on DEC's cent rock. However, computer programs which can model the
PDP-ll series of minicomputers. There are other turnkey
well-logging work stations as weil as software systems that can
be installed on larger mainframe computers. Terrasciences and
Scientific Software both have logging software packages which
they install on larger mainframe computers. We now highlight
some of the other significant developments which helped im-
prove well-logging interpretation. CE~TRAL
PROCESSING
ELECTROSTATIC
U~IT 1-----4 PRINTER
HP 2100 wl PLOTTER
Petrophysical research 64 K byte memory
Weil-log interpretation is based on petrophysical models

which relate the petrophysical properties of rocks to a particu- CRT CRT
lar weil-log measurement, While preparing this review, we dis- SCOPE SCOPE
cussed weil-log interpretation developments with many of our GDeOOee

'0000'
colleagues throughout the industry who agreed that the state- KEY BOARO '
of-the-art of weil-log data acquisition had advanced weil
beyond our ability to interpret their meaning. In fact, our
ability to understand, and hence to express mathematically, FIG. 20. Block diagram showing hardware elements of an early
the response of a particular weil-log measurement to those microcomputer based work station used for well logging inter-
rock properties which affect the measurement is the quine pretation (Smith and Souder, 1975).
radiative transfer for many kinds of probes under realistic in recent years, probably even more than is indicated by the
geometries (two- and three-dimensional) are now being report- literature (Tixier et al., 1965; Moseley, 1976; Throop et al.,
ed in the petrophysical literature. The dual-spaced neutron 1977; Best et al., 1978; Frost and Fertl, 1982).
probe was designed using a two-group mathematical diffusion
Formation evaluatien.c-Formation evaluation is the raison
model for neutron transport (Allen et al., 1967). Similarly, the
d'etre of wireline logging. Virtually all other digital processing,
tooI response and various borehole corrections have been
with the possible exception of dipmeter logging, is done in
computed for many nuclear tools (e.g., Ellis et al., 1981; Sher-
support of and as an adjunct to formation evaluation. The
man et al., 1983). In genera!, these programs require large,
central problem of formation evaluation is the determination
mainframe computers to run. Most major petroleum research
of porosity and water saturation. Resistivity logs have always
organizations now have access to one or more of these super-
been the primary tools for determination of water saturation,
computers and 2-D and 3-D nuclear transport modeling is
and despite the advent of sophisticated logs such as Carbon-
being used to study both new and old nuclear methods. An
Oxygen, Nuclear-Magnetic-Resonance and Neutron Lifetime
overview of the capabilities and limitations of Monte Carlo
logs, resistivity continues to be of utmost importance.
and diffusion models and their applications to nuclear weIl
The rather unique role of the resistivity logs has been a
logging ~ay be found in Sanders and KernsheIl (1984).
major factor in the evolution of the science of formation
evaluation. Although most rock-forming minerals are essen-
Digital processing
tially insulators, electrically, the clay minerals cause a satu-
Digital processing of well-log data has become routine in rated or partially saturated rock to exhibit anomalous con-
the last 25 years. In the area of formation evaluation, the ductivity. Therefore, the log analyst must concern himself with
state-of-thc-art has progressed from straight forward auto- the lithology of potential reservoir rocks as weIl as the proper-
mation of manual computation techniques to rather sophisti- ties of fundamental interest.
cated algorithms for computation of lithology from log data Computer processing of log data together with better
which would be impossible to do manually. Some applications models of the electrical conductivity of rocks have produced
of digital processing, such as deconvolution and processing of profound, if evolutionary, advances in formation evaluation in
dipmeter data, are not feasible without digital computers. the last 25 years. Together with equally profound advances in
Virtually all implementations of computer processing de- computer technology, they have made it possible to perform a
scribed were realized on mainframe computers. The almost well-site analysis which is much more sophisticated and com-
unbelievable rate of innovation in microprocessor technology plete than the most detailed analysis from a few years ago.
makes it a certainty that what is done on a mainframe com- Early efforts to utilize the computer in formation evaluation
puter today will be done in-field on an onboard computer were aimed at simply automating the calculation stage. The
next year. The trend toward in-field processing has accelerated magnitude of this task is put in the proper perspective by
FIG. 21. Terrastation: an IBM PC based welllogging work station (Terrasciences, Inc.).
Weil Logging·Last 25 Years 2523
published descriptions of some of the early programs (Horn or clay component. The shaly component of lithology has
and Slack, 1962; Evans, 1965; Breitenbach, 1965; for exam- always presented difTiculties for the formation analyst for sev-
ple). In 1965 digitally recorded data were not commonly avail- eral reasons. Although the ranges of the various log responses
able, so analog records or sections of them had to be digitized. are well-known, because it is a mixture of clay minerals and
The resulting punched cards were used as input to the pro- possibly silt, shale cannot be characterized by definite log re-
gram. The limited supply of mass storage affected the size of sponses as can, for example, silica or limestone. Also, the resis-
the interval which could be processed in one run. tivity logs, for which a shale correction is important, are non-
Savre and Burke (1963) described a novel (at that time) linear functions of shale volume and therefore cannot be in-
application of computer processing to formation evaluation. cluded in a suite of linear response equations for simultaneous
In the area under consideration, the formation evaluation solution. Furthermore, prior to 1968 a good mathematical
problem is complicated by the occurrence of gypsum and an- model of the conductivity of shale-bearing rocks was not
hydrite in the limestone-dolomite matrix. None of the porosity available. Since then, understanding of conduction in shaly
logs-neutron, density, or acoustic-is a reliable indicator of rocks has advanced considerably (Waxman and Smits, 1968;
porosity. Gypsum causes neutron porosity to be too large. Clavier et al., 1977; Bussian, 1983).
Anhydrite causes density porosity to be too smalI. Both cause In spite of these difficulties, Merkel and Head (1977) used
the sonic porosity to be too large. However, by expressing the the linear programming approach to compute lithology, in-
observed log responses as linear functions of the volume frac- cluding minor amounts of shale, in the Minnelusa-Tensleep
tions of the individu al components, and solving the resulting formations, with some success. The lithology computation was
simultaneous equations, Savre was able to estimate accurately done in the context of a basin-wide assessment of the aquifer
true porosity, at least in the absence of gas and heavy min- potentialof the Madison and Minnelusa formations in the
erais. No attempt was made to compute lithology if the oe- Powder River Basin. The results seem to be quite consistent
currence of either was indicated. with the geology of the basin, but no detailed evaluation of the
Burke et al. (1967) described a similar application of com- accuracy of the lithology computation is described.
puter processing to formation evaluation. They reported sig- A widely used approach to determination of shale content is
nificantly better production results (less water cut) for wells based on Poupon and Gaymard (1970) concerning the evalu-
completed on the basis of this approach rather than when ation of clay content from logs. They made the astute observa-
using conventional methods. They were able to cope with the tion that seven so-called clay indicators pro vide estimates of
problem of physically unrealistic solutions (i.e., negative clay volume which are always greater than or equal to the
volume fractions of some components) by forcing silica into actual c1ay volume. Therefore, by the simple expedient of cal-
the solution until the volume fractions of the principal compo- culating all seven for each level and using the minimum calcu-
nents (limestone, dolomite, and anhydrite) were positive or lated clay volume, a good estimate can be obtained. This stra-
zero. Roper and Jones (1969) generalized this approach of tegem, used in conjunction with the neutron-density crossplot,
Burke et al. in several ways. First, they allowed the interpreter has evidently been central to the computation of lithology in
to select a set of m groups of lithology components prefer- shaly formations as practiced by Schlumberger for more than
entially ordered. If valid solutions existed for two groups, the a decade. lts use was elucidated in more detail by Poupon et
group of higher performance was selected. AIso, they used al. (1970a, b), and Schmidt et al. (1971).
water-filled porosities as calculated from the deep- and A description of a weil-site computation with the same prin-
shallow-investigation resistivity logs as an additional log with ciple is provided in Best et al. (1978). Studlick and Gilchrist
appropriate response equations. Finally, they devised a tech- (1981) provided an evaluation of the weil-site computation
nique for rationalizing invalid solutions in a general way. relative to two conventionallithology computation packages,
They simply replaced each invalid solution with the valid one using the same principle (SARABAND®f3.
solution closest to it in the solution space. In general, the computation proceeds by correcting the ob-
A more general approach to the problem of constraining served neutron-density crossplot point for shaliness via the
the lithology solution to physically realistic solutions was appropriate response equations. The shale volume fraction is
demonstrated in Merkel et al. (1976). By posing the problem determined by the "shale indicator" technique. The response
as a constrained optimization, they attacked it using the for- coefTicients of the shale volume fraction are known a priori
malism of linear programming and the Simplex method of from crossplots or through experience in a particular area. If
solution. The Simplex method is designed to facilitate the in- the corrected point does not exhibit values consistent with
corporation of linear equality and inequality constraints, and those of the clean formation, a correction for light hydro-
all elements of the solution vector are constrained to be posi- carbons can be applied. The correction can be found itera-
tive or zero. Thus if a solution is found, it is assured to be a tively by successively solving a resistivity equation for hydro-
realistic one. In retrospect, the implementation was somewhat carbon saturation, and then using the saturation value to
flawed. Specifically, the way in which the probable tooi errors compute corrections to the shale-corrected density and poros-
were utilized ensured that the solution would occur at values ity. If the ultimate solution point is physically unrealistic, the
corresponding to the extremes of the data ranges. Also, the calculation is repeated with appropriately adjusted input
objective function used did not seem to have any particular values or parameters. The technique has been refined in recent
physical or mathematical basis. Either the absolute value or years by the incorporation of the "dual water" model for the
the Chebychev norm of the error is a better objective function resistivity response.
(Claerbout and Muir, 1973). Nevertheless, the results were evi- A major drawback of this approach is that new types of log
dently consistent with core information, at least qualitatively, data are not readily incorporated into the calculation. A much
and generally satisfactory.
In none of these cases was it necessary to deal with a shale @ 23 Trade and service mark of Schlumberger.
more general approach which overcomes this drawback was ical response directly from its z-transform. The filtering algo-
described in Mayer and Sibbit (1981). Like Merkel et al. rithm has the advantage that it is considerably faster than
(1976), Mayer and Sibbit approached the lithology problem Scott's algorithm. Their results are very similar.
from the standpoint of constrained optimization. For their George et al. (1964) discussed inverse filtering of induction
objective function they used the sum of weighted square errors logs. If propagation effects are neglected, the tooI response in
between the observed and computed log responses. The a cylindrically symmetrie earth can be expressed as the convo-
weights were reciprocals of estimates of the varianees of the lution of a depth-dependent conductivity function with a
errors. Deviations from constraining relations were treated as depth-dependent log response function. The conductivity func-
errors with arbitrary weights. The nature of the objective function can be found by inverse filtering the log. By allowing the
tion dictated aquadratic programming algorithm, and one of tooi response to be a function of distance from the borehole as
the descent methods (probably partial conjugate gradients) weIl, this analysis can be extended to allow determination of
was used to minimize the objective. A bonus resulting from the depth of invasion and conductivities of invaded and non-
the use of a descent method was that nonlinear response func- invaded zones in permeable rocks. This computation proceeds
tions can be accommodated so that the resistivity (or more iteratively, and requires a guard (or Rxo) device log as weIl as a
likely, its logarithm) can be directly incorporated into the ob- multiple spacing induction log. Computed results for synthetic
jective function. data were presented.
The flexibility and power of this method are illustrated by Thadani et al. (1983) discussed methods for extending the
its use in computing log response parameters from core data, inverse filtering technique to situations in which propagation
and then computing lithology using the newly determined re- effects are nonnegligible, with emphasis on design consider-
sponse coefficients. Quirein et al. (1981) referred to an appli- ations for a variable-frequency tooI for which propagation
cation of this type, in which response coefficients and lithology effects would always be insignificant.
were determined simultaneously from core and log data. Looyestijn (1982) presented results of a general study of
Filtering and deconvolution.-Although virtually all log data deconvolution of weIl logs. He concluded that natural-gamma
require processing to convert them from the observed quan- and sonic logs were good candidates for deconvolution, and
tities to more meaningful data, this process is typically viewed that modest gains in resolution could be realized thereby. In
as a point-by-point calibration. The fact that each observed his view, deconvolution of electric and radiometric logs other
datum represents a measurement affected by a finite volume of than natural-gamma is not feasible because of their nonlinear
material is ignored because, for most logs, there is no existing response functions and the excessively noisy character of the
technique for deconvolution, inversion, or even equalization. logs in the latter case.
Inversion is probably possibie, in principle, for all logs. lts Michette et al. (1984) described a technique for increasing
general use awaits the 10 (50?) MIPS truckborne computer resolution of log data which, although not strictly a deconvo-
and perhaps the incentive of $50 per barrel oil. lution process, is similar. The technique, referred to as "spec-
Successful applications of inverse filtering have been report- tral extrapolation from limited data," was implemented by
ed using sonic traveltime, natural gamma, and induction logs. weighting a segment from an observed density log with den-
The sonic log can be regarded as a moving average, over a sities deduced from the geologist's log for the same interval.
window with length equal to souree-receiver or receiver-pair The weighted segment was then Fourier transformed; the
separation, of a continuous traveltime function or reciprocal spectrum was truncated and inverse transformed. The re-
velocity. Foster et al. (1962) expressed the observed traveltime sulting log exhibited much better resolution of the depths and
as a sum of sample-interval traveltimes and found an opti- thicknesses of the known coal seams in the interval.
mum inverse filter algorithm which they then used to compute Kerzner and Frost (1984) described a technique of "block-
logs with shorter effective spacing. Their computed results ing" weIl logs which is also quite similar to deconvolution.
compared weIl with actuallogs recorded with similar spacings. The log to be blocked is first filtered with an averaged first
Scott (1963) described an iterative algorithm for inverse fil- difference operator which they called "activity." Those activity
tering of natural gamma logs. Using estimated ore grades for levels which exceed a cutoff which depends upon the log noise
consecutive 0.5 ft thick zones through each anomaly logged level are interpreted to be due to bed boundaries. The original
and a normalized response function for a 0.5 ft ore zone sur- log response at any point can then be represented as a super-
rounded by barren rocks, he computed a synthetic anomaly position of step response functions due to boundaries near
by superposition. The ore grade for each 0.5 ft thick zone was enough to influence the point. The step response can be found
then adjusted in the direction of the true anomaly, and the from thin-bed correction charts or possibly from the log itself.
synthetic anomaly was recomputed. When the difference be- If the step response is a linear function of the step size, this
tween the observed and computed anomalies was reduced to procedure is, in principle, exactly equivalent to deconvolution.
less than a predetermined error level, the procedure was termi- Wang and Doveton (1983) described an experimental appli-
nated. The 0.5 ft response function was determined by model cation of homomorphic deconvolution to porosity logs. They
measurements with the particular logging system used. modeled log porosity as the convolution of core porosity with
By computing the convolution of the theoretical response of an unknown filter function. They found the filter function
an infinitesimally thin ore zone with an interpolation function, from known log and core porosities and used its inverse to
Czubek (1973) determined a set of inverse filters to accomplish compute an estimate of core porosity from log porosity. The
the same purpose. Each set had a different length, the appro- estimated core porosities were an improvement over the log
priate length being determined by the linear mass attenuation porosities in the sense that bias due to the log response func-
coefficient of the rocks under consideration. Conaway et al. tion was removed, but there was no significant reduction in
(1980) found a three-coefficient inverse ofthe sampled theoret- error with respect to the observed core porosities.
Weil Logglng-Last 25 Years 2525
Castagna and Sicking (1982) described an innovative appli- tools, and their computations are done on windows which
cation of digital filter theory to sonic logs. Sonic traveltime track the expected moveouts of the arrivals of interest.
logs are subject to rather infrequent errors due to cycle- Scott and Sena (1974) used crosscorrelation between pairs
skipping. These errors are typically characterized by spike-like of receivers to determine the P- and S-wave traveltimes.
excursions on the log. By the use of a seven-point Weiner Cheng et al. (1981) used an event detection algorithm to
smoothing filter, Castagna and Sicking reported that they obtain estimates of P arrivals. These were refined by a cross-
were able to remove the majority of these errors automatically correlation. The P waveform for each receiver was then used
without degrading the quality of the rest of the log. to estimate the S arrival for that receiver. The S velocity was
Dip log processing.-One of the earliest applications of both estimated by crosscorrelation over a window spanning that
digital recording and digital processing of log data was de- arrival with the data from the adjacent receiver. Ingram et al.
scribed in Moran et al. (1962). The recorded data were from a (1981) described a direct phase calculation method for deter-
continuo us dipmeter tooi, and both the recording method and mining the S velocity. KimbalI and Marzetta (1984) used sem-
the processing method were described in some detail. A dip- blance computed for a set of windows characterized by as-
meter survey consists of data from at least three microresisti- sumed slownesses and arrival times at the first receiver to
vity pads spaeed at equal intervals around the tooi, together generate logs of P, S, and Stoneley slownesses. A peak detect-
with data from at least one caliper and whatever other sensors ing algorithm was used to determine the maximum semblance
are required for a concurrent borehole deviation survey. Rela- value for each window at each level.
tive depth shifts are determined between an arbitrary reference
microresistivity trace and the other microresistivity traces. THE ROLE OF GEOPHYSICS
Using these shifts, the dip angle of the bedding plane and the
As indicated in our Introduction, we feel it is important to
direction of dip are computed relative to the borehole. The
assess the role which our journal, GEOPHYSICS, has played
borehole survey results are then used to transform those re-
during the past 25 years as a medium of exchange of ideas and
sults to earth coordinates.
information among those working in the general field of well
The determination of the shifts between traces has proven
logging. There is no single technical journalor periodical
to be the least straightforward part of this calculation. Moran
which has assumed a dominant or leading position as a souree
et al. (1962) used a window of constant length on each trace to
of technical information in the field of weil logging or pet-
define segments to be compared. One trace was used as a
rophysics. Helander et al. (1967) identified a list of 20 US
reference, and the windows on the other traces were shifted
publications which contain technical material relevant to the
with respect to the reference trace. For a given trace, at each
shift, a measure of similarity to the reference trace was com- field. That list is reproduced as TabJe 1.
puted. The measure of similarity used was the sum, over the While GEOPHYSICS has generally not been a primary instru-
window, of the normed differences between the reference trace ment for the publication of technical articles about well log-
and the given trace. Both absolute-value and Pythagorean ging, it nonetheless has played an important role. We can
norms were used. The shifts for which the normed differences identify several papers which have over the years become
were least were used to define the nominal bedding plane. The "classics" not so much because of the originality of the paper,
curvature of the normed difference versus shift distance curve but because they set forth or review in a particuJarly lucid
at minimum was taken as a measure of the quality of the manner the theoretical basis for a particular logging method.
calculated dip. Later versions of this approach used corre- Examples of such papers include Moran and Kunz (1962) on
lations as measures of likeness between curves, but the prob- induction logging, Tittman and Wahl (1965) on the gamma-
gamma logging method, and others cited previously here. In
lems intrinsic to the windowapproach eventually required a
acoustic logging, GEOPHYSICS has been one of the principal
postprocessing pass to screen output for validity (Vincent et
journals for the publication of technical contributions. In the
al., 1979).
Vincent et al. described a different approach. By defining a last 10 years, there has been a broadly based effort toward
group of basic curve elements, they were able to correlate understanding the acoustic transient which propagates in the
borehole. Important contributions, to cite a few, are papers by
curve segments on the basis of their constituent elements. That
Kuster and Toksöz (1974a, b), Rosenbaum (1974), and Tsang
is a significant advance because dip can be attributed to par-
and Rader (1979). During the last two years, well-logging
ticular excursions rather than simply to a window. Kerzner
manuscripts submitted to GEOPHYSICS have been dominated
(1983) followed the same approach, except that he used a
by contributions related to the subject of full-waveform acous-
smoothed difference operator to detect excursions. A noise-
dependent threshold is used to select significant excursions. tic Jogging.
Groups of significant excursions are then correlated using a Borehole gravity is another logging method which seems to
dynamic programming algorithm. The excursion detection op- have found its proponents from among the ranks of the ex-
erator is considerably simpier than that described by Vincent ploration geophysicists. H's not surprising, therefore, that a
et al., and is evidently quite effective. considerable amount of the published materiaJ relating to the
borehole gravimeter, its applications, and the principles inter-
Sonic waveform processing.-Although acoustic waveform preting the data which it acquires has found its way into
logs have been routinely available for more than twenty years, GEOPHYSICS.
their interpretation has presented a formidable problem, at
least in part because of the vast quantities of data involved. CONCLUSIONS
Automatic determination of P- and S-wave velocites has been
rather successful in recent years with several different tech- Welliogging has undergone profound changes in 25 years.
niques. These techniques all utilize data from multiple receiver To a large extent, these changes are attributable to devel-
Table 1. Twenty U.S. Iiterature sourees of well-logging ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
information. (Helander et al., 1967)
The authors are pleased to acknowledge the assistance of
Bulletin of The American Association of Petroleum Geol- W. E. Glenn who acted as principal reviewer, and of Guy
ogists
2 Dissertation Abstracts Towle and Mark Mathews who also reviewed the manuscript.
3 Drilling Their suggestions and criticisms greatly improved the manu-
4 Drilling and Production Praetices (American Petroleum script. Bob Broding of Amoco, Bryan W. Crutchley of Welex,
Institute) John M. Jones of Schlumberger, Ken Pavlich of Terrasciences,

5 Geophysical Joumal
and Joe Zemanek of Mobil were kind enough to provide art-
6 Geophysics
7 Joumal ofThe Acoustical Society of America work for some of the figures included in the paper.
8 Journal of Geophysical Research
9 Journalof Petroleum Technology
10 Log Analyst REFERENCES
11 Offshore
12 Dil and Gas Equipment Alger, R. P., Locke, S., Nagel, W. A., and Sherman, H., 1971, The dual
spacing neutron log-CNL: Soc. Petr. Eng., Am. Inst. Min. Metall.
13 Dil and Gas International Petr. Eng., SPE 3565.
14 Dil and Gas Journal Allaud, L. A., and Martin, M. H., 1977, Schlumberger, the history of a
15 Petroleum Engineer technique: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
16 Producers Monthly Allaud, L. A., and Ringot, J., 1969, The high resolution dipmeter tooi:
17 Society of Petroleum Engineers J ournal The Log Analyst, 10, 3.
18 Transactions ofThe American Geophysical Union Allen, L. S., Mills, W. R., Desai, K. P., and CaldweIl, R. L., 1972,
19 World Dil Some features of dual-spaced neutron porosity logging: Soc. Prof.
20 W orld Petroleum Weil Log Analysts 13th Ann. Logging Symp., paper G.
Allen, L. S., Tittie, C. W., Mills, W. R., and CaidweIl, R. L., 1967,
Dual-spaced neutron logging for porosity: Geophysics, 32, 60-68.
Archie, G. E., 1942, The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determin-
ing some reservoir characteristics: Trans., Am. Inst. Min. Metall.
opments in e1ectronic technology (e.g., solid state devices, inte- Petr. Eng., 146, 54--67.
grated circuits, microprocessors, etc.). Well-Iog instrumenta- - - 1960, Forward: Geophysics, 25, 731-733.
Berry, W. R., 11, Head, M. P., and Mougne, M. L., 1979, Dielectric
tion has been improved and new instrurnents introduced. constant logging-A progress report: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts
Digital acquisition of welliogs is now routine. Logs measuring 20th Ann. Logging Symp., paper VVo
new physical properties such as dielectric constant, neutron Bertozzi, W., Ellis, D. V., and Wahl, J. S., 1981, the physical founda-
tions of formation lithology logging with gamma rays: Geophysics,
absorption cross-section, and photoelectric cross-section have 46,1439-1455.
been developed and are in routine use. Many nuclear Best, D. L., Gardner, J. S., and Dumanoir, J. L., 1978, A computer-
processed wellsite log computation: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts
measurements today are based on the speetral resolution of 19th Ann. Logging Symp., paper Z.
gamma-ray energy. Similarly, there is great interest in the full- Bivens, H. M., Jensen, D. H., Barnard, R. W., and Stephenson, W. A.,
waveform acoustic log. Digital computers and micro- 1980, Direct uranium measurement by the prompt fission neutron
method of pulsed neutron borehole logging: New Mexico Bur. of
controllers permeate all aspects of well logging from acqui- Mines, Mem. 38.
sition and telemetry through interpretation and display. Breitenbach, E. A., 1965, The universal log interpretation computer
Indeed, it would be impossible to handle the data without program: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 6th Ann. Logging Symp.,
paper 1.
them. Well logging, as with other methods of geophysics, has Broding, R. A., 1981, Volumetrie scan weil logging: Soc. Prof. Weil
been quick to incorporate new technological developments. Log Analysts 22nd Ann. Logging Symp., paper A.
The developments in well-logging technology reviewed here - - - 1984, Application of the sonic volumetrie scale log to cement
evaluation: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. Logging Syrnp.,
are indicative of what we can expect for the future. The tech- paper 11.
nological developments in well logging make it possible to Broding, R. A., and PooIe, J. L., 1960, Collection and processing of
digitized acoustic log data: Geophysics, 25, 939-947.
acquire far more data than we are able to interpret. Our use of Brown, R. J. S., and Gamson, B. W., 1960, Nuclear magnetism log-
the computer for interpretation of well logs has, to a large ging: Trans., Soc. Petr. Eng., Am. lust. Min. Metall. Petrol. Eng.,
extent, been influenced by a generation of engineers and scien- 219,201-219.
Buckner, G.O., 1972, Minicomputer field taping and computing
tists who have applied the computer as a programmabie cal- system (abstr): Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 13th Ann. Logging
culator to perform calculations too complex and time- Syrnp., paper Z.
consuming to be done by hand. Today, we are flirting with Burgen,1. G., and Evans, H. B., 1975, Direct digitallaserlogging: Soc.
Petr. Eng. of Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Petrol. Eng., SPE 5506.
concepts and applications of artificial intelligence and Burke, J. A., Curtis, M. R., and Cox, J. T., 1967, Computer processing
"expert" systems software which combine the "number of log data improves production in Chaveroo field: Soc. Petr. Eng.
of Am. lust. Min. Metall. Petrol. Eng., SPE-1576.
crunching" capability of the computer with some limited Bussian, A. E., 1983, Electrical conductivities in a porous medium:
decision-making or intelligence capability. It seems inevitabie Geophysics, 48, 1258-1268.
that all forms of geophysical interpretation will evolve in this CaldweIl, R. L., and Mills, W. R., Jr., 1959, Activation analysis in
petroleum exploration research: Nucl. Instr. and Meth., 5, 312-322.
direction. Calvert, T. J., Rau, R. N., and Wells, L. E., 1977, Electromagnetic
Our real challenge now, as it has been in the past, is to propagation-A new dimension in logging: Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am.
continue to develop and refine our understanding of the basic lust. Min. Metall. Petrol. Eng., SPE 6542.
Castagna, J. P., and Sicking, C. J., 1982, Sonic log error recognition
petrophysics of all the measurements which we are now capa- and correction by Wiener interpolation: Presented at the 52nd
bie of making. Although new technology will be useful, even Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Soc. Explor. Geophys., Dallas.
essential, in this task, no substitute can be made for the careful Caton, P. W., 1981, Improved methods for reducing borehole gravity
data-Applications and analysis of reduced gravity plots: Soc.
theoretical and experimental work in basic petrophysics which Prof. Weil Log Analysts 22nd Ann. Logging Symp., paper RR.
has characterized the development of the well-logging method Chauvel, Y., Seeburger, D. A., and Castro Orjuela, A., 1984, Appli-
cations of the SHDT stratigraphic high resolution dipmeter to the
throughout its history. We are confident that this effort will study of depositional environments: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts
continue. 25th Ann. Logging Symp., paper G.
Cheng, C. H., Toksöz, M: N., and Willis, M. E., 1981, Velocity and Geyer, R. L., and Myung, J. 1., 1970, The 3-D velocity log; a tooi for
attenuation from full waveform acoustic logs: Soc. Prof. Weil Log in-situ determination of the elastic moduli of rocks: 12th Ann.
Analysts 22nd Ann. Symp., paper O. Symp. on Rock Mech., Univ. of Missouri-Rolla. '.
Claerbout, J. F., and Muir, F., 1973, Robust modeling with erratic Givens, W. W., Mills, W. R., Dennis, C. L., and CaidweIl, R. L., 1976,
data: Geophysics, 38,826--844. Uranium logging using a pulsed 14 MeV neutron souree and detec-
Ciavier, C, Coates, G., and Dumanoir, J. L., 1977, The theoretical tion of delayed fission neutrons: Geophysics, 41, 468-490.
and experimental basis for the dual water model for interpretation Goldman, L. H., and Marr, H.O., 1979, Applications of high resolu-
of shaly sands: Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Petrol. tion gamma ray spectroscopy to well logging: Soc. Prof. Weil Log
Eng., SPE 6859. Analysts 20th Ann, Logging Symp., paper GG.
Conaway, J. G., Bristow, Q., and Kileen, P. G., 1980, Optimization of Goodell, R. R., and Fay, C. H., 1964, Borehole gravity meter and its
gamma-ray logging techniques for uranium: Geophysics, 45, 292- applications: Geophysics, 29, 774-782.
311. Grosmangin, M., Kokesh, F. P., and Majani, P., 1961, A sonic
Cox, P. T., and Warren, W. F., 1983, Development and testing of the method for analyzing the quality of cementation of borehole cas-
Texaco dielectric log: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 24th Ann, Log- ings: J. Petr. Tech., 165-171.
ging Symp., paper H. Guy, J. 0., and FertI, W. H., 1984, Circumferential acoustic
Culver, R. B., Hopkinson, E. C, and Youmans, A. H., 1974, Car- measurements-The CALog: The Ninth Ann, Internat. Forrnation
bon/Oxygen (C/O) logging instrumentation: Soc. Petr. Eng. J. Am. Evaluation Symp., Paris, France.
Inst. Min. Metall. Petr. Eng., Oct., 463-470. Hall, J. E., Johnstone, C. W., Baldwin, J. L., and Jacobson, L. A.,
Czubek,1. A., 1973, New theory, possibilities, and practice in digital 1982, A new thermal neutron decay logging system-TDT-M: J.
interpretation of gamma-ray logs: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts Petr. Tech., Jan.
14th Ann. Logging Symp., paper W. Harcourt, G., Walker, T., and Anderson, T., 1964, Use of the micro-
- - 1976, Recent advances in gamma-ray log interpretation: Inter- seismogram and the acoustic cement bond log to evaluate cement-
nat. Atomie Energy Agency Advisory Group Mtg. on Evaluation of ing techniques: Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. lust. of Min. Metall. Petr.
Uranium Resources, Rome November-December. Eng., SPE 798.
Daev, D. S., 1965, Dielectric induction logging: Izvestiya Vyashikh Havira, R. M., 1982, Ultrasonic cement bond evaluation: Soc. Prof.
Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Geol. i Razvedka, 11, 110-119. Weil Log Analysts 23rd Ann. Logging Symp., paper N.
Davis, R. R., Hall, J. E., Boutemy, Y. L., Glaum, c., and Sherman, H., Helander, D. P., Graves, R. W., and Martinez, S. 1., 1967, Sourees of
1981, A dual porosity CNL logging system: Soc. Petr. Eng. Am. "Lost" information for log analysts: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts
Inst. Min. Metall. Eng. Petr., 56th Ann. Fall Meeting. 7th Ann. Logging Symp., paper G.
Dewan, J. T., Johnstone, C. W., Jacobson, L. A., Wall, W. B., and Hom, M. K., Slack, H. A., 1962, COMLOG-A comprehensive com-
Alger, R. P., 197J, Thermal neutron decay time logging using dual puter system for log interpretation: J. Petr. Tech., 14, 1109-1122.
detection (abstr): Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 14th Ann. Logging Howell, L. G., Heintz, K.O., and Barry, A., 1966, The development
Symp., paper P. and use of a high-precision downhole gravity meter: Geophysics,
Doll, H. G., 1949, Introduetion to induction logging and applications 31, 764-772.
to logging of wells drilled with oil-base muds: Petr. Trans. of Am. Huchital, G. S., Hutin, R., Thoraval, Y., and Clark, B., 1982, The deep
lust. Mm. Met!!11. Eng, Petr., 186, 148-162. propagation tooi (A new electromagnetic logging tooi): Soc. Petr.
- - 1951, The laterolog; A new resistivity logging method with Eng. of Am. Inst. of Min. Metall. Eng. Petr., SPE 10988.
electrodes using an automatic focussing system: Petr. Trans. of Am. Ingram, J. D., Morris, C. F., MacKnight, E. E., and Parks, T. W.,
Inst. Min. Metall. Petrol. Eng., 192, 305-316. 1981a, Direct phase determination of shear veloeities from acoustic
Duesterhoeft, W. C, Jr., and Smith, H. W., 1962, Propagation effects waveform logs: presented at the 51st Ann. Internat. Mtg. and
on radial response in induction logging: Geophysics, 27, 463-469. Expos. Soc. Explor. Geophys., Los Angeles.
Dyck, A. V., and Young, R. P., 1985, Physical characterization of rock - - 1981b, Shear velocity logs using direct phase determination:
masses using borehole methods: Geophysics, 50, this issue; presented at 51st Ann. Internat. Mtg. and Expos., Soc. Explor,
2530-2541. Geophys., Los Angeles.
Eaton, F. M., Elliot, J. W., JurIston, F. D., Olsen, R. S., Vanderschel, Johnson, H. M., 1962, A history of weil logging: Geophysics, 27,
D. J., and Warren, 1. P., 1976, The Cyber Service Unit-An inte- 507-527.
grated logging system: Soc. Petr. Eng., Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Petr. Jackson, J. A., 1984, Nuclear magnetic resonance weil logging: The
Eng., SPE 5506. Log Analyst, 25, 16--30.
Eaton, F. M., and Decker, G. J., 1966, Digital transmission of weil Kerzner, M. G., 1983, Formation dip deterrnination-an artificial in-
logs by radio and telephone: J. Petr. Tech., 151-154. telligence approach: The Log Analyst, September-October, 10-22.
EDCON,1977, Borehole gravity meter survey manual: Denver, Ex- Kerzner, M. G., and Frost, E., Jr., 1984, Blocking-a new technique
ploration Data Consultants, Inc. for weil log interpretation: J. Petr. Tech., 267-275.
Ellis, D. V., Ullo, J. 1., and Sherman, H., 1981, Comparison of calcu- KimbalI, C. V., and Marzetta, T. L., 1984, Semblance processing of
lated and measured responses of a dual detector epithermal neu- borehole acoustic array data: Geophysics, 49, 274-281.
tron porosity device: Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Petr. Kincade, R., West, J., and Hallenburg, J., 1978, The COMPU-LOG
Eng., SPE 10294. concept and practice: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 19th Ann. Log-
Evans, H. B., 1965, The universal log interpretation computer ging Syrnp., paper S.
program-nuclear log evaluations : Soc. of Prof. Weil Log Analysts, Kitsunezaki, C, 1980, A new method for shear-wave legging: Geo-
6th Annual Logging Symp., paper K. physics, 45, 1489-1506.
Flaum, c., and Pirie, G., 1981, Determination of lithology from in- Kokesh, F. P., Schwartz, R. J., Wall, W. B., and Morris, R. L., 1964, A
duced gamma-ray spectroscopy: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 22nd new approach to sonic logging and other acoustic measurements:
Ann. Logging Symp., paper H. Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. lust. of Min. Metall. Eng. Petr., SPE 991.
Fletcher, J. W., and Walter, 1., 1978, A practical shale compensated Kuster, G. T., and Toksöz, M: N., 1974a, Velocity and attenuation of
chlorine log: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 19th Ann. Logging seismie waves in two-phase media: Part I. Theoretical formu-
Symp., paper GG. lations: Geophysics, 39,587-606.
Foster, M. R., Hicks, W. G., and Nipper, J. T., 1962, Optimum inverse - - 1974b, Velocity andattenuation ofseismic waves in two-phase
filters which shorten the spacing of velocity logs: Geophysics, 27, media: Part Il. Experimental results: Geophysics, 39, 607-618.
317-326. LaFehr, T. R., 1983, Rock density from borehole gravity surveys:
Freedman, R., and Vogiatzis, 1. P., 1979, Theory of microwave dielee- Geophysics, 48, 341-356.
tric constant logging using the electromagnetic wave propagation Liu, O. Y., 1984, Stoneley wave-derived delta t shear log: Soc. Prof.
method: Geophysics, 44, 969-986. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. Logging Symp., paper ZZ.
Frost, E., Jr., and FertI, W. H., 1982, Interactive digital weil-site for- Loek, G. A., and Hoyer, W. A., 1971, Natural gamma-ray speetral
mation evaluation-The PRO LOG system: 1. Petr. Tech., 34, logging: The Log Analyst, 12, 5.
1671-1689. - - 1974, Carbon/Oxygen (C/O) log: Use and interpretation: J.
Geertsma, J., and Smit, D. C; 1961, Some aspects of elastic wave Petr. Tech., Sept.
propagation in fluid-saturated porous solids: Geophysics, 26, 169- Looyestijn, W. J., 1982, Deconvolution of petrophysical logs: Appli-
181. cations and limitations: Soc. Prof. Weil Logging Analysts 23rd
George, C. F., Jr., Smith, H. W., and Bostick, F. X., Jr., 1964, Appli- Ann. Logging Symp., paper W.
cation of inverse filters to induction log analysis: Geophysics, 29, Mardock, E. S., 1960, Radioactivity logging and its future potential:
93-104. Geophysics, 25, 883-890.
George, D. c, Allen, 1. W., Key, B. N., Ward, D. L., and Mathews, Martin, D. W., Spencer, M. c, and Patel, H., 1984, The digital
M. A., 1979, A borehole gamma-ray spectrometer for uranium ex- induction-A new approach to improying the response of the in-
ploration: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 20th Ann. Logging Symp., duetion measurement: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann.
paper X. Logging Symp., paper M.
Martner, S. T., and Brigham, R. J., 1975, An interactive computer Analysts 25th Arm. Logging Symp., paper QQQ.
system for weil log analysis: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 16th Savre, W. C, and Burke, J., 1963, Determination of a more accurate
Ann. Logging Symp., paper FF. porosity and mineral composition in complex lithologies with the
Mathis, G. L., Rutledge, D. R., and Ferguson, E., 1984, Aspectral use of sonic, neutron, and density survey: J. Petr. Tech., 15,945-
gamma ray (SGR) tooi: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. 959.
Logging Symp., paper W. Schlumberger, 1972, Log interpretation: Volume I-Principles:
Mayer, C, and Sibbit, A., 1981, GLOBAL, un uti1 general pour l'in- Sch1umberger Ltd.
terpretation des diagraphies: Actes du Quatrieme Colloque Annuel Schmidt, A. W., Land, A. G., Yunker, J. D., Kilgore, E. C; 1971,
de Diagraphies, Societe pour I'Avaricement de l'Interpretation des Applications of the CORRIBAND technique to complex lithol-
Diagraphies, Paris, paper 5. ogies: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 12th Ann. Logging Symp.,
McCormick, J. B., Wilde, D. K., Deep, S. W., Hamilton, D. J., and paper Z.
Kerwin, W. J., 1982, Development of integrated thermionic circuits Schultz, W. E., Smith, H. D., Jr., Verbout, J. L., Bridges, J. R., and
for high temperature applications: lust. Elect. Electron. Eng., Gareia, G. H., 1983, Experimental basis for a new borehole correct-
Trans. on Indust. Electronics, IE-29, 110-144. ed pulsed neutron capture logging system (TMD): Soc. Prof. Weil
McCormick, J. B., and Wilde, D., 1979, Development of integrated Log Analysts 24th Ann. Logging Symp., paper Cc.
thermionic circuits for geothermal high-temperature applications: Schultz, W. E., and Smith, H. D., Jr., 1974, Laboratory and field
Soc. Prof.Well Log Analysts 20th Ann. Logging Symp., paper W. evaluation of a carbon/oxygen (C/O) weil logging system: J. Petr.
McCulloh, T. H., Schoellhamer, J. E., Pampeyan, E. H., andParks, H. Tech., Oct.
B., 1967, The U.S. Geological Survey, LaCoste and Romperg pre- Scott, J. R, 1963, Computer analysis of gamma-ray logs: Geophysics,
cise borehole gravimeter system-test results: in Geological Sur- 28, 457-465.
vey Research, 1967: U.S.G.S. prof. paper 575-D, Dl0l-D112. ' Scott, J. H., and Sena, J., 1974, Acoustic logging for mining appli-
Meador, R. A., and Cox, P. T., 1975, Dielectric constant Jogging, a cations: Soc. Prof." Weil Log Analysts 15th Ann. Logging Symp.,
salinity independent estimation of formation water volume: Soc. paper P.
Petr. Eng. of Am. lust. of Min. Metall. Eng. Petr., SPE 5504. Seevers, D. 0., 1966, A nuclear magnetic method for determining the
Merkel, R. R, and Head, W. J., 1977, The use of computerized log permeability of sandstones: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 6th Ann.
analysis to determine in situ lithologie characteristics pertinent to Logging Symp., paper L.
secondary recovery: Bull. Can. Petr. Geol., 25, 291-304. Segesman, F. F., 1980, Weil logging method: Geophysics, 45; 1667-
Merkel, R. H., MacCary, L. M., and Chico, R. S., 1976, Computer 1684.
techniques applied to formation evaluation: The Log Analyst, Serra, 0., Baldwin, J., and Quirein, J., 1980, Theory, interpretation,
May-June,3-1O. and practical applications ofnatural gamma ray spectroscopy: Soc.
Michette, A. G., Darling, A. M., Fiddy, M. A., Ward, W. A., and Prof. Weil Log Analysts Zlst Ann. Logging Symp., paper Q.
Franklin, E., 1984, Resolution enhancement of weil log and seismie Sherman, H., Ullo, J. J., and Robinson, J. D., 1983, Effect of oil on the
data: Geophys. Prosp., 32, 564-580. CNL: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 24th Ann, Logging Symp.,
Moran, J. H., Confleau, M. A., Miller, G. K., and Timmons, J. P., paper R.
1962, Automatic computation of dipmeter logs digitally recorded Smith, H. D., Robbins, C. A., Arnold, D. M., Gadekin, L. L., and
on magnetic tape: J. Petrol. Tech., 14, 771-782: Deaton, J. G., 1983a, A multi-function compensated speetral natu-
Moran, J. H., and Kunz, K. S., 1962, Basic theory of induction log- ral gatnma ray logging system: Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. Inst. Min.
ging and application to study of two-coilsondes: Geophysics, 27, Metall. Eng. Petr., SPE 12050.
829-858. Smith, H. D., Jr., Arnold, D. M., and Peelman, H. E., 1983b, Appli-
Morris, C. F., Little, T. M., and Letton, W., lIl, 1984, A new sonic cations of a new berehole corrected pulsed neutron capture logging
arraytool for full waveform logging, Soc. Petrol. Eng. of Am. Inst, system (TMD): Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 24th Ann. Logging
of Min. Metall. Eng. Petr., 59th Ann. Tech. Conf. and Exhib., Symp., paper DD.
Heuston. Smith, M. B., and Souder, W. W., 1975, Minicomputers for maxi
Morrison, R., and Thibodaux, J., 1984, The six-arm dipmeter. A new analysis: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 16th Ann, Logging Symp.,
concept by Geosource: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. paper R.
Logging Symp., paper MMM. Smith, N. J., 1950,The case for gravity data in boreholes: Geophysics,
Moseley, L. M., 1976, Field evaluation of direct digital logging: Soc. 15,605-636.
Prof. Weil Log Analysts 17th Ann. Logging Symp., paper NN. Steinman, D. K., Stokes, J., Adams, J. A., Voigt, R., Peper, C. S.,
Owen, J. E., and Greer, W. J., 1951, The guard electrode logging Laubscher, K. V., Smith, W. J., and John, J., 1980, Cf-252 based
system: Petr. Trans. of Am. lust. of Min. Metall. Petr. Eng., 192, delayed-neutron logging system for in situ assay of uranium ore:
347-356. Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 21st Ann. Logging Symp., paper I.
Pasternaek, E. S., and Goodwill, W. P., 1983, Applications of digital Stevens, L., and Day, S. M., 1983, Shear velocity in slow formations
borehole televiewer logging: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 24th using the Stoneley wave: presented at the 53rd Arm. Internat. Mtg.
Ann. Logging Symp., paper X. and Expos., Soc. Explor. Geophysics, Las Vegas.
Peatross, R. F., 1976, A new lithology compensated capture gamma Studlick, J. R. J., and Gilchrist, W. A., Jr., 1981, A sensitivity study of
ray system: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 17th Ann. Logging Symp., Schlumberger's Cyberlook computation and its comparison to
paper M. other evaluation methods; Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 22nd Ann.
PickelI, J. J., and Heacock, J. G., 1960, Density logging: Geophysics, Logging Symp., paper F.
25,891-904. Summers, G. c., and Broding, R. A., 1952, Continuous velocity log-
Pickett, G. R., 1963, Acoustic character logs and their applications in ging: Geophysics, 17, 598-614.
formatiori evaluation: J. Petr. Tech., 15,659-667. Thadani, S. G., Merchant, G. A., and Verbout, J. L., 1983,Deconvolu-
Poupon, A., Hoyle, W. R., and Schmidt, A. W., 1970a, Log analysis in tion with variabie frequency induction logging systems; Soc. Prof.
formations with complex lithologies: Soc. Petr.Eng. of Am. Inst. of Weil Log Analysts 24th Ann. Logging Symp., paper 1I.
Min. and Metall. Petr. Eng., SPE 2925. Throop, W. H., Hammar, R. F., and Tineh, D. H., 1977, Localized
Poupon, A., Clavier, C; Dumanoir, J., Gaymard, R., Misk, A., 1970b, processing of weil-log data: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 18th Ann.
Log analysis of sand-shale sequences-a systematic approach: J. Logging Symp., paper K.
Petr. Tech., 22, 867-881. Timur, A., 1969, Producable porosity and permeability of sandstones
Poupon, A., and Gaymard, S., 1970, The evaluation of clay content investigated through nuélear magnetic resonance principles: The
from logs: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts l l th Ann. Logging Symp., Log Analyst, Jan-Feb.
paper G. Tittman, J., Sherman, R, Nagel, W. A., and Alger, R. P., 1966, The
Quirein, J. A., Baldwin, J. L., Terry, R. L., and Hendricks, M., 1981, sidewall epithermal neutron porosity log: J. Petr. Tech., Oct.
Estimation of clay types and volumes from weil log data-an exten- Tittman, J., and Wahl, J. S., 1965, The physical foundations of forma-
sion of the GLOBAL method: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 22nd tion density logging (gamma-gamma): Geophysics, 30, 284-294.
Ann. Logging Symp., paper Q. Tixier, M. P., Alger, R. P., and Tanguy, D. R., 1960, New devel-
Rambow, F. H. K., 1984, The borehole televiewer: Some field exam- opments in induction and sonic logging: J. Petr. Tech., 12, 79-87.
pies: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. Logging Symp., paper Tixier, M. P., Eaton, F. M., Tanguy, D. R., and Biggs, W. P., 1965,
C. Automatic log computation at wellsite-Formation analysis logs: J.
Roper, W. A., and Jones, V. A., Jr., 1969, Improved simultaneou Petr. Tech., January, 11-18.
determination offormation properties from welliogs: J. Petr. Tech., Tsang, L., and Rader, D., 1979, Numerical evaluation of transient
July, 827-835. Soc. Petr. Eng. of Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Petr. acoustic waveforms due to a point souree in a fluid filled borehole:
Eng., paper SPE 2337. Geophysics,44, 1706-1720.
Rosenbaum, J. H., 1974, Synthetic microseismograms: Logging in Veneruso, A. F., and Coquat, J. A., 1979, Technology development for
porous formations: Geophysics, 39,14-32. high temperature logging tools: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Analysts 20th
Sanders, L. G., and KernsheIl, P. 8., 1984, Computer modelling as an Ann. Logging Symp., paper KK.
aid to neutron and gamma ray interpretation: Soc. Prof. Weil Log Vincent, P., Gartner, J. E., and Attali, G., 1979, An approach to
detailed dip determination using correlation by pattern recogni- Williams, P. M., Zemanek, J., Angona, F. A., Dennis, C. 1., and
tion; 1. Petr. Tech., 31, 232-240. Caldwell, R. 1., 1984, Thelong spaeed acoustic logging tooi: Soc.
Vinegar, H. J., and Waxman, M. H., 1984, Induced polarization in Prof. Weil Log Analysts 25th Ann. Logging Symp., paper T.
shaly sands: Geophysics, 49, 1267-1287. Willis, M. E., and Toksöz, M. N., 1983, Automatic P and S velocity
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Weil Logging-"A 25-Year Perspective: Donaid Snyder and David B. Fleming

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GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 50, NO. 12 (DECEMBER 1985); P. 25Q4.-2529, 21 FIGS., 1 TABLE.

Weil logging-"A 25-year perspective

Donaid D. Snyder* and David B. Fleming*

INTRODUCTION borehole. Archie (1960) defined the term "petrophysics" as the

Manuscript reviewed by W. E. Glenn.

tation will require the efforts of many people and some

Broding and Poole (1960) described an early weil-log data

minicomputers were placed onboard the logging truck, efforts

Many nuclear logging methods, including natural gamma-

NOTE: ONE BACKGROUND CVClE

I~ 8OOJ.ls-~- 8OOJ.ls~t-5ms-~--n-- 55ms .,

FIG. 3. TMD pulsing and gating parameters (Smith et al, 1983).

GAMMA- RAY ENERGY

Ot her dual Laterolog pro bes include a pad-deployed microlog

COUNT/SEC/qy ..,..,AlEGION OF PHOTOElETRIC EFFECT

FIG. 6. Schema tic diagram illustrating the variation of the

hole sonic log was introduced by Schlumberger in 1964

FIG. 13. Schematic drawing illustrating the principles of the

FIG. 11. Schematic drawing of EPT antenna pad showing

borewall. The reflection amplitude is used to modulate the

are helping to renew interest in the televiewer. Recent contri-

FIG. 14. Typical output from the original borehole televiewer

the same way that P-wave slowness is measured with a con-

Sonie Array Tooi Hardware

Multipurpose Sonic Sonde Configuration

Weil-log interpretation is based on petrophysical models

cussed weil-log interpretation developments with many of our GDeOOee

Institute) John M. Jones of Schlumberger, Ken Pavlich of Terrasciences,

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