sustainability

Article
Water Production from Air Conditioning Systems:
Some Evaluations about a Sustainable Use
of Resources
Anna Magrini 1, * ID
, Lucia Cattani 2 , Marco Cartesegna 3 and Lorenza Magnani 1
1 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
magnanil@unipv.it
2 SEAS, Societe de l’Eau Aerienne Suisse sa, technical office, via dell’Industria, 13/A,
6826 Riva San Vitale, Switzerland; ordine@luciacattani.com
3 HVAC Systems Design, Via M.Fanti 17, 16100 Genoa, Italy; marcocartesegna@alice.it
* Correspondence: magrini@unipv.it; Tel.: +39-0382-985-725

Received: 18 April 2017; Accepted: 21 July 2017; Published: 27 July 2017

Abstract: An increase in water consumption sustainability can be achieved by means of a smart use
of condensed water coming from HVAC system chillers. In the current paper, a preliminary study
regarding an integrated HVAC system is presented, which combines air conditioning and water
extraction from air. Its design was particularly focused on the optimization between the two said
effects, also taking energy efficiency into account. The system behaviour is analysed, taking into
account real climatic conditions and in particular those of the Arab Emirates coast. The study of
the suitable climatic conditions for this application are outlined. Preliminary calculations show that
the water extracted from air, by condensation, can support up to almost half of the needs of the case
of study represented by a modern hotel.

Keywords: atmospheric water condensation; air to water technology; HVAC systems

1. Introduction
Freshwater is becoming more and more scarce and polluted; its consumption is increasing with
population growth, causing a depletion of traditional sources [1], while, at the same time, water
contamination is becoming more and more severe. Climate changes are also playing an important
role in the complex water issue [1], causing drought in several places once rich of water. In order to
balance the freshwater lack, in the last decades, untraditional sources have been studied and adopted.
Among the most common technologies, like the desalinization of sea water, water extraction from air
is becoming an interesting field of research. For example, studies of self-sustained systems have been
developed, based on renewable energy use, and on hygroscopic solution absorbing moisture from the
air in desert areas [2]. The mass transfer can be increased by a special design of absorption strings [3]
when the water is captured by the saline solution and successively separated from it by a vacuum
heating system, coupled with solar thermal collectors. In the early 2000s, a wide survey on atmospheric
water vapor processing technologies was conducted. The work synthetizes different methodologies
capable of extracting liquid water from air, by cooling a surface below the dew-point of air, by
using desiccants or by inducing convection [4]. The perspectives have been considered promising
for future developments, taking into account adaption of commercial/industrial dehumidification
technologies. Several patents regarding water extraction from humid atmosphere have been published
in the last years [5]. On one side, some inventions are based on the use of adsorbents, desiccants, and
hygroscopic materials; they mainly address low humidity climate conditions [6]. On the other side,
the dehumidification process on a cooling coil is considered in various patents regarding whole HVAC

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309; doi:10.3390/su9081309 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 2 of 17

systems or mobile systems. For example, mobile dehumidifier air-handling units have been studied to
produce pure condensation water from moisture in the atmosphere, suitable for water production and
drinking purposes [7].
In the wide scenario of technical solutions for the water extraction from air, technologies based on
a secondary use of the air conditioning systems may offer good perspectives, as HVAC systems
are largely diffused everywhere. In summer conditions, the humidity and temperature control
are carried out by air-cooling below the dew point, and a meaningful quantity of water is produced.
Normally, such liquid is wasted, because of a lack of interest in recovering water and difficulties for
the treatments needed for human consumption. Instead, water can be usefully employed to cover
building needs, if an integrated system, which combines water extraction from air, equipped with
specific water treatment and air conditioning, is studied. A method to characterize the total annual
amount of the collected condensate, using correlations with local weather data parameters, and to
evaluate the economics associated with a typical condensate collection system was experimented
in 47 U.S. cities’ climatic conditions [8]. The water collection from the central air conditioning unit,
the storage of the recovered liquid in the tank, and its distribution for automatic irrigation is the subject
of a patent [9].
In this direction, some new indications have been promoted in recent times [10] to increase
environmental sustainability of the buildings in the Emirate of Dubai: new green building rules
establish the need of condensate recovery in new buildings with a cooling load equal to or greater than
350 kW. The collected water can be used for irrigation, toilet flushing, or other onsite purposes but it
should not come in contact with the human body.
Studies about combined and modified air conditioning units and dehumidifiers or double
dehumidifiers providing air cooling as well as freshwater supply have been carried out and patents
have been registered [11]. Freshwater and drinking water can be produced by modifications of
commercial air conditioning units of different sizes and capacities: they make water available by
condensation of water vapor in the indoor and outdoor air surrounding the unit. This technology
could be applied not only for the new buildings but also in air handling treatment unit (AHU)
retrofitting [12], even if the results must be evaluated accurately [13], to reach economic advantages
and energy sustainability high level of the process.
From the literature analysis, the effort to produce a great amount of water does not appear
connected necessarily with the optimization of an air conditioning system and attention to its
energy efficiency.
The aim of the current work is to develop the analysis of an integrated system, which combines
not only water recovery and air conditioning, but also energy efficiency, by means of a tailored
heat recovery system, in order to take a step in the sustainability direction. Some considerations
were presented in [14]. The integrated system design is referred to a new building, sized to supply
the whole air conditioning demand. With the aim of obtaining very general results, the representative
building chosen is a new hotel, shaped in a very simple and common configuration. The building
thermal loads have been calculated under the climatic conditions of the Arab Emirates coast that
represent the most suitable conditions for a strong need of air conditioning, because, especially during
summer, temperature and humidity reach very high levels.
The following steps have been addressed:

• analysis of the Arab Emirates coast weather, in order to find a representative climate;
• new hotel main physical parameters definition;
• energy loads and the water demand calculation;
• preliminary system configuration for the case-study;
• system optimization to produce maximum water flow;
• calculated water extraction from air, which can be achieved with the integrated system, and
the rate of water need covered.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 3 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 3 of 17

Results will
Results will demonstrate
demonstrate that that an
an integrated
integrated system
system achieves
achieves the
the required
required performances
performances in in air
air
conditioning,
conditioning, as a traditional one, and, at the same time, can cover a meaningful rate of the
the same time, can cover a meaningful rate of the building’s building’s
water demand.
demand.The Themain purpose
main purposeof the
of present research
the present is to expand
research is to the knowledge
expand on this technology
the knowledge on this
to show thattothe
technology current
show thatsystem components
the current system allow obtaining allow
components a moreobtaining
efficient, aenergetically, and
more efficient,
economically sustainable process than in the past.
energetically, and economically sustainable process than in the past.
One of
One ofthe
themain
main contributions
contributions to theto research in this in
the research field is represented
this by the system
field is represented by components
the system
sizing, aimed
components at the
sizing, double
aimed purpose
at the doubleof air conditioning
purpose and water
of air conditioning andextraction, and jointed
water extraction, with
and jointed
the attention
with to thetoenergy
the attention efficiency,
the energy to complete
efficiency, the scenario.
to complete the scenario.
Further steps
Further steps of of the
the research
researchwillwillregard
regardaacomparison
comparisonbetween
betweenthetheintegrated
integratedsystem
systemandanda
a traditional air conditioning system, with the aim of quantifying integrated
traditional air conditioning system, with the aim of quantifying integrated system convenience in system convenience
in terms
terms of energy
of energy efficiency
efficiency and and cost
cost effectiveness.
effectiveness.

2. Climate
2. Climate Analysis
Analysis
Water content
Water content in
in the
the air
air can
can be
be determined
determined by
by means
means of
of three
three parameters: total atmospheric
parameters: total atmospheric
pressure, air
pressure, air temperature,
temperature, and
and relative
relative humidity.
humidity. Taking
Taking into
into account
account the
the atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure equal
equal
to 101,325 Pa, some values of the correspondence between temperature, moisture content,
to 101,325 Pa, some values of the correspondence between temperature, moisture content, and and Relative
Humidity
Relative (RH), are(RH),
Humidity represented in Figurein
are represented 1.Figure 1.

Figure 1. Relations between moisture content, air temperature, dewpoint temperature, and RH.
Figure 1. Relations between moisture content, air temperature, dewpoint temperature, and RH.

It is important to underline that the process to recover water from air requires less energy, when
It is important
the hygrometric to underline
degree is high, asthat the be
it can process
easily to recover water
ascertained from from air requires chart.
a psychrometric less energy,
If the
when the hygrometric degree is high, as it can be easily ascertained from a
saturation temperature increases, the saturation curve slope is higher, thus the specific energy psychrometric chart.
If the saturation temperature increases, the saturation curve slope is higher, thus the specific
required for water extraction is lower. In the following figure (Figure 2), for example, the variation of energy
requiredenthalpy
specific for waterdifference
extractionΔh is lower.
is shown In the
for following
the same figure
water (Figure 2), for
extraction, example, the
represented variation
by the same
of specific enthalpy difference ∆h is shown for the same water extraction, represented
difference of hygrometric degree Δx, in two saturation conditions. The first saturation condition by the sameis
difference of hygrometric degree ∆x, in two saturation conditions. The
characterized by a dew temperature of 20 °C, the second one by a dew temperature of 10 °C. first saturation condition
is characterized by a dew temperature of 20 ◦ C, the second one by a dew temperature of 10 ◦ C.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 4 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 4 of 17

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Specific
Specific enthalpy
enthalpy variations
variations corresponding
correspondingto
tothe
thesame Δx.
same∆x.

The most suitable climate for water extraction from air is hot and humid, when air is
The most suitable climate for water extraction from air is hot and humid, when air is characterized
characterized by a state near the saturation curve and by a significant vapor content. In the present
by a state near the saturation curve and by a significant vapor content. In the present research,
research, mean representative climatic conditions have been chosen, even if they are not the most
mean representative climatic conditions have been chosen, even if they are not the most suitable for
suitable for the water extraction. According to the Köppen–Geiger classification, Arab Emirates costal
the water extraction. According to the Köppen–Geiger classification, Arab Emirates costal climate
climate can be indicated as a sub-tropical desert one, as it is characterized by medium–high relative
can be indicated as a sub-tropical desert one, as it is characterized by medium–high relative humidity
humidity and high temperatures, but also by a lack of rainfalls. As the representative city for such a
and high temperatures, but also by a lack of rainfalls. As the representative city for such a climate,
climate, Abu Dhabi was chosen for its location, almost in the middle of the coast, and for its climate,
Abu Dhabi was chosen for its location, almost in the middle of the coast, and for its climate, very
very similar to Dubai’s. In Figure 3, the duration curve of the hygrometric degree, calculated for the
similar to Dubai’s. In Figure 3, the duration curve of the hygrometric degree, calculated for the whole
whole year, shows that this climate is not optimal for water extraction from air. In fact, the vapor
year, shows that this climate is not optimal for water extraction from air. In fact, the vapor content
content in the air is lower than 15 g/kg of dry air for about the 70% of the time and it is near or lower
in the air is lower than 15 g/kg of dry air for about the 70% of the time and it is near or lower 10 g/kg
10 g/kg of dry air in more than the 25% of the cases. In Figure 4, the average temperature, humidity,
of dry air in more than the 25% of the cases. In Figure 4, the average temperature, humidity, and
and moisture content is shown on a monthly basis.
moisture content is shown on a monthly basis.
The analysis was carried out on the basis of a statistic collection of more than 30 years of
The analysis was carried out on the basis of a statistic collection of more than 30 years of
temperature and humidity data [15]. The database reports, for the considered location, the typical
temperature and humidity data [15]. The database reports, for the considered location, the typical
average year calculated referring to such a collection. The year is described, month by month, by
average year calculated referring to such a collection. The year is described, month by month, by means
means of the average monthly day, calculated hour per hour. In other words, each month has 24
of the average monthly day, calculated hour per hour. In other words, each month has 24 couples
couples of values, temperature, and humidity, which represent the statistically average day of that
of values, temperature, and humidity, which represent the statistically average day of that month.
month. The current study was performed taking into account all those data. In order to show the
The current study was performed taking into account all those data. In order to show the temperature
temperature and humidity behavior, the calculated monthly averages are shown in Figures 5 and 6.
and humidity behavior, the calculated monthly averages are shown in Figures 5 and 6. Temperature
Temperature and moisture content are shown for each month, from November to April (a) and from
and moisture content are shown for each month, from November to April (a) and from May to
May to October (b): the two periods separately represent the months characterized by a maximum
October (b): the two periods separately represent the months characterized by a maximum daily
daily temperature respectively lower and higher than 35 °C. During three months—January,
temperature respectively lower and higher than 35 ◦ C. During three months—January, February, and
February, and December—temperatures are not so high: in fact, they are up to 20 °C on average and
December—temperatures are not so high: in fact, they are up to 20 ◦ C on average and never over
never over 26 °C (Figure 5). In particular, it is possible to observe that January is the coldest one, as
26 ◦ C (Figure 5). In particular, it is possible to observe that January is the coldest one, as temperature
temperature is always under 23 °C. Anyway, during the other two months, the temperature is over
is always under 23 ◦ C. Anyway, during the other two months, the temperature is over 25 ◦ C only for
25 °C only for few hours. Those three months are also characterized by a low moisture content, as it
few hours. Those three months are also characterized by a low moisture content, as it is always below
is always below 10 g/kg of dry air (Figure 6).
10 g/kg of dry air (Figure 6).
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 5 of 17
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Figure 3.3.Abu
Figure3.
Figure Abu Dhabi
AbuDhabi duration
Dhabiduration curve
durationcurve of
curveof the
ofthe hygrometric
thehygrometric degree.
hygrometricdegree.
degree.
Figure 3. Abu Dhabi duration curve of the hygrometric degree.

Figure
Figure
Figure 4.
4.
Figure4. Abu
4.Abu Dhabi
AbuDhabi mean
Dhabimean temperatures,
meantemperatures,
temperatures, moisture
moisture
temperatures,moisture content,
content,
moisturecontent, and
and
content,and RH.
RH.
andRH.
RH.

(a)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 5.5. Abu
Figure Abu
Abu Dhabi
Dhabi hourly
hourly average
average temperatures
temperatures from
from November
November to
to April
April (a)
(a) and
and from
from May
May to
to
Figure 5.
5. Abu Dhabi
Dhabi hourly
hourly average
average temperatures
temperaturesfrom
from November
November to
to April
April (a)
(a) and
and from
from May
May to
to
October
October
October (b).
(b).
October (b).
(b).
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 6 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 6 of 17

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Abu Dhabi hourly average moisture content from November to April (a) and from May to
Figure 6. Abu Dhabi hourly average moisture content from November to April (a) and from May to
October (b).
October (b).
3. Case-Study Configuration and Load Calculation
3. Case-Study Configuration and Load Calculation
In order to study the integrated system design, a representative building was needed. Since
In order
hotels needtoboth
studyair the integrated
conditioning andsystem design,ofawater,
large amounts representative
this kind ofbuilding
building was needed.
was chosen for Since
the current application. In particular, a medium-high rated hotel was
hotels need both air conditioning and large amounts of water, this kind of building was chosen for considered, since in Abu Dhabi
such a category
the current of hotels
application. is well represented.
In particular, a medium-high rated hotel was considered, since in Abu Dhabi
Moreover, this kind
such a category of hotels is well of building, a hotel, is particularly meaningful for the local context, because
represented.
of its impact on municipal water management. Actually, the tourism footprint in water consumption,
Moreover, this kind of building, a hotel, is particularly meaningful for the local context, because of
at a local scale, is a major issue, because the direct daily water use, due to guests, is almost always
its impact on municipal water management. Actually, the tourism footprint in water consumption, at
higher than the domestic one. In the United Arab Emirates, average water consumption related to
a local scale, is
tourism is aabout
major issue,
200 L forbecause the direct
each guest per day,daily water
while use, due
domestic to guests, isisalmost
consumption 174 L for always
everyhigher
thaninhabitant
the domestic one. In the United Arab Emirates, average water consumption
per day [16]. Moreover, in countries where tourism is an important economic resource, related to tourism
is about
and there is lack of water, municipalities prefer to supply tourist accommodations instead of per
200 L for each guest per day, while domestic consumption is 174 L for every inhabitant
day [16]. Moreover,
providing for theinresident
countries where tourism
population. As tourismis anis important
not uniformly economic resource,
distributed in time,andit isthere is lack of
difficult
water,to municipalities
manage the municipalprefer towatersupply supply,
touristeven more so if there
accommodations is a of
instead large number for
providing of the
tourist
resident
accommodation
population. As tourismbuildings.
is not Difficulties
uniformly in aqueduct
distributed balancing,
in time, in it
water reserves,toand
is difficult in socio-political
manage the municipal
watermanagement,
supply, evencan morearise.
so ifThethereintegrated
is a largesystem,
numberwhich can supply,
of tourist beside airbuildings.
accommodation conditioning, a
Difficulties
meaningful quantity of freshwater, can therefore represent an important help, or the solution for
in aqueduct balancing, in water reserves, and in socio-political management, can arise. The integrated
municipal water supply sustainability.
system, which can supply, beside air conditioning, a meaningful quantity of freshwater, can therefore
The hotel configuration is chosen in order to obtain very general results. The building is
represent
designedan important help,
with 20 floors. The orfirst
the five
solution for municipal
are intended waterareas,
for common supply sustainability.
as shopping areas, reception
The hotel configuration is chosen in order to obtain very general
halls, restaurants, and so on. The other floors house 20 private rooms each. Each room results. The building is designed
is dimensioned
withfor20twofloors. The first five are intended for common areas, as shopping areas, reception halls,
guests.
restaurants, The and so on.
nominal Thesupply
water other floors
for each house
room20 private
is 500 rooms
L/day, each. Each
in compliance room
with localisstandards
dimensioned for for
medium-high hotels. Thus, the entire water need of the building is 150 m3/day. The water supply
two guests.
amount
The nominalrepresents
waternotsupply
only guests’ consumption,
for each room is 500 but also all the
L/day, in other possible with
compliance hotel local
needs,standards
such as: for
kitchen uses, laundry, gardens watering, swimming pool water
medium-high hotels. Thus, the entire water need of the building is 150 m /day. The water supply, and so
3 on. Of course, suchsupply
an amount is the maximum daily water demand. For the aim of the current paper, the hourly demand
amount represents not only guests’ consumption, but also all the other possible hotel needs, such as:
is not important, as the integrated system is equipped with water storage in the water treatment unit.
kitchen uses, laundry, gardens watering, swimming pool water supply, and so on. Of course, such
It is interesting to underline that the water supply for each guest exceeds the daily water rate of the
an amount
common is Abu
the maximum
Dhabi citizen daily waterthan
by more demand.
the 43%For the aim of the current paper, the hourly demand
[16].
is not important, as the integrated
A 20 °C temperature and 60% system is equipped
RH, maintained with all
during water storage
the year, in the
in the water
entire treatment
hotel, in
unit.compliance
It is interesting to underline
with local that the
uses, represents thewater
indoor supply
climatic for each guest exceeds the daily water rate of
conditions.
the common HotelAbu Dhabiiscitizen
geometry by more
very simple with than the 43% [16].shape, two rows of rooms on each floor.
a parallelepiped
Rooms ◦ are based on a common module
A 20 C temperature and 60% RH, maintained during characterized by: all the year, in the entire hotel, in compliance
with •localaverage
uses, represents
height: 3 m;the indoor climatic conditions.
•Hotel
netgeometry is very
usable surface: 28 msimple
2; with a parallelepiped shape, two rows of rooms on each floor.
Rooms• are based on
bathroom a common
area: 8m.2 module characterized by:
• average height: 3 m;
• net usable surface: 28 m2 ;
• bathroom area: 8 m2 .
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 7 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 7 of 17
The net conditioned volume is of 84 m3. A standard room is composed by a single module; suites
and wider rooms are composed by two or3 four of them. Hotel design was principally oriented to
The net conditioned volume is of 84 m . A standard room is composed by a single module; suites
define the physical parameters needed for the air conditioning sizing.
and wider rooms are composed by two or four of them. Hotel design was principally oriented to
An average thermal insulation was assumed for the whole building, with a mean thermal
define the physical parameters 2needed for the air conditioning sizing.
transmittance of U = 0.4 W/(m K) for the opaque envelope, and of U = 2 W/(m2K) for windows. In
An average thermal insulation was assumed for the whole building, with a mean thermal
order to obtain more general results, a specific orientation for the hotel was not considered, thus
transmittance of U = 0.4 W/(m2 K) for the opaque envelope, and of U = 2 W/(m2 K) for windows.
radiation heat loads were taken into account by means of the sol-air temperature method. Heat losses
In order to obtain more general results, a specific orientation for the hotel was not considered, thus
for every room were determined under the hypothesis that all the other rooms were unoccupied and
radiation heat loads were taken into account by means of the sol-air temperature method. Heat losses
unconditioned, instead of the common zones, which were assumed to be conditioned. For
for every room were determined under the hypothesis that all the other rooms were unoccupied and
calculations, air infiltration and heat loads due to occupation and electrical equipment were taken
unconditioned, instead of the common zones, which were assumed to be conditioned. For calculations,
into account, while the extra flux towards the sky was neglected. In Figure 7, room classification is
air infiltration and heat loads due to occupation and electrical equipment were taken into account,
represented, which was done referring to the number of external walls and of surfaces facing
while the extra flux towards the sky was neglected. In Figure 7, room classification is represented,
unconditioned rooms and corridors. There are 12 possible room configurations related to these
which was done referring to the number of external walls and of surfaces facing unconditioned rooms
geometrical features and boundary conditions. Heat loads were calculated in detail for each one of
and corridors. There are 12 possible room configurations related to these geometrical features and
the 12 different conditions.
boundary conditions. Heat loads were calculated in detail for each one of the 12 different conditions.
An example is considered in order to explain the meaning of the scheme in Figure 7. The
An example is considered in order to explain the meaning of the scheme in Figure 7. The following
following features characterize rooms of the first kind (indicated with “1” in Figure 7):
features characterize rooms of the first kind (indicated with “1” in Figure 7):
• three external surfaces (two walls and ceiling) dividing the room from external air (btr = 1);
• three external surfaces (two walls and ceiling) dividing the room from external air (btr = 1);
• floor and a wall dividing the room from not conditioned rooms characterized by two external
• floor and a wall dividing the room from not conditioned rooms characterized by two external
walls (btr = 0.6);
walls (btr = 0.6);
• one wall that divides the room from conditioned aisle (btr = 0).
• one wall that divides the room from conditioned aisle (btr = 0).
This kind of room is characterized by a 1394 W heat load, without taking into account loads due
This kind In
to occupation. of Figure
room is7,characterized by a 1394 W heat
the various configurations andload,
theirwithout taking
heat loads are into account loads due
summarized.
to occupation. In Figure 7, the various configurations and their heat loads are summarized.
Calculation results give an average heat load value equal to 2.4 kW for each room. For the latent
load Calculation
calculation,results give
persons an activities
and average heat
wereload value equal
considered. Theto 2.4 kWrequired
total for each cooling
room. For the latent
power was
load calculation,
calculated as 3600 kW.persons and activities were considered. The total required cooling power
was calculated as 3600 kW.

Figure 7. A façade of the hotel with the 12 private room representative typologies on 15 floors
Figure 7. A façade of the hotel with the 12 private room representative typologies on 15 floors (the
(the common rooms are located in the first five floors).
common rooms are located in the first five floors).

4. The Integrated System Configuration

The integrated system has been designed considering internal and external thermo-hygrometric
parameters and the whole heat loads of the building. It is planned to consider two sections for the plant.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 8 of 17

The first one is dedicated to the air treatment of common areas. The second one, divided into five
modules, delivers primary air for guests’ rooms (heat loads partially supported by fan-coil units).

4.1. Airflow
The outside air ratio for common areas was calculated referring to indications of the Italian
national standard UNI 10339 “Air conditioning systems for thermal comfort in buildings—Generalities,
classification, and requirements” (informative Appendix). Its reference values were taken into account
also for guest rooms, assuming two guests in each room and an outside airflow of 11 L/(second person).
In Table 1, values for the considered hotel are reported.
For the bar/breakfast room, the occupancy index was calculated as an average between the two
indexes characterizing these two intended uses. The two restaurants are intended available also for
external guests. Aisle occupancy index was calculated on the basis of rooms’ design occupancy.
Finally, the total fresh airflow rate results equal to 180,000 m3 /h.

Table 1. Outside air ratio.

Occupancy Total
Area Outside Air Whole Outside Air
Index Occupancy
Intended Use m2 persons/m2 persons L/(second person) L/s m3 /h
Hall 800 0.2 160 11 1760 6336
Bar/breakfast room 1 600 0.5 300 10 3000 10,800
Bar/breakfast room 2 600 0.5 300 10 3000 10,800
Restaurant/self service 1 750 0.6 450 10 4500 16,200
Restaurant/self service 2 1250 0.6 750 10 7500 27,000
Congress room 1 1200 0.6 720 5.5 3960 14,256
Congress room 2 800 0.6 480 5.5 2640 9504
Cinema 1200 0.6 720 5.5 3960 14,256
Casino 800 0.6 480 10 4800 17,280
Shopping area 2000 0.25 500 11.5 5750 20,700
Whole common areas 10,000 - 4860 - - 147,132
Room 84 - 2 11 22 79.2
Aisle 1854 0.024 44.1 11 485.6 5341.3
Whole rooms’ sector - - - - - 29,101.3

4.2. Design Parameters

Referring to the Abu Dhabi climatic data, the highest enthalpy value is reached in August,
88.9 kJ/kg, at a temperature of 34.9 ◦ C and at RH of 59% (Figure 8). The highest hygrometric degree,
21.14 g/kg, was calculated corresponding to a temperature of 34.9 ◦ C and to a RH of 63% (in August,
but an hour later than the enthalpy).
The design conditions for the integrated system were considered the following: enthalpy 90 kJ/kg,
hygrometric degree 21.40 g/kg, corresponding to an external temperature of 35 ◦ C and an RH of 60%.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 9 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 9 of 17

Figure 8. Mean daily outdoor enthalpy values for each month.

Figure 8. Mean daily outdoor enthalpy values for each month.

Another
Another important
important designdesign parameter,
parameter, for for the
the integrated
integrated system,
system, isis the
the minimum
minimum saturation
saturation
temperature
temperatureallowed
allowedfor forwater
waterextraction.
extraction.InInthe thecase
case ofof
a machine,
a machine, which
which produces
produces water
waterby by
means
meansof
aofcooling cycle,
a cooling such such
cycle, a limita is defined
limit not only
is defined notbyonly
the energy
by theconsumption,
energy consumption,but also by butthealso
employed
by the
technology. In the current
employed technology. Indesign, air cooling
the current design, is air
performed
cooling by means of a by
is performed water–air
means heatof a exchanger,
water–air heat not
only to avoid R134a contamination of the air, but also to avoid the possible
exchanger, not only to avoid R134a contamination of the air, but also to avoid the possible condensate condensate contamination
which can occurwhich
contamination in case canofoccur
pipesin breaking. Oil isbreaking.
case of pipes a dangerous Oil is substance
a dangerousas a substance
very little asquantity of it
a very little
can immediately
quantity of it canclog active carbon,
immediately clogreverse
active osmosis, and other
carbon, reverse kinds of
osmosis, andmembranes,
other kinds which have to be
of membranes,
parts
which ofhave
the water
to betreatment
parts of the unit, as will
water be described
treatment unit, inasthe
willfollowing
be describedSectionin 4.6
theWater Treatment
following Section Unit.
4.6
Water It Treatment
was decided that only a few percentage points of (alimentary) ethylene glycol needed to
Unit.
be addedIt wastodecided
the coolthatwater,only inaorder to avoid lack
few percentage of performance
points of (alimentary) of the coil and
ethylene alsoneeded
glycol any kind to of
be
contamination
added to the cool of thewater,
produced waterto
in order in avoid
case oflackpipes ofbreaking.
performance In these conditions,
of the coil andthe minimum
also any kind dewof
point temperature
contamination of of
thethe cooled air,
produced achievable
water in casewithout
of pipes problems
breaking. of freezing,
In these is 4 ◦ C with athe
conditions, hygrometric
minimum
degree
dew pointof 5 g/kg. Such a threshold
temperature of the cooledcannot air,beachievable
lowered without without increasing
problems theofglycol content
freezing, is 4in°Cwater
withora
considering
hygrometrica degree
defrost ofcircuit.
5 g/kg. This threshold
Such is also cannot
a threshold energy be effective.
lowered In without
the following graph,the
increasing Figure
glycol9,
the difference
content of specific
in water enthalpy required
or considering a defrost to extract
circuit.a This
gramthreshold
of water from air isenergy
is also represented as function
effective. In the
of the hygrometric
following degree,
graph, Figure on the
9, the saturation
difference curve, enthalpy
of specific calculated in a range
required of dewapoint
to extract gram from 15 ◦from
of water C to
− ◦
8 isC. The more the slope ofofthe
air represented as function thecurve is marked,
hygrometric the more
degree, on theenergy is required
saturation to extract in
curve, calculated thea same
range
quantity of water
of dew point fromfrom air. to
15 °C It is
−8evident
°C. Thethat more going
the to a hygrometric
slope of the curve degree lower than
is marked, 5 g/kg
the more is very
energy is
energy
required expensive.
to extract the same quantity of water from air. It is evident that going to a hygrometric
degree lower than 5 g/kg is very energy expensive.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 10 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 10 of 17

Figure 9. Specific enthalpy slope depending on the hygrometric degree.

Figure 9. Specific enthalpy slope depending on the hygrometric degree.

4.3. Cooling Units

4.3. Cooling Units
Different airflow amounts, for different environmental conditions, were analyzed in order to
Different airflow amounts, for different environmental conditions, were analyzed in order to
maximize the ratio between the achievable condensate quantity and the energy needed to obtain the
maximize the ratio between the achievable condensate quantity and the energy needed to obtain
liquid water. For the minimum dew point allowed of 4 °C, corresponding to a design limit of the
the liquid water. For the minimum dew point allowed of 4 ◦ C, corresponding to a design limit of
hygrometric degree of 5 g/kgdry air, the optimal air flow of 30,000 m3/h was found.
the hygrometric degree of 5 g/kgdry air , the optimal air flow of 30,000 m3 /h was found.
We considered the study of a single HVAC module and the use of an appropriate number of
We considered the study of a single HVAC module and the use of an appropriate number of
modules for a more useful generalization of the results for other applications. Each module is
modules for a more useful generalization3 of the results for other applications. Each module is dedicated
dedicated to the treatment of 30,000 m /h of air: the calculated cooling loads lead to a corresponding
to the treatment of 30,000 m3 /h of air: the calculated cooling loads lead to a corresponding power of
power of 600 kW (200 kW delivered by a heat recovery system and the rest supplied by the chiller
600 kW (200 kW delivered by a heat recovery system and the rest supplied by the chiller unit, as shown
unit, as shown below).
below).
The total required cooling power calculated for common areas and private rooms is equal to
The total required cooling power calculated for common areas and private rooms is equal to
3600 kW and therefore the hotel will be provided with six modules of the same size. The aim was to
3600 kW and therefore the hotel will be provided with six modules of the same size. The aim
cover a considerable quantity of water demand and the air conditioning needs of the hotel
was to cover a considerable quantity of water demand and the air conditioning needs of the hotel
simultaneously. Another aim was also to employ a middle size module, easy to transport and to use
simultaneously. Another aim was also to employ a middle size module, easy to transport and to use
in other different situations.
in other different situations.
4.4. Main Design Characteristics
4.4. Main Design Characteristics
From the calculated energy needs and the considered climatic conditions, it is possible to assume
From the calculated energy needs and the considered climatic conditions, it is possible to assume
the following prescriptions for the integrated system:
the following prescriptions for the integrated system:
• 3600 kW of cooling power (where the power supplied by the chiller will be 2400 kW, while that
• 3600 kW of cooling power (where the power supplied by the chiller will be 2400 kW, while that
supplied by the recovery equipment will be 1200 kW);
supplied by the recovery equipment will be 1200 kW);
• 180,000 m3/h of treated air flow;
• 180,000 m3 /h of treated air flow;
• 7 °C as minimum threshold for the air temperature in the inlet section of cooling unit;
•• 72 ◦°C C as
theminimum threshold
design inlet for theofair
temperature temperature
the chiller; in the inlet section of cooling unit;
•• 27 ◦°C C the design inlet temperature of the chiller;
the design outlet temperature of the chiller.
• 7 ◦ C the design outlet temperature of the chiller.
Air coming from the water extraction circuit passes through the heat recovery system and then
Air
is used as coming from
fresh air forthe
both water extraction
common areas circuit passes
and private through the heat recovery system and then
rooms.
is used as fresh air for both common areas and private rooms.
4.5. System Configuration
4.5. System Configuration
As said before, the system is composed by two sections, one for common areas, another for
As said
private before,
rooms. thefollowing
In the system isfigure,
composed
this by two sections,
second one for common
one is represented. areas,
(Figure 10).another for private
rooms. TheInmodule
the following figure,
dedicated this second
to guests’ rooms one is represented.
was (Figure 10).
designed as follows:
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 11 of 17

The module dedicated to guests’ rooms was designed as follows:

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 11 of 17
(a) a heat recovery (h) unit, a cooling coil (cc), a fan: they represent the air treatment unit for
the(a)production
a heat recovery (h) unit,
of water a cooling coil (cc), a fan: they represent the air treatment unit for the
(WPU);
(b) production of water (WPU);
a cooling coil, a fan, a pump for the refrigerant circulation, a refrigeration unit that provides
(b) a cooling coil, a fan, a pump for the refrigerant circulation, a refrigeration unit that provides the
the air treatment unit: they characterize the air handling treatment unit (AHU).
air treatment unit: they characterize the air handling treatment unit (AHU).

Figure 10. Water production unit (WPU) coupled with air conditioning system for the rooms. In the
Figure 10. Water production unit (WPU) coupled with air conditioning system for the rooms.
WPU, condensed water comes from both heat recovery coil and cooling coil.
In the WPU, condensed water comes from both heat recovery coil and cooling coil.
The heat recovery system performs the external air pre-cooling, which can condensate a higher
Thewater
heatratio from air,
recovery with the
system same compression
performs energy
the external airconsumption.
pre-cooling, The outcoming
which air is very dry,a higher
can condensate
thus, in design conditions, only a sensible post cooling
water ratio from air, with the same compression energy consumption. The outcoming is necessary in order to match airneutral
is very dry,
conditions. Moreover, it was calculated that such a system, if temperature is equal to or below 27 °C
thus, in design conditions, only a sensible post cooling is necessary in order to match neutral conditions.
and relative humidity below 70%, the air coming from the WPU is equal or under neutral conditions
Moreover, it was calculated that such a system, if temperature is equal to or below 27 ◦ C and relative
(20 °C and 60% of relative humidity). In those cases, which occur 50% of the time taking into account
humidity thebelow 70%,
real yearly the airofcoming
behavior fromand
temperature therelative
WPU humidity,
is equal or no under
further neutral
treatments, conditions (20 ◦ C and
or only a post-
60% of relative
heating, are humidity).
required. Such In those cases, which
a post-heating occur
is carried out by50% of the
means time takingheat.
of condensation into account the real
yearly behavior of temperature and relative humidity, no further treatments, or only aonly
The system for private rooms is represented by AHU + fan-coils: the AHU handles the
post-heating,
primary air that is sent to the rooms in neutral conditions.
are required. Such a post-heating is carried out by means of condensation heat. No recirculated air flow is considered. Fan-
coils maintain the set indoor temperature. The sensible heat load is charged to the fan-coils, while
The system for private rooms is represented by AHU + fan-coils: the AHU handles only
only latent heat is covered by supply air. In the common areas, the AHU also handles recirculated
the primary
air, butaironly
that theisprimary
sent toairtheis rooms
treated in by neutral
the WPUconditions.
anyway. No recirculated air flow is considered.
Fan-coils maintain
Usually,the the set
HVACindoor
systemtemperature. The sensible
is sized according heatconditions
to the worst load is charged of externalto the fan-coils, while
temperature
only latent
and heat
RH. In is this
covered by supply
case, however, theair.
main In target
the common
is the waterareas, the AHU
production from also
air,handles recirculated
and therefore the air,
enthalpy of humid air should be
but only the primary air is treated by the WPU anyway.the most representative physical parameter. In fact, with reference
to the WPU, the mass flow rate of external air Q [m3/h] and the outlet condition from the cooling coil,
Usually, the HVAC system is sized according to the worst conditions of external temperature and
the total refrigerating power Ptot [kW] is calculated as:
RH. In this case, however, the main target is the water production from air, and therefore the enthalpy
of humid air should Ptot = (ρ·Q/3600)·(h
be the mostin-hr,1 − hout-cc) = (ρ·Q/3600)·[(h
representative physicalin-hr,1 − hout-hr,1) + (h
parameter. fact,− with
Inout-hr,1 hout-cc) reference
= Phr + Pcc to the WPU,
3
the mass flow rate of external air Q [m /h] and the outlet condition from the cooling coil, the total
refrigerating power Ptot [kW] is calculated as:

Ptot = ($·Q/3600)·(hin-hr,1 − hout-cc ) = ($·Q/3600)·[(hin-hr,1 − hout-hr,1 ) + (hout-hr,1 − hout-cc ) = Phr + Pcc

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 12 of 17

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309

where 12 of 17

$ is the air density [kg/m3 ];

• where
• • (hin-hr,1
ρ is the−h out-hr,1
air density) is [kg/m
the enthalpy
3]; variation of humid air in the inlet air side (side 1) of heat
• recovery [kJ/kg];
(hin-hr,1 − hout-hr,1) is the enthalpy variation of humid air in the inlet air side (side 1) of heat recovery
• (hout-hr,1
[kJ/kg]; − hout-cc ) is the enthalpy variation of humid air in the cooling coil [kJ/kg];
• • Phr (h
isout-hr,1
the refrigerating
− hout-cc) is thepower available
enthalpy byof
variation heat recovery
humid air in [kW];
the cooling coil [kJ/kg];
• • Pcc Pishrthe
is the refrigerating
refrigerating power
power ofavailable by heat
the cooling recovery [kW];
coil [kW].
• Pcc is the refrigerating power of the cooling coil [kW].
The single component sizing was carried out by using heat transmission characteristics given by
The single component sizing was carried out by using heat transmission characteristics given by
coil suppliers. Those characteristics, semi empirically determined, are collected in databases which can
coil suppliers. Those characteristics, semi empirically determined, are collected in databases which
be queried by means of a simple commercial software. A parametric analysis was conducted by varying
can be queried by means of a simple commercial software. A parametric analysis was conducted by
the input data: it enabled definition of the overall architecture of the system. In particular, taking into
varying the input data: it enabled definition of the overall architecture of the system. In particular,
account the design thermal loads and the air flow rates needed to ensure the thermo-hygrometric design
taking into account the design thermal loads and the air flow rates needed to ensure the thermo-
parameters in all the rooms, a basic module for the dimensioning of the different components has
hygrometric design parameters in all the rooms, a basic module for the dimensioning of the different
been defined. The
components haswater
beenproduction
defined. Theunitwater
(WPU) has been unit
production structured
(WPU)with
has the purpose
been of maximizing
structured with the
the purpose
condensing of maximizing the condensing water and, simultaneously, making available pre-treated airat
water and, simultaneously, making available pre-treated air (already dehumidified)
the (already
inlet of the air handlingatunit
dehumidified) (AHU)
the inlet (Figure
of the 11).
air handling unit (AHU) (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Calculation process scheme for the components design.

Figure 11. Calculation process scheme for the components design.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 13 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 13 of 17

In particular, for each heat recovery geometry set, and fin spacing (path p ==3.3–4.5–6–7.5–9 3.3–4.5–6–7.5–9 mm), mm),
the inlet cooling coil temperature T3 was varied (6–7–8–9 °C). ◦ C). This process can obtain the maximum

recovery power,
heat recovery power, compatible
compatiblewith withthe thelimit
limitofofΔp ∆p = 500
= 500
max
max Pa,Pa, to avoid
to avoid fin fin deformation
deformation duedue to
to the
the pressure
pressure difference.
difference. In fact,
In fact, reducing
reducing fin spacing,
fin spacing, the heat
the heat recovery
recovery powerpower increases
increases but butalso also
the
the pressure
pressure difference.
difference. In Figure
In Figure 12a12a thethe increasing
increasing pressure
pressure differenceΔp
difference ∆p[Pa],
[Pa],related
relatedto to the
the fin
spacing, is is shown
shownfor forthetheanalyzed
analyzedconfiguration.
configuration. InIn
Figure
Figure 12b, thethe
12b, inlet cooling
inlet coil coil
cooling temperature
temperature and
the fin spacing influence on the heat recovery power P [kW] show that this increases by 10 kW/ ◦C
and the fin spacing influence on the heat recovery power rec Prec [kW] show that this increases by 10
in all the
kW/°C infin
all spacing configurations.
the fin spacing configurations.
With a fixed heat recovery geometry (A = B = 1.5 m, H == 2.6 2.6 m), the conditions
conditions of the inlet air
(side 1) are T1-in = 35 ◦ C and RH = 60% (Figure 11), whereas those in the input
1-in= 35° C and RH1-in1-in = 60% (Figure 11), whereas those in the input sideside 2 depend
2 depend on
on the
the characteristics
characteristics of the
of the cooling
cooling coil coil
(RH(RH2-in =2-in = 100%).
100%).
The air flow rate of Q == 30,000 30,000 m m33/h
/hininthetheside
side11ofofheat
heatrecovery,
recovery,where
wherethe theoutside
outside air air is
iscooled,
cooled,
allows the theoutdoor
outdoorair airheating
heating in the side 2. Taking into account the constraints
in the side 2. Taking into account the constraints on the pressure drops on the pressure
drops
(Δp max (∆p
= 500maxPa),= the
500 configuration
Pa), the configuration
with a finwith spacing a fin
ofspacing
6 mm is of 6 mmTo
chosen. is define
chosen. theToairdefine the air
temperature
temperature leaving the cooling
leaving the cooling coil TB-out, it is necessary coil T , it is necessary to take into account the constraints
B-out to take into account the constraints on the refrigerating on
the refrigerating
power Pfrig (400 kW, power Pfrig (400by
calculated kW, calculated bybetween
a compromise a compromise between
the cooling coilthe cooling
power, its coil power,
dew-point
its dew-pointand
temperature temperature and thepower)
the heat recovery heat recovery
and on power) and on water
water production (it isproduction
established(it is established
a production of
a production of G > 10 m 3 /day). To meet all the requirements simultaneously, it is calculated that
GH2O > 10 m /day).H2O
3 To meet all the requirements simultaneously, it is calculated that TB-out = T2-in = 9
TB-out
°C. In = T2-in
this = 9it◦ C.
case, Infact:
is in this P
case,
frig = it is in
408 kW fact:
andPG frig = =408
H2O kW
12.3 mand
3/day.GH2O = 12.3 m3 /day.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. The
The increasing
increasing pressure
pressure difference
difference related
related to
to the
the fin
fin spacing
spacing (a)
(a) and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding heat
heat
recovery power depending on the inlet cooling coil temperature
recovery power depending on the inlet cooling coil temperature (b). (b).

The total refrigerating power of the WPU depends on the enthalpy of humid air at the outlet of
The total refrigerating power of the WPU depends on the enthalpy of humid air at the outlet of
cooling coil. With Tout-cc = 9 °C and RH = 100% it can be calculated that
cooling coil. With Tout-cc = 9 ◦ C and RH = 100% it can be calculated that
Ptot = (1.2 × 30,000/3600) × (90.1 − 27) ≈ 630 kW
Ptot = (1.2 × 30,000/3600) × (90.1 − 27) ≈ 630 kW
With this refrigerating power, it is always possible to reach the exit temperature of the cooling
With this
coil because refrigerating
the outside air power,
enthalpy it is(90.1
always possible
kJ/kg) to reach the
is, reasonably, theexit temperature
maximum level.of the cooling coil
because the outside
External air enthalpy
air conditions (90.1 kJ/kg)
assumed is, reasonably,
represent the worst the maximum
condition, level.
taking into account the said
External
statistic air conditions
weather database. assumed
Figure 13represent the worst
shows the condition, taking
thermodynamic into accountofthe
transformations said
the airstatistic
in the
weather database. Figure 13 shows the
primary and secondary circuits of the system. thermodynamic transformations of the air in the primary and
secondary circuits of the system.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 14 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 14 of 17

Figure 13. The thermodynamic scheme of the primary and secondary circuit.
Figure 13. The thermodynamic scheme of the primary and secondary circuit.

4.6. Water Treatment Unit

4.6. Water Treatment Unit
An important part of the integrated system is the water treatment unit, which obtains drinking
An important part of the integrated system is the water treatment unit, which obtains drinking
water from the condensate. Condensed water coming from a normal air conditioning system is not
water from the condensate. Condensed water coming from a normal air conditioning system is not
safe, nor pure, and it is not suitable for human consumption. As a matter of fact, in standard HVAC
safe, nor pure, and it is not suitable for human consumption. As a matter of fact, in standard HVAC
systems, air filters, heating coils, condensate collector tanks, pipes, and so on, are not thought in order
systems, air filters, heating coils, condensate collector tanks, pipes, and so on, are not thought in order
to achieve any sterilization of the condensed water, nor its mineralization. Moreover, condensed
to achieve any sterilization of the condensed water, nor its mineralization. Moreover, condensed water
water often may contain bacteria, viruses, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, and other pollutants coming
often may contain bacteria, viruses, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, and other pollutants coming from
from air. Furthermore, as condensed water, for its nature, is very poor in minerals content, it could
air. Furthermore, as condensed water, for its nature, is very poor in minerals content, it could be
be hazardous for human consumption, even if it were pure [17]. Therefore, the integrated system
hazardous for human consumption, even if it were pure [17]. Therefore, the integrated system must
must consider those issues. All components expected to be in contact with water must be designed
consider those issues. All components expected to be in contact with water must be designed with
with certified materials, corrosion resistant and suitable for contact with food. The water treatment
certified materials, corrosion resistant and suitable for contact with food. The water treatment unit
unit is considered complete with ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, a very strong multi filtration
is considered complete with ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, a very strong multi filtration stadium,
stadium, active carbon, and specific mineralization. By means of these treatments, the polluted
active carbon, and specific mineralization. By means of these treatments, the polluted condensate can
condensate can become drinking water, suitable for human consumption. The present work
become drinking water, suitable for human consumption. The present work considers the presence of
considers the presence of this indispensable component even if its sizing is not here developed here,
this indispensable component even if its sizing is not here developed here, but it will be deepened
but it will be deepened in a further analysis.
in a further analysis.
5. Theoretical
5. Theoretical Water
Water Production
Production and
and Needs
Needs Covering
Covering Evaluation
Evaluation
On the
On the basis
basis of
of the
the chosen
chosen weather
weather conditions
conditions and
and the
the preliminary
preliminary system
system design,
design, an
an indicative
indicative
calculation of the water which can be produced from air by a single module was possible.
calculation of the water which can be produced from air by a single module was possible. A simulation A
simulation of the machine behavior based on hourly climatic data, of the average monthly
of the machine behavior based on hourly climatic data, of the average monthly day, was carried out, day, was
carried
to out, toanguarantee
guarantee an internal temperature
internal temperature of 20 ◦ C andofRH
20 °C and RH
of 60% and ofto 60% and towater
maximize maximize water
extraction:
extraction: the results are shown in Figure 14. The simulations were performed, neglecting
the results are shown in Figure 14. The simulations were performed, neglecting transient conditions.transient
conditions.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 15 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 15 of 17
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 15 of 17

Figure
Figure 14. Monthly average
14. Monthly average water
water production.
production.
Figure 14. Monthly average water production.

As expected
As
As expected during
expected during January,
during January, February, and
January, February,
February, and December,
and December, water
December, water extracted
water extracted from
extracted from air
from air is
air is not
is not obtained
not obtained
obtained
in very
in
in very high
very high quantities.
high quantities. Such
quantities. Such limited
Such limited
limited waterwater quantities
water quantities
quantities are are related,
are related,
related, as as said
as said before, to
said before,
before, to the
to the low
the low vapor
low vapor
vapor
content
content of
of the
the air.
air. Anyway,
Anyway, ititis always
is always possible
possible to obtain
to obtain at least
at more
least
content of the air. Anyway, it is always possible to obtain at least more than 2 m /day of water from morethan 2
than m 3/day
2
3 m of
3 /daywater
of from
water
each
each integrated
from each
integrated system
integrated
system module.
system
module. module. It is important
It isItimportant
is important to
to to highlight
highlight
highlight that, during
that,during
that, these
duringthese months,
thesemonths,
months, the the air
the air
air
conditioning loads
conditioning
conditioning loads could
loads could also
could also be
also be reduced.
be reduced. The
reduced. The maximum
The maximum
maximum water water production
water production
production is is achieved
is achieved during
achieved during June,
during June,
June,
July,
July, August,
July, August,
August, and and September.
and September.
September. The The
The peakpeak
peak in in water
in water extraction
water extraction
extraction from from
from air air is
air is in
is in September
in September
September when when
when the the daily
the daily
daily
production
production achieves
achieves 10.2
10.2
production achieves 10.2 m /day. mm 3 /day.
33/day.
Takinginto
Taking
Taking intoaccount
into accountthe
account thefull
the full
full occupation
occupation
occupation of the
of of
the the
hotelhotel for whole
for the
hotel for the whole
the whole year,
year,year, the percentage
percentage
the percentage
the of
of the of the
entire
the
entire
water water
entire demand demand
water demand which
which which
can be can can
suppliedbe supplied by the
by the integrated
be supplied integrated
systemsystem
by the integrated system was
was calculated. calculated.
In Figure
was calculated. In Figure
In 15 15
results
Figure 15
results
are shown
results are for
are shown
eachfor
shown for each month.
month.
each month. the
During During
Duringwhole theyear,
the whole
whole year,
it isyear, it is
possible
it is to
possible
cover, to
possible to cover,
on cover,
average, on more
on average, more
thanmore
average, 24%
than
of the24% of
water the water
demand. demand.
From July From
to July
September, to September,
the the
integrated integrated
system
than 24% of the water demand. From July to September, the integrated system can cover over 38% of system
can cover can
overcover
38% over
of 38%
nominal of
nominal
water
nominal water
needs.
waterThe needs.
water
needs. The water
extracted
The extracted
water extractedcan supply can supply
canover
supply 30% over 30%
of the
over of
30%nominal the nominal needs,
needs, referring
of the nominal referring to
to the period
needs, referring the
to the
period
during during
which which
the air the air
conditioningconditioning
system system
works works
at a full
period during which the air conditioning system works at a full load (Figure 15). at a
load full load
(Figure (Figure
15). 15).

Figure 15. Monthly water demand covered by the water extracted from air.
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Monthly
Monthly water
water demand
demand covered
covered by
by the
the water
water extracted
extracted from
from air.
air.

Taking into
Taking into account
account design
design external
external conditions
conditions (35 (35 °C°C and 60% 60% ofof R.H.),
R.H.), the
the entire
entire integrated
integrated
Taking into account design external conditions (35 ◦ C and
and 60% of R.H.), the entire integrated
system achieves
system achieves water
water production
production of of about
about 70.370.3 m3/day,
3 /day, which
which covers
covers 47%47% of of the
the nominal
nominal
system achievesInwater production of aboutdue 70.3to 3 /day,m
mthe which covers 47% ofdecrease
the nominal requirements.
requirements. this case, water savings integrated system can
requirements. In this case, water savings due to the integrated system can decrease the average daily the average daily
In thisconsumption
water case, water savings
related due
to each to guest
the integrated
to a value system
quite can decrease
similar to the the average
water amount daily water
assigned to
water consumption related to each guest to a value quite similar to the water amount assigned to
consumption
each citizen. related
citizen. Effectively, to each
Effectively, with guest
with the to a value
the contribution
contribution of quite
of the similar
the integrated to the
integrated system, water
system, theamount
the averageassigned
average guest’s to each
guest’s daily
daily
each
citizen.
demand Effectively,
is about 189with
L theday,
per contribution
only about of8.6%
the integrated
more than system,
the the average
quantity guest’s
considered for daily
citizensdemand
in the
demand is about 189 L per day, only about 8.6% more than the quantity considered for citizens in the
is about
Emirates. 189 L per day, only about 8.6% more than the quantity considered for citizens in the Emirates.
Emirates.
It
It is
is interesting
interesting to to highlight
highlight that
that aaa hotel
hotel smart
smart water
water management
management can can
can allow
allow anan average
average water
water
It is interesting to highlight that hotel smart water management allow an average water
demand
demand reduction
reduction of
of about
about 30%
30% [16].
[16]. A
A combination between
combination between the
the integrated
integrated system
system and
and aa wise
wise water
water
demand reduction of about 30% [16]. A combination between the integrated system and a wise water
management can
management can lead
lead to to an
an average
average water
water saving
saving of of more
more thanthan 54%
54% with
with peaks
peaks of of about
about 70%.70%. In
In that
that
case, the water daily demand related to tourists is lower than the water share
case, the water daily demand related to tourists is lower than the water share assigned to citizens. assigned to citizens.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1309 16 of 17

management can lead to an average water saving of more than 54% with peaks of about 70%. In that
case, the water daily demand related to tourists is lower than the water share assigned to citizens.
Moreover, such an integrated system can be a proactive answer to the new green requirements
that are taking place in the UAE rules and that should be considered in the future all over the world.
As for water costs comparison, an analysis based on local rules and energy supply costs compared
with municipal water costs will be performed. Of course, it is not possible to make a general analysis
that would be valid all over the world, because energy and water prices and local laws regarding water
quality are very different from one country to another.

6. Conclusions
The integrated HVAC system calculated for a hotel, combined with water production, has been
discussed in this preliminary investigation. The climatic conditions of the Arab Emirates coast
were assumed for the analysis of the case-study. The HVAC system was designed for optimizing water
production, and for using cooled air for hotel air conditioning needs.
The results show that this kind of HVAC system, in the considered climatic conditions, can
produce a significant amount of water that can be used to cover a meaningful amount of the hotel
water requirements. The next steps of the research will consider if the costs of the treatment of the
condensed water to use it as drinking water can be considered affordable and if the production of
water from the air can be competitive. A comparison between a traditional and an optimized system
will be used for a deeper technical and financial analysis, to show the costs of drinking water and to
evaluate how much the proposed solution may represent an effective sustainable means of reducing
water consumption.

Acknowledgments: The research has been funded by SEAS, Societè de l’Eau Aerienne Suisse. All the technical
contents, contained in the present paper, are patented and copyrighted by SEAS and belong to SEAS.
Author Contributions: Anna Magrini coordinated the project and defined the research steps; Anna Magrini
and Marco Cartesegna conceived and designed the experiments; Marco Cartesegna, Lucia Cattani, and Lorenza
Magnani performed the experiments; Marco Cartesegna and Lucia Cattani analyzed the data and, with Anna
Magrini, they made the observations; Anna Magrini and Lucia Cattani wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision
to publish the results.

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