Search for keyword

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND OPERATING DATA FROM A

FULL-SCALE DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANT TREATING DOMESTIC WASTEWATER

Pillay Sudhir, Schöbitz L, Reynaud N, Foxon KM and Buckley CA

Pollution Research Group, School of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal,

Howard College, 4041, phone: +27 31 260-1490; fax: +27 (0)31 260-1122;
email: buckley@ukzn.ac.za

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the operating data from an experimental Decentralised Wastewater
Treatment System (DEWATS) plant. The plant was designed by BORDA and built by the
eThekwini Municipality in Newlands-Mashu, KwaZulu Natal. The purpose of the plant was
to determine the performance capabilities of the plant and to serve as a demonstration
plant to interested stakeholders and local water authorities. The modularised plant
consisted of a settling chamber/biogas collector, 3 ABR trains and 2 anaerobic filters
connected in series. The final effluent concentrations of the plant were 92, 24 and 4 mg/L
for total COD, NH4-N and PO4-P, respectively. Sludge bed migration did not occur through
the plant even though flows a hundred times over the design value were recorded. The
results suggest that a selection pressure may have occurred for less susceptible
microorganisms after previous surge flow events. To assist future designers and operators
of DEWATS plants, the paper also presents some operational and maintenance difficulties
experienced and how they were resolved.

INTRODUCTION

Problem Statement
In South Africa, a range of technologies have been used to provide basic sanitation. These
range from technically advanced centralised waterborne sewage systems to
community-based and household dry toilets. In the Ethekwini Municipality, unserved
communities within the waterborne network boundary are connected to the existing
waterborne infrastructure. However, those communities which fall outside the waterborne
boundary are supplied with waterless toilets, such as the urine diversion (UD) toilet.
Approximately 90 000 UD toilets have been installed in the Ethekwini Municipality alone.
The advantage of implementing waterless toilets in these areas is that they are less costly
to construct and operate than centralised systems. Furthermore, they can be installed
within the limited timeframe required by delivery targets unlike a centralised system which
may take much longer. Other problems limiting the implementation of centralised
sewerage systems in these areas include issues of land ownership, housing density and
inaccessible terrain (1).

However, waterless toilets are not universally accepted by many of the communities who
are provided with this technology. Whilst there are many users who like the structure of
these toilets (2), many consider flushing toilets to be superior to waterless toilets. Dry toilet
technology has a social stigma associated with it as being the technology confined only to
the poorest (3). Furthermore, the handling and disposal of waste from the waterless toilets
once the pit is full can be contentious as many local communities find the handling of
faeces and urine inappropriate (2). As many communities aspire to flush toilets, there is a
technological gap for waterborne sanitation systems that are affordable and practical to
implement. One of the many technologies sanitation treatments systems being considered
by the Ethekwini Municipality for these areas is the anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR). The
ABR is envisaged as an intermediate solution to those communities which aspire to
waterborne sanitation. Furthermore, it can encourage sewerage infrastructural
development beyond the waterborne network. The cost of sewerage infrastructure for the
ABR, however, will not be as high as that required for a centralised system, as the ABR
would operate without pumping, the wastewater will be treated on-site and large
excavation costs could be reduced by using shallow sewers to transport wastewater from
either a community ablution block or from households to the treatment system.

The ABR As A Sanitation Technology

The ABR is a modified septic tank that has a compartmentalised design. This design
modification increases contact between the incoming wastewater and sludge beds at the
bottom of reactor as the overflow from one compartment is supplied to the bottom of the
next compartment. This is usually achieved using either downflow pipes or a downflow
section (Figure 1). Sludge retention occurs in the upflow region of compartments through
the settling of solids against the upflow liquor to the next compartment (4). The flow pattern
in an ABR is therefore similar to a series of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
reactors.

h a n g in g b a f f le

in le t in le t

o u t le t o u t le t

(a) ABR with downflow pipes (b) ABR with hanging and standing baffles

Figure 1.Schematic representation of an ABR with (a) downflow pipes and (b) hanging
and standing baffles. These features create down-flow and up-flow zones within the
reactor. Pictures reproduced from (4).

The compartmentalised design has numerous cited advantages (5, 6). Among these is
reduced biomass washout as solids simply migrate along the reactor length (7). Another is
the spatial separation of anaerobic microbial consortia (4, 5). The latter feature has been
shown to confer greater protection against toxic substances and changes to environmental
parameters, such as pH and temperature (5, 6).

Due to the interest in the technology as an interim sanitation solution, a pilot-scale ABR
was commissioned by the Pollution Research group, University of KwaZulu-Natal. The
study was funded by the South Africa Water Research Commission
(WRC Project K5/1248). The eight-compartment pilot reactor was constructed out of mild
steel and installed at a wastewater treatment facility in the Ethekwini Municipality. The
wastewater was screened at the head of the works before being pumped to the pilot
reactor. The study, which was performed over a 5-year period, revealed that reactor
operation was fairly smooth despite occasional variations in flow and load, and biomass
washout incidents. At a hydraulic retention time of 22 h, effluent COD was found to be
190 mg COD/L and was further reduced to 130 mg COD/L at a retention time of 40 to
44 h. The liquid upflow velocity in the compartments was shown to influence performance
characteristics of the pilot plant with enhanced treatment efficiencies and specialisation of
compartmental sludge beds occurring at higher HRT (40-44 h). Reactor failure occurred
only once during a 5-year period, and was traced to organic overload from the illegal
dumping of septic tank sludge in the influent to the wastewater treatment plant. Despite the
sudden increase in organic load, the ABR showed rapid recovery after failure which was
attributed to pseudo plug flow conditions in the reactor (4). Limitations of the technology
included the incomplete digestion of particulate organic matter (especially at low HRT), no
nutrient removal and an unacceptably high concentration of pathogen indicators in the
effluent. The results indicated that the effluent would require polishing should any
discharge or re-use strategy be realised (4).

Membrane filtration technology was investigated as a possible polishing step after the ABR
(Project K5/1661) (8). The study revealed that low steady-state fluxes could be attained
(approximately 1 L/m 2.h) at low constant TMP (300 mm water head) in certain modules
types with fouling layer development dependent on the membrane surface topography of
the module used.

Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS)

The use of the ABR sanitation technology has gained momentum in recent years
especially in parts of southern Africa and South Asia. A number of decentralised
household or community-based sanitation treatment systems based on ABR technology
have been installed by the German non-profit organisation, BORDA (Bremen Overseas
Research and Development Association). The ABR unit forms the core treatment step of
treatment train. The entire sanitation system, known as BORDA DEWATS, generally
consists of an ABR preceded by a primary treatment step in the form of settling tanks or a
biodigester and an effluent polishing step consisting of a combination of anaerobic filters
and/or constructed wetlands. The plant treatment steps may be configured to treat either
domestic blackwater, a mixture of grey and black wastewater, or combined sewer flow
from a single household, building or a group of households (9, 10). The design of the
treatment steps in based on design guidelines presented elsewhere (11). The ABR step
may contain four or more compartments or tanks. BORDA specialises in designing the
DEWATS plants and training local communities on their usage. The construction of the
system is often done with the aid of the local government and water authorities with
community members involved in maintenance. By 2003, an estimated 120 000 DEWATS
units had been implemented in China, India and the Philippines (12).

DEWATS plants containing ABR technology have been shown to be fairly robust sanitation
systems. Superior treatment performances reported over a conventional septic tank in
laboratory and full-scale applications (4, 10). The plants have also been efficiencies of
around 80% in the final effluent) in the treatment of high-strength domestic wastewater
(above 2 000 mg COD/L) (10, 13)

Some of the limitations of the plants include incomplete hydrolysis in organically

overloaded plants (14) or when the hydraulic retention is too low (4), and inconsistent
findings with regards to quality of the final effluent for discharge, particularly with regards
to pathogen indicator concentrations (for a review refer to (8)).

In 2007, the Pollution Research Group, University of KwaZulu-Natal was tasked by

BORDA to direct its scientific activities on BORDA DEWATS worldwide. As part of this
agreement, a technical evaluation plant was built in Newlands-Mashu, Durban according
to BORDA design guidelines (11). The plant was built with specific purpose of establishing
the technical limitations of a typical BORDA DEWATS plant, to establish a set of practical
operating and maintenance procedures for the DEWATS plants, and to serve as a
demonstration plant to interested stakeholders and local water authorities. The study forms
part of a WRC-funded project (WRC Project K5/2002) and will include the microbial risk
assessment of irrigating crops with treated effluent, the impact of nutrients on soil
conditions and the harvesting of methane. The eThekwini Municipality provided the land
and financed the construction costs for the technical evaluation unit.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce BORDA DEWATS technology to interested

parties in South Africa, present performance capabilities and solutions to design,
operational and maintenance difficulties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Newlands-Mashu DEWATS plant

The technical evaluation Newlands-Mashu DEWATS plant is located on 71 John Dory
Road in Newlands, Durban and is used by the Ethekwini Municipality to assist small-scale
growers, emerging farmers and grower groups in producing agriculture products and
provide practical assistance and support to run food programs in the area.

The plant was designed according to BORDA guidelines (11) to treat domestic wastewater
from 86 households linked together by an existing trunk sewer. The Newlands-Mashu
DEWATS plant was connected to the trunk sewer for this catchment area. As the plant
would be driven to failure (to establish the operational limits of the plant), a safety measure
was implemented whereby all treated and untreated streams could be safely bypassed
back into the trunk sewer.

The experimental DEWATS plant in Newland Mashu was designed by BORDA to consist
of the following treatment steps. They are:
• A settling step consisting two chambers which also serves as biogas collection point
(Figure 2)
• Three parallel ABR treatment trains. Domestic wastewater is distributed evenly by the
settling chambers into the three ABR units, two of which are identical in size and one
with larger compartments (with each compartment the size of two compartments of
the smaller ABR train) (Figure 2). This modification of the BORDA design was based
on previous findings (4) which showed that lower upflow velocities result in enhanced
performance capabilities.
• Organic polishing using two chambers of anaerobic filters (AF) for each train
(Figure 2).
• A final polishing step in a vertical flow constructed wetland (VFW) (Figure 3).

The plant had been previously seeded and operated over a six-month period (15). The
flow distribution between the different ABR trains was kept similar by placing movable
110 mm plastic end caps with a large bore. The modified end caps were inserted at the
end of the AF effluent pipes to regulate the water level in plant. The height of the water
level at exit point of the effluent was then checked with a dumpy level to ensure that water
levels were similar through the ABR trains. Flow data and flow-weighted data have not
been included in this paper due to operational problems. This problem is further discussed
later in the paper in section highlighting operating and maintenance issues.

Sampling and sample preparation.

Influent wastewater samples were taken from the head of the Newlands-Mashu DEWATS
plant (refer to Figure 2). A 1 L beaker was used to collect five samples over a period of an
 Inlet sampling point
ABR 1 AF 1 Flow meters
2a ABR 2 AF 2

ABR 3 AF 3
2b
Settler

Figure 2: Photograph of the Newlands-Mashu DEWATS plant designed by BORDA. The

incoming wastewater from the trunk sewer enters the primary treatment step which serves
a dual function of acting as a settling tank and biodigester. From the settler, the flow is
distributed evenly through three parallel ABR units. Two of the ABR units have seven
compartments. The third ABR has four compartments with each compartment double that
of the other ABR train compartments. After the ABR trains, the wastewater flows through
two anaerobic filter (AF) compartments. The arrows depict the flow pattern through the
plant.

Figure 3: Photograph of the constructed wetlands used to polish the effluent after
anaerobic digestion. Two types of wetlands are shown above; a vertical flow wetland
(VFW) and a horizontal flow wetland with each being designed to treat the flow from one
ABR treatment train (design = 18 m 3/day). Only the results of the VFW are shown in this
paper. The VFW was planted with Typha capensis, an endemic aquatic plant species.

hour and placed in 10 L bucket. The contents of the bucket were stirred and a mixed
sample placed in a 2 L sampling container and stored on ice.

Grab samples from the settler and ABR compartments were taken using a specialised
clear PVC sampling tube. First, scum, if present, was moved apart from the desired
sampling point in the manhole. A metal rod with a plug at its end was lowered into the
chamber to a depth of approximately 0.5 m or to avoid the sludge bed. The PVC tube was
then lowered onto the metal rod forming a tight seal. After extracting the device from the
chamber, the mixed liquor was placed in a bucket, homogenised and placed in storage
bottles. The same device was used to measure sludge bed heights in each compartment
of the ABR train. In this instance, the metal rod was allowed to reach the bottom of the
chamber and the PVC tube lowered slowly onto the plug of the metal forming a seal. The
column was then removed from the chamber, the sludge allowed to settle for 15 min and
the sludge bed height recorded.

The samples after the settler-ABR-AF were taken below the overflow pipe to the
distribution channel connected to the magflow meters. Samples for the vertical flow
wetland were taken from a sump connected to an effluent pipe located after the wetland.

Physico-chemical Analyses.
Wastewater samples were characterized for total chemical oxygen demand (COD),
ammonium (NH4-N) and orthophosphate (PO4-P) using the Merck Spectroquant method.
Samples containing large particulates were homogenised first in a mechanical blender
before COD determination. For NH4-N and PO4-P determinations, the samples were
ultracentrifuged at 10 000 g to remove suspended and particulate matter.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Removal of selected parameters through the DEWATS plant

Figure 4 presents a summary of total COD removal through the entire plant. A large COD
reduction is observed through the different stages of treatment process. The average total
COD concentration of the feed wastewater entering the plant was 1 362 ± 533 mg/L. After
primary treatment in the settling tank, the total COD of the wastewater was reduced to
under 950 mg/L. This represents a total COD reduction between 33 to 37% through the
settler.

The overflow from the settling tanks was further reduced (over 74%) through the ABR-AF
treatment steps to under 250 mg COD/L. There was very little difference in the total COD
removal through the different ABR-AF trains (total COD removal of 74, 76 and 76% from
the settling tank to final AF step for train 1, train 2 and train 3 samples, respectively).
These preliminary results suggest wastewater treatment in the larger compartment ABR
train (train 3) is similar to that of trains 1 and 2 which have more and smaller
compartments. This finding, however, was not statistically validated to due to the small
sample size (n = 5).

The effluent after the ABR-AF treatment step in train 2 was fed to the VFW. The flow from
the other treatment trains was diverted back into the main trunk sewer as the VFW was
designed to treat only a third of flow entering the Newlands-Mashu DEWATS plant. The
average total COD removal after the VFW was 58% (COD removal from 220 ± 91 mg/L to
92 ± 31 mg/L).

Table 1 presents calculated average concentration of NH4-N and PO4-P through the plant.
The increase in NH4-N concentrations through settler-ABR-AF could be due to the
liberation of organically bound nitrogen during digestion of complex organic material whilst
phosphorus concentrations were largely unaffected by the digestion process. The VFW
reduced NH4-N and PO4-P concentrations by 40% and 17%, respectively (Table 1).
 2500

2000
Total COD (mg/L)

1500

1000

500

0
Feed Settler 2a Settler 2b S1E S2E S3E VFW

Sampling point

Removal Efficiency (%)

Location Feed Settler Settler Train 1 Train 2 Train 3
effluent Effluent Effluent
VFW 93 90 89 61 58 58
Train 1 Effluent 82 74 84 - - -
Train 2 Effluent 84 76 76 - - -
Train 3 Effluent 84 76 74 - - -
Settler 2a 33 - - - - -
Settler 2b 37 - - - - -

Figure 4: Summary of total COD removal through the entire Newlands-Mashu DEWATS
plant.

Table 1: Average concentrations of NH4-N and PO4-P through the Newlands-Mashu plant.
The numbers in parenthesis represent the sample number.
Location NH4-N (mg/L) PO4-P (mg/L)
Feed 31 ± 9 (5) 6 ± 5 (5)
Train 1 Effluent 42 ± 20 (5) 5 ± 3 (5)
Train 2 Effluent* 40 ± 22 (5) 5 ± 3 (5)
Train 3 Effluent 40 ± 22 (5) 4 ± 3 (5)
VFW 24 ± 12 (3) 4 ± 2 (3)
*, average removal efficiency calculated using only train 2.

Sludge bed height

Sludge bed height is routinely used by the Pollution Research Group to monitor the
performance of ABRs (4). The measurement provides useful information regarding the
hydraulic conditions in the ABR (15) and can be used to determine when desludging is
required.

From Figure 5 it can be observed that there is no distinct sludge bed migration of towards
the end of the plant in all ABR trains. This despite the plant being operated well above the
design max peak flow of 5.2 m 3/h in some instances. Max peak flows as high as 55 m 3/h
were measured by magflow meters during a heavy rainfall period in late November 2011
and early December 2011. The results presented here contradict those observed in (15)
which showed that the plant was susceptible to the additional hydraulic load from illegal
stormwater connections during high rainfall days. The results indicate that the high surge
flows experienced in (19) may have caused a selection pressure inside the plant for those
 Sludge Height (cm) Street 1 Street 2 Street 3

Sludge Height (cm)

Sludge Height (cm)
50 50 50
40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10

Date

Date

Date
0 0 0

Compartment Compartment Compartment

Figure 5: Sludge bed height through the compartments of each of the ABR train over time.
The sludge height was measured from 28 October to 14 December 2011.

anaerobic microorganisms which are less susceptible to high liquid upflow velocities.

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE AND OPERATING ISSUES

While monitoring the Newlands Mashu DEWATS plant, several technical difficulties were
experienced (Table 2). Some of these difficulties were related to design and construction
flaws whilst others were concerned with operational and maintenance problems . Some of
the technical difficulties could not be avoided as they formed part of the auxiliary
equipment required to measure key parameters, such as flow, but would not be present in
a field-based system. This section shows the way of handling and solving these problems,
and other operational and maintenance issues. It envisaged that this information will be
used to assist designers and operators of anaerobic and large-scale experimental
systems.

Gas chamber
The DEWATS plant was producing biogas but it could not be harvested. A water
manometer was attached to gas inlet to the stove (which was approximately 100 m from
plant) and the plant pressurized using motor vehicle fumes. The valve was then opened
and the change in the water level monitored. This exercise was repeated at least twice.
The manometer was then placed next to the gas outlet from the DEWATS plant and the
valve opened. No pressure change was shown in the manometer in either test suggesting
that there was no leak in the gas lines to the stove and system was not pressurised.
Further investigation revealed that the as-built drawings were not matching the actual plant
construction. Gas was leaked from the settler/biodigester part of the plant to the one of the
compartments which was not gas tight through plastic piping connecting the two
chambers. As a result, gas escaped through the manhole of compartment that was not gas
tight. To solve this problem, the municipality agreed to have neoprene gasket seals
installed in the chamber that was not gas tight. This should ensure that the produced
biogas can be collected. The gas lines to the main building site were also re-laid as the
current system does not take into account the condensation of water within the gas lines.
Water traps were placed along the lowest points along the length of the piping.

Stormwater overflow
The plant was designed to treat only domestic wastewater. Illegal stormwater connections
resulted in the plant being hyrdraulically overloaded. Smoke tests done by the municipality
have reduced the washout events from stormwater overload (15). Future plant designs
 Table 2: List of design problems and operational and maintenance problems for the
Newlands-Mashu DEWATS plant. The solutions have also been included.
Problem Solution
Operational and Maintenance issues
No gas pressure Check if system is building pressure. Can either use exhaust
fumes from running motor or manometer on the gas line.
Insert water trap to prevent condensation in gas line

Illegal stormwater A smoke machine was used to find illegal connections.

connections
A stormwater bypass to design can be added to limit surge
flows.

Design problems
Flooded sump Sump was reconstructed with a drain built in
Blocked magflow meters A siphon was placed before the magflow to prevent blockage
from washed out solids.

could incorporate a stormwater bypass in the sewer or include the additional hydraulic load
into the plant design.

Flooded sump
The magflow chambers were often became flooded with rain- and groundwater. The sump
was constructed out of layered concrete blocks which can be removed to allow easier
access to the magflow meters which were located approximately 0.7 m below ground
level. Water leaked through these gaps and through the concrete floor due to the high
water table and low water drainage. These areas were then sealed with a combination of
plastex, bitumex and finally a foil. Additionally, a drain was placed under the flooring to
divert ground water away from the sump. Future experimental plants should take into
account the soil conditions, ground water and rainfall run-off level.

Blocked magflows
Unexpected high surge flows caused solids to block magflow meters at end of the
anaerobic steps. The diameter of the effluent pipes changed from 110 mm to 50 mm in the
magflow to match the flow of the plant. The pipes were built with 90º elbows as the
magflow meters could only operate with a full pipe. Cleaning tools could not reach elbow .
Consequently, the pipes became clogged after high washout events.

To solve the problem, the pipe work around the magflow meters was designed to allow
better access whenever cleaning was needed. The elbows were replaced with T-junctions
which allowed easier access for the dislodging of solids with a hose pipe.

CONCLUSIONS

The DEWATS process represents a robust sanitation technology for remote areas with
superior performance over its closest competitor, the septic tank. The technical evaluation
plant showed good removals for COD, NH4-N and PO4-P with some acclimation of sludge
observed to high surge flows.
ACKOWLEDGEMENTS

The funding of South Africa Water Research Commission, eThekwini Municipality and
BORDA is greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES

1. E Roma, S Holzwarth and C Buckley C, Case study of SuSanA projects: peri-urban

sanitation with UDDTs, eThekwini (Durban), South Africa SuSanA 2011
http://www.susana.org/lang-en/case-studies?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=791,
(2011).
2. L C Duncker, Prejudices and attitude change towards dry toilets in South Africa,
“Proceedings of the 2nd International Dry Toilet Conference”, p.1-6 (2008).
3. L M Austin, L C Duncker, G N Matsebe, M C Phasha and T E Cloete, “Ecological
Sanitation – Literature Review”, Water Research Commission Report No TT246/05,
Pretoria, South Africa (2005).
4. K M Foxon, C J Brouckaert and C A Buckley, Anaerobic digestion of domestic
wastewater: the role of alkalinity in the rate and extent of digestion, Water Practice and
Supply 5 (2010).
5. W P Barber and D C Stuckey, The use of the anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) for
wastewater treatment: A review, Water Research 33 p.1559 (1999).
6. J Bell, “Treatment of Dye Wastewaters in the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor and
Characterisation of the Associated Microbial Populations”, PhD thesis, Pollution
Research Group, University of Natal, Durban, South Africa (2002).
7. C Polprasert, P Kemmadamrong and F T Tran, Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR)
process for treating a slaughterhouse wastewater, Environmental Technology 13 p.857
(1992).
8. S Pillay, S Pollet, J Kapuku, D Avesani, G Gugliemi, K M Foxon and C A Buckley, “The
Development of an Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor: Support to the EU”, WRC Report
No. 1661 (2011).
9. B Gutterer, L Sasse, T Panzerbieter and T Reckerzügel, “Decentralised Wastewater
Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and Sanitation in Developing Countries - A Practical
Guide”, WEDC - Water, WEDC, Loughborough University, U.K. in association with
BORDA, Germany (2009).
10. V A Nguyen, N G Pham, T H Nguyen, A Morel and K TonderskI, Improved septic tank
with constructed wetland, a promising decentralized wastewater treatment alternative
in Vietnam, “Proceedings of the 2007 IWA – NOWRA international conference”,
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A (2007).
11. L Sasse, “DEWATS - Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries”,
BORDA publication, Dehli, India p.1 (1998).
12. T Panzerbieter, I Jurga and T Boitin, Enhancing reuse options in DEWATS-projects in
Sichuan Province of PR China through ecosan approaches, “Proceedings of the
EcoSan Conference 2005”, ICC Durban, South Africa (2005).
13. S Singh, L R Haber, O Moog, R R Shrestha, P Shrestha and R Shrestha, Performance
of an anaerobic baffled reactor and hybrid constructed wetland treating high-strength
wastewater in Nepal - A model for DEWATS, Ecological Engineering 35 p.654 (2009).
14. N Reynaud, F Rahiem, F Fladerer, V Kuehn, C Buckley and P Krebs, Performance
assessment of a DEWATS plant in Indonesia, “Proceedings of the WISA Biennial
Conference”, ICC Durban, South Africa (2009).
15. S Pillay, N Reynaud, K M Foxon and C A Buckley, The BORDA DEWATS concept for
on-site sanitation in South Africa, Water Science and Technology (accepted) (2011).