Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fyp Formaldehyde 180503065602 PDF
Fyp Formaldehyde 180503065602 PDF
Fyp Formaldehyde 180503065602 PDF
Session 2014-2018
Supervisors
Engr. Kashif Iqbal
Group Members
Attique Ahmed Baber UW-14-CH.E-BSC-010
Bachelor of Science
In
Chemical Engineering
Internal Examiner:
Sign:
Name:
External Examiner:
Sign:
Name:
Before anybody else we thank our Parents who have always been a source of moral
support and driving force behind whatever we do. We are grateful to the Head of Department
Prof. Dr. A.K. Salariya and our faculty members for providing facilities and guidance. We are
indebted to our project supervisors Mr. Kashif Iqbal and Mr. Nazar Mehmood and project
coordinator Ms. Rabia Sabir for their worthy discussions, encouragement, inspiring guidance,
remarkable suggestions, keen interest, constructive criticism & friendly discussions which
enabled us to complete this report. They spared a lot of precious time in advising and helping us
in writing this report. Without their painstaking tuition, kind patronization, sincere coaching and
continuous consultation, we would not have been able to complete this arduous task successfully.
Abstract
Formaldehyde, the target product of the present work, is an organic compound representing the
most elementary configuration of the aldehydes. It behaves as a synthesis baseline for many other
chemical compounds, including phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde, melamine resin,
Paints, and Glues. It is also used in medical field i.e. as a disinfectant and preservation of cell and
tissues. The aim of the present work is to reach 98% conversion of methanol using Silver
Catalyst. Detailed calculations were performed in this report for all equipment in the plant
including all expenses of the plant erection, taking into account the required process conditions to
achieve a production capacity of 66000 ton/year of formaldehyde (as formalin).
Contents
Chapter No.1, Introduction ................................................................................................ ……..1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 History: .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Properties: .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Reactions of the Product: ....................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Industrial Applications: ......................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Handling: ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Disposal: ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.8 Shipping:................................................................................................................................ 7
1.9 Motivation for the Project: .................................................................................................... 7
1.10 Feasibility: ........................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter No.2, Manufacturing Process .............................................................................. ……..9
2.1 Production Methods: ........................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Silver Process ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Metal Oxide Process: ........................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Comparing the Silver and Oxide Processes:........................................................................ 12
2.5 Process Selection: ................................................................................................................ 13
2.6 Capacity Selection and Its Justification: .............................................................................. 14
2.7 Silver Process Description and Flow Sheet: ........................................................................ 14
2.8 Metal Oxide Catalyst Process: ............................................................................................. 18
2.9 Process Flow Diagram Of Silver Process: ........................................................................... 21
Chapter No. 3, Material Balance ........................................................................................ ……23
3.1 Main Reactions: ................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Capacity: .............................................................................................................................. 24
3.3 Material Balance at Vaporizer (V-100) & Mixing Point:.................................................... 24
3.4 Material Balance at Reactor (R-100): .................................................................................. 25
3.4.1 For Reaction 1: ............................................................................................................. 25
3.4.2 For Reaction 2: ............................................................................................................. 26
3.5 Material Balance at Absorber (A-100): ............................................................................... 28
3.6 Material Balance at Distillation Tower (D-100): ................................................................ 29
Chapter No. 4, Energy Balance .......................................................................................... ……31
4.1 Energy Balance on Vaporizer (V-100): ............................................................................... 32
4.2 Energy Balance at Reactor (R-100): .................................................................................... 33
4.3 Energy Balance at Absorber (A-100): ................................................................................. 36
4.4 Energy balance on Distillation Unit (D-100): ..................................................................... 38
4.5 Energy Balance at Exchanger (E-100): ............................................................................... 40
Chapter No. 5, Equipment Selection and Design .............................................................. ……41
5.1 Design of Vaporizer (V-100):.............................................................................................. 42
5.2 Design of Reactor (R-100): ................................................................................................. 55
5.3 Design of Absorber (A-100):............................................................................................... 64
5.4 Design of Distillation Column (D-100):.............................................................................. 77
5.5 Design of Heat Exchanger (E-100): .................................................................................... 92
Chapter No. 6, Mechanical Design ..................................................................................... …..101
6.1 Max Allowable Pressure:................................................................................................... 102
6.2 Max Allowable Temperature: ............................................................................................ 102
6.3 Wall Thickness: ................................................................................................................. 102
6.4 Torispherical Head: ........................................................................................................... 103
6.5 Vessel Supports: ................................................................................................................ 103
6.6 Circumferential Stress: ...................................................................................................... 103
6.7 Longitudinal Stress: ........................................................................................................... 104
6.8 Weight Load: ..................................................................................................................... 104
6.9 Wind Load: ........................................................................................................................ 104
6.10 Radial Stress: ................................................................................................................... 104
6.11 Bending Moment: ............................................................................................................ 105
6.12 Dead Weight Stress: ........................................................................................................ 105
6.13 Bending Stress: ................................................................................................................ 105
6.14 Allowable Stress Intensity: .............................................................................................. 105
Chapter No.7, Pump Sizing................................................................................................. …..108
7.1 Pumps (P-100): .................................................................................................................. 109
Chapter No. 8, Cost Estimation .......................................................................................... …..112
8.1 Equipment’s Cost: ............................................................................................................. 113
8.2 Direct Cost ......................................................................................................................... 119
8.3 Indirect Cost: ..................................................................................................................... 119
8.4 Fixed Capital Investment (FCI): ........................................................................................ 119
8.5 Working Capital Investment (WCI): ................................................................................. 120
8.6 Total Capital Investment: .................................................................................................. 120
8.7 Raw Materials: ................................................................................................................... 120
8.8 Operating Labor:................................................................................................................ 121
8.9 Total Production Cost: ....................................................................................................... 122
8.10 General Expenses: ........................................................................................................... 123
8.11 Depreciation: ................................................................................................................... 123
8.12 Gross Earning: ................................................................................................................. 123
8.13 Rate of Return (ROR):..................................................................................................... 124
8.14 Payback Period: ............................................................................................................... 124
Chapter No. 9, Instrumentation and Control ................................................................... …..125
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 126
9.2 Control Mechanism ........................................................................................................... 126
9.3 Process Control .................................................................................................................. 126
9.4 Objectives of Instrumentation and Control System ........................................................... 126
9.5 Components of the Control System ................................................................................... 127
9.6 Types of Control ................................................................................................................ 127
9.7 Feedback Control ............................................................................................................... 127
9.7 Feed Forward Control........................................................................................................ 128
9.8 Process Variable ................................................................................................................ 128
9.9 Temperature Measurement and Control ............................................................................ 129
9.10 Pressure Measurement and Control ................................................................................. 129
9.11 Flow Measurement and Control ...................................................................................... 129
9.12 Process Control System Hardware .................................................................................. 130
9.13 Valve Selection ................................................................................................................ 131
Chapter No.10, Hazop Study .............................................................................................. …..134
10.1 Background: .................................................................................................................... 135
10.2 Introduction: .................................................................................................................... 135
10.3 Success or Failure: ........................................................................................................... 135
10.4 Hazop Characteristics: ..................................................................................................... 136
10.5 Advantages: ..................................................................................................................... 136
10.6 Disadvantages: ................................................................................................................. 136
10.7 Effectiveness:................................................................................................................... 137
10.8 Key Elements: ................................................................................................................. 137
10.9 Hazop Study on Reactor R-100: ...................................................................................... 138
Chapter No. 11, Environmental Impact Assessment ....................................................... …..140
11.1 Environmental Impact Assessment: ................................................................................ 141
11.1.1 Overview: ................................................................................................................. 141
11.1.2 Objectives: ................................................................................................................ 141
11.1.3 Advantages: .............................................................................................................. 141
11.2 Methanol: ......................................................................................................................... 141
11.2.1 Hazard: ..................................................................................................................... 142
11.2.2 Protective measures .................................................................................................. 142
11.2.3 Spills and emergencies ............................................................................................. 143
11.3 Formaldehyde: ................................................................................................................. 143
11.3.1 Hazards: .................................................................................................................... 143
11.3.2 Protective measures .................................................................................................. 144
11.3.3 Spills and emergencies: ............................................................................................ 144
References: ........................................................................................................................... …..145
Appendix .............................................................................................................................. …..147
List OF Figure:
Figure 1.1: Formaldehyde Formula ................................................................................................ 2
Figure 1.2: World Consumption Data ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 2.1: Flow Sheet of Formaldehyde using Silver Catalyst ................................................... 17
Figure 2.2: Flow Sheet of Formaldehyde Using Metal Oxide Catalyst ....................................... 20
Figure 2.3: Process Flow Diagram of Formaldehyde Using Silver Catalyst ............................... 21
Figure 3.1: Material Balance V-100 ............................................................................................. 24
Figure 3.2: Material Balance at R-100 ......................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.3: Material Balance at A-100 ......................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.4: Material Balance at D-100 ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.1: Energy Balance V-100 ............................................................................................... 32
Figure 4.2: Energy Balance at R-100 ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 4.3: Energy Balance at A-100 ........................................................................................... 36
Figure 4.4: Energy Balance at D-100 ........................................................................................... 38
Figure 4.5: Energy Balance at E-100 ........................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.1: Vaporizer V-100 ........................................................................................................ 43
Figure 5.2: Reactor (R-100) ......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 5.3: Levenspiel Plot between Conversion and Inverse of Rate Law ................................ 59
Figure 5.4: Absorber A-100 ......................................................................................................... 66
Figure 5.5: Distillation Tower D-100 ........................................................................................... 78
Figure 5.6: Heat Exchanger E-100 ............................................................................................... 94
Figure 9.1: Diaphragm valve ...................................................................................................... 132
Figure 9.2: Flanged Valve .......................................................................................................... 132
Figure 9.3: Non-return valve ...................................................................................................... 132
Figure 9.4: Gate valve ................................................................................................................ 133
Figure 9.5: Instrumentation and Control on Distillation Column .............................................. 133
List of Tables:
Chapter No.1
1 Introduction
1
Chapter No.1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Formaldehyde is widely abundant in nature and the anthropogenic environments owing to several
natural and non-natural decomposition pathways of both biological and non-natural organic
matter. Formaldehyde, also called Methanal (formulated HCHO), an organic compound, the
modest of the aldehydes, used in huge amounts in a diversity of chemical manufacturing
processes. It is formed principally by the vapor-phase oxidation of methanol and is normally sold
as formalin. The chemical compound formaldehyde (also known as methanal) is a gas with a
pungent smell. It is the modest aldehyde. Its chemical formula is H2CO. Formaldehyde was first
produced by the Russian chemist Aleksandr Butlerov in 1859 but was finally identified by
August Wilhelm von Hofmann in 1868.
Formaldehyde readily results from the incomplete burning of carbon-containing materials. It may
be found in the smoke from forestry fires, in vehicle exhaust, and in tobacco smoke. In
the atmosphere, formaldehyde is formed by the action of sunlight and oxygen on
atmospheric methane and further hydrocarbons. Small amounts of formaldehyde are made as
a metabolic byproduct in maximum organisms, including humans.[1]
Formaldehyde can be listed on a product tag by other names, such as: Formalin, Formic
aldehyde, Methanediol, Methanal, Methyl aldehyde, Methylene glycol, Methylene oxide.
1.2 History:
2
Chapter No.1 Introduction
1.3 Properties:
Physical Properties
Boiling point at 101.3 kPa -19.2 oC
Melting point -118 oC
Density at –80 oC 0.9151g/cm3
Molecular weight 30.03
Thermal Properties
Heat of formation at 25 oC -115.9+6.3 kJ/mol
Heat of combustion at 25 oC 561.5 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization at –19.2 23.32 kJ/mol
Specific heat capacity at 25oC 35.425 J/mol K
Entropy at 25oC 218.8 kJ/mol K
Flash Point 310oF (154oC)
Auto Ignition Temp 932oF (499oC) [1]
3
Chapter No.1 Introduction
Dehydrogenation of methanol:
Due to the higher binding properties of formaldehyde, it is used widely in the production of glues
and resins used in cabinetry, shelving, stair systems, and in other items of home furnishing. Not
only are these glues widely effective, they are also reasonable due to the fact that formaldehyde is
easily accessible. The greatest common products produced from formaldehyde include urea
formaldehyde resin, melamine resin, and phenol formaldehyde resin. These are manufacturing by
the reaction of formaldehyde with urea, melamine, and phenol, respectively. These are strong
glues, and are used in carpentering. These resins are also mold to make different products, and
old for making insulate layers. Melamine formaldehyde resins are solid and are consumed as
paper-impregnating resins, in cover flooring, and in clear coats for automobiles. Phenol
formaldehyde resins are used as binders in structural wood panels. Formaldehyde resins give wet
strength of products that is facial wipes, paper napkins, etc.
As a Disinfectant:
Formaldehyde is a extremely effective disinfectant. It fully negates the actions of bacteria, fungi,
yeast and molds. Aqueous solution of formaldehyde can kill bacteria, and it is used in the
treatment of skin infections. It is also used to deactivate toxic bacterial products for the
manufacturing of vaccinations for certain infections. Methylamine, a derived of formaldehyde, is
used to treat urinary tract infections. Certain current ointments also use derivatives of
formaldehyde. However, these might not be safe for longstanding use. However, formaldehyde
has a pungent scent that causes severe frustration to the nose and eyes, and this is the reason for
its restricted use. However, many companies have just been successful in manufacturing a
processed form of the chemical, which is not as irritable, yet is an effective disinfectant.
4
Chapter No.1 Introduction
Textile Industry:
Formaldehyde also discovers usage in the textile industry where it is added to dyes and pigments.
This helps the pigments to bound better with the fabric, thus avoiding the colors from fading.
Formaldehyde-based resins are used to increase a fabric's resistance to folds and wrinkles.
Automobile Industry:
Key constituents of automobiles are produced using formaldehyde-based products. Since phenol
formaldehyde resins are resistant to fire and high temperatures, they are used to production
automobile parts, such as brake linings.
Formaldehyde solution is used in laboratories for the safety of human and animal. A 4% solution
is used for the same. If you're doubting how formaldehyde conserves cells and tissues, it is by the
cross-linking of primary amino groups in proteins with neighboring atoms of nitrogen in protein
or DNA, over a -CH2 linkage.
As an Embalming Agent:
Embalming is a process which briefly stalls the decay of human remains. Formaldehyde is one of
the embalming agents. It also repairs those tissues that are accountable for the firmness of the
muscles in an embalmed body. A normal use of formaldehyde is in the production of ink. So,
whether it is the ink that we use in our printers, or the one used for print books, formaldehyde is a
key constituent. Formaldehyde-based resins are used in the natural gas and petroleum industries
to get improved the yield of these fuels. Hexamine, a derived of formaldehyde, is used as a
component in the manufacture of the quick-tempered RDX. Formaldehyde is mixed with
concentrated (H2SO4) sulfuric acid to form Marquis Reagent, which is used as a spot-test to
detect alkaloids and other compounds. Formaldehyde is added to paints as a stabilizer. It is also
used as a chemical adding in cosmetics. Formaldehyde is used in the manufacturing of polyacetal
which are thermoplastics used in electrical and electronic application.
1.6 Handling:
Formaldehyde should be associated only in original container, fully labeled and deposited
properly inside the way of transportation to avoid out of order up, leakage or breakage.
Formaldehyde should never be opened, mixed or transfer to sample vessels at any time inside a
closed vehicle. A Materials Safety information Sheet (MSDS) should be in the control of the
customer and complete reachable to those prepared by this chemical. At all period, formaldehyde
should only be handled, mixed or added as example containers with the topmost care, in
5
Chapter No.1 Introduction
ventilated regions such as open air table if in the field and below an right fume hood if in the
laboratory. Formaldehyde should never be opened or mixed while inside a automobile. If there is
the possibility of splashing, a face protect should be damaged while adding or pouring
formaldehyde. At all times, disposable gloves must be worn to avoid dermal exposure when
management and/or mixing this product. Never smoke or don’t have open flame while working
with formaldehyde.
Storage:
Formaldehyde must be kept in a cool, dry, well-ventilated zone and properly labeled.
Formaldehyde should never be kept in automobiles except to carriage to and from field for the
period of diversity operation. Used formaldehyde, either from leak clean-up or from actions
produced from the process of change-out of sample containers must be kept in a properly label
dangerous waste container and made accessible for recycling under Resources Conservation
Recovery Act (RCRA) protocols. Storing of unwanted formaldehyde should be in a region not
frequented by the general population or responsibility workers and should be in an region not
subject to heat cycles and well ventilated.
Store formaldehyde in label, chemically well-suited containers, away from heat and flame.
Always keep in large-volume containers on a low, safe shelf or in another site where they will not
be accidentally leaked or hit over. Containers bigger than 4L (1 gallon) should be kept in
secondary containment. Do not keep formaldehyde bottles in any area where a leakage would
flow to a drain.
Safety:
A laboratory-specific Standard Operating Procedure for the use of formalin formaldehyde must
be established. Employees who handle formaldehyde must bring together familiar preparation on
the dangers of formaldehyde and what to do in case of a contact or leak. Coverage monitor may
be required to confirm that employees are not over-exposed. Formaldehyde should always be
used with acceptable ventilation, rather in a fume hood, to minimize breath of formaldehyde
vapor.
Exposure Limit:
The legal on far above the ground permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 1 p/m in an 8-
hourworkday. Short-term exposure (15 minutes) is restricted to 2 p/m while the attainment level
for formaldehyde is 0.5 p/m.
6
Chapter No.1 Introduction
1.7 Disposal:
Dissolve or mix the material with a flammable solvent and burn in a chemical furnace equipped
with an afterburner and scrubber. Notice all federal, state, and local environmental procedures.
Spill Procedure:
Evacuate region. Wear self-contained inhalation apparatus, rubber boots and heavy rubber
gloves. Cover with lime or soda ash and abode in closed containers for removal. Ventilate region
and wash leak site after material pickup is complete. Combustible Liquid
Fire Hazards: Extinguisher: Water spray, Carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder or suitable
foam. Special Procedure: Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and protective clothing to
avoid contact with skin and eyes, wear rubber gloves. Unusual Fire hazards: Produces toxic
fumes under fire conditions.
1.8 Shipping:
Formaldehyde should be conveyed only in original container, fully labeled and kept properly
within the automobile to avoid shifting, leakage or breakage. Formaldehyde should never be
opened, mixed or shifted to sample vessels at any time inside a closed automobile. A Materials
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should be in the control of the user and made accessible to those
working with this chemical. Shipped in drums, barrels and bottles or carboys. Generally sold and
transported as a 37%-40% aqueous solution, and under certain conditions may become a white
solid. If carried in kegs or barrels there is generally a loss in weight and corrosion of the
fastenings if these are of metal. May produce acidity; this causes significant depreciation and is
generally due to the presence of inherent impurities. If packed in a shipping container, on
unpacking, time should be allowed for spreading of any fumes, before entering container.
Motivation for this project is originated in sale department as a result of customer request and to
meet the competing products. And due to increasing demand of formaldehyde it is necessary to
make our intention toward formaldehyde production. It is largely used in Industrial Application.
And in Pakistan it has more demand than its Production. So we import formaldehyde from others
countries Mostly from Germany Iran and Saudi Arabia. In last year 2016 it import was of 183000
of US Dollars, this shows the demand of formaldehyde in Pakistan. Price of Formaldehyde is in
between $350-$400/ton.
7
Chapter No.1 Introduction
1.10 Feasibility:
Formaldehyde resins are used in the wood products industry largely as glues. Growth of these
resins is toughly correlated to construction/restoration activity (which accounts for over 50% of
consumption), and to a lesser degree, the automotive industry.
China is the single major market for formaldehyde, accounting for 42% of world consumption
demand in 2015; other countries with big markets include the United States, Germany, the
Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Poland, Russia, India, South Korea, Japan, Brazil, and
Canada. China is estimate to involvement high growth rates and important volume increases in
demand for 37% formaldehyde during 2015–2020. Demand for 37% formaldehyde in the United
States is estimate to grow reasonably, mainly driven by UF resins, PF resins, and MDI. Central
Europe.
8
Chapter No. 2 Manufacturing Process
Chapter No.2
2 Manufacturing Process
9
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
For making Formaldehyde there are mostly two methods are used.
The silver process for the making of formaldehyde uses a silver catalyst, over which partial
oxidation and dehydrogenation of methanol take place. The reactor feed is a mixture of air, steam
and methanol, which is on the methanol-rich side of a flammable mixture and the reaction of
oxygen is almost complete. Reactions 1, 2 are the key reactions that occur during the conversion
of methanol to formaldehyde using the silver process. Reactions 3, 4, are secondary reactions,
making by-products. Extra by-products are methyl formate, methane and formic acid.
Process Description:
Between 50 and 60% of the formaldehyde is made via reaction 2 and the rest by reaction 1, and
this combination gives a net exothermic result. The silver catalyzed reaction mechanism will be
discussed in more detail in the next section.
The ratio of methanol to water (as steam) in the feed is normally 60:40. Steam is added to the
feed for three main reasons. It rises the total moles present, which raises the equilibrium
conversion of the endothermic reaction 1 (this reaction is preferred by high temperature, low
pressure and a high value of total moles). A second reason for the adding of steam is that it
avoids damage to the catalyst. It stops sintering of the silver (which results in loss of activity) and
reduces the rate of creation of carbonaceous deposits on the silver (that decrease the active
region). Steam also acts as a heat sink. The predominant means of temperature control is the
addition of additional methanol or steam. However, these additions are bound by the wanted
composition of the formaldehyde product. The ratio of methanol to oxygen in the feed to
10
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
industrial reactors is about 2.5. Since the reaction is lead adiabatically, it is probable to disturb the
net exothermicity and reaction temperature increase by changing the quantity of air fed to the
reactor. The feed move in the reactor at a temperature extensively below the reactor leaving
temperature. There are two types of the silver process used. One includes the complete
conversion (97-98%) of methanol and is well-known as the BASF process. In this process silver
is used in the form of crystals and the reaction is carried out at 680 - 720 °C (at atmospheric
pressure). The feed is superheated and fed to the reactor where it permits over a bed of silver
crystals 25 - 30 mm thick. The temperature is high enough to let complete conversion (rate and
equilibrium conversion of the endothermic dehydrogenation reaction (1) increase with
temperature). Gases are cooled when they leave the reactor (to avoid unwanted side reactions)
and then fed to an absorption column where formaldehyde is wash out, giving a product that has
40-55 wt.% formaldehyde, 1.3 wt% methanol and 0.01 wt% formic acid. The yield ranges
between 89.5 and 90.5%. The largest well-known reactor for this process has a diameter of 3.2 m
and an annual production of 72000 tons, calculated as 100% formaldehyde.
The second type of the silver process includes incomplete conversion and distillative recovery of
methanol. Superheated feed passes over as bed of silver crystals 1-5 cm thick or through layers of
silver gauze. The reactor temperature lies in the range of 600-650°C. At these relatively low
temperatures the undesirable secondary reactions are suppressed. The oxygen conversion is
complete and the methanol conversion is between 77 and 87%. The gases are cooled after exit the
catalyst bed and enter to an absorption column. The product includes about 42 wt% formaldehyde
and is lead to a distillation column to recover and recycle unreacted methanol. After exiting the
distillation column the formaldehyde solution is generally fed to an anion exchange unit to
decrease the formic acid content to less than 50 mg/kg. The final product include up to 55 wt%
formaldehyde and less than 1% methanol. The overall yield is between 91 and 92%. The tail gas
for the silver process contains about 20% hydrogen and is burnt to produce steam and eliminate
releases of carbon monoxide and other organics [2].
Main Reaction:
Process Description:
The oxide process for formaldehyde making uses a metal oxide (modified iron molybdenum-
vanadium oxide) catalyst. The feed mixture of steam, air and methanol is thin in methanol (to
11
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
prevent the explosive range) and nearly complete conversion of methanol is obtained (98-99%).
The reaction takes place at 250-400°C. All of the formaldehyde is produce via reaction 2 (the
exothermic ox dehydrogenation of methanol). By-products are carbon monoxide, dimethyl ether,
carbon dioxide and formic acid. Overall yields are in the range of 88 - 92 %. The process starts
with the vaporization of methanol. It is then mixed with air (and optional exhaust/tail gas) and
passed over catalyst-filled tubes in a heat exchanger reactor. A heat transfer fluid permits
circulates outside the tubes and vaporizes, eliminating the heat of reaction. This fluid is then
condensed to make steam. The gases are cooled to 110°C in a heat exchange unit and then
transportable to the bottom of an absorber. Water is added to the top of the column, and the
quantity can be change to control the product concentration. After exit the column the product is
fed over an anion exchange unit to decrease the formic acid content. The final product includes
up to 55 wt% formaldehyde and 0.5-1.5 wt% methanol. The tail gas from the oxide process did
not burn by itself as the flammable content (dimethyl ether, carbon monoxide, methanol and
formaldehyde) is only a few percent. It can be combust in a catalytic furnace or by adding fuel.
Apart from the catalyst used and the reaction mechanisms, some important differences between
the silver process and the oxide process are:
1. The reactor is run adiabatically for the silver process, while a heat exchanger reactor is used for
the oxide process. Suitable temperature control is needed for the oxide process to attain 99%
conversion. If the temperature is allowed to increase above 470°C, the side reaction containing
the formation of carbon monoxide and water from formaldehyde and oxygen rises significantly.
2. The tail gas from the oxide process is noncombustible, while the tail gas from the silver
process can be combust able. The tail gas from the silver process contains hydrogen and it is
likely that there are other uses for the hydrogen.
3. Even when recycled gas is used (to decrease the oxygen concentration of the feed and therefore
the quantity of air needed to prevent the flammable range), the total volume of gas passing over
the oxide process is 3-3.5 times that of the silver process. This means that the equipment used for
the oxide process must have a greater capacity. The absorption column in particular is much
higher.
4. The silver process does not need ion exchange to eliminate formic acid. The oxide process
makes more formic acid, requiring the extra step to eliminate it. Overall, it seems that the silver
process has bigger PI potential than the oxide process. The oxide process already relies on heat
exchange in the reactor, while the silver process has potential for development with the use of
heat exchange to control the reactor temperature. The silver process makes hydrogen as well as
formaldehyde, which could be made use of in more economically valuable ways. It appears that it
may also be possible to raise the quantity of hydrogen manufactured. The oxide process uses
12
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
bigger volumes of gas than the silver process, meaning that except the need for some of the gas
can be detached it may be more difficult to make compact units for the oxide process than the
silver process. When creation compact units, the need for formic acid elimination is another
disadvantage of the oxide process as it means another step must be incorporated into the unit. For
these reasons, the use of the silver process for the Process Increase of the production of
formaldehyde will be investigated rather than the oxide process.
Gases use to prevent the flammable 3-3.5 time greater gas use to prevent the
3 range is lower than the metal oxide flammable range in this process than
process. silver process.
Silver process also produces hydrogen This process use bigger volume of gas
5 with Formaldehyde which makes it than silver process. And hydrogen gas
more economical. did not produce in this process.
Operating cost of Silver Process is less Operating cost of Metal Oxide is greater
6
than Metal Oxide Process. than Silver Process.
For making Formaldehyde we are selecting Silver Catalyst Process because for making
formaldehyde uses silver catalyst over which partial oxidation and dehydrogenation of methanol
occurs. While for Production of formaldehyde uses oxide catalyst over which only partial
oxidation is occur. And Tail gases from silver catalyst process can burn while from metal oxide
catalyst process tail gasses did not burn. There are more chances of producing by product in the
metal oxide catalyst process while in the silver catalyst process this chance of producing by-
13
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
product is very low. That’s why we select Silver Catalyst process. Moreover operating cost of
silver process is less than metal oxide process.
Demand-Consumption = Capacity
To meet this production capacity 60000 ton/year we have to produce 200 ton/day [23] [24].
Capacity per day * Working Day of plant = Required production capacity per year
In early formaldehyde plants methanol was oxidized over a copper catalyst but this process has
been almost completely replaced with silver. The silver catalyzed reaction occurs at essentially at
atmospheric pressure and 600 to 650 C0 and can be represented by two simultaneous reactions
CH3OH → HCHO + H2
14
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
Process Technology:
Between 50 and 60% of formaldehyde is formed by the exothermic reaction and the remainder by
endothermic reaction with the net results of a reaction exothermic. Carbon monoxide, methyl
formate, and formic acid are byproducts. In addition there are also physical loses, liquid phase
reactions, and small quantities of methanol in the product, resulting in an overall plant yield of
86-90 %( based on methanol).
A typical formaldehyde plant (76-79) employing silver catalyst. A feed mixture is generated by
spraying air into pool of heated methanol and combining the vapors with the steam. The mixture
passes through a super heater to a catalyst bed of silver crystals or layers of silver gauze. The
product is then rapidly cooled in a steam generator and then in water cool heat exchanger and fed
to the bottom of an absorption tower. The bulk of the methanol water and formaldehyde is
condensed in the bottom water-cooled section of the tower and almost complete removal of
methanol and formaldehyde from the tail gas occurs in the top absorber by counter current
contact with clean process water. Absorber bottoms go to a distillation tower where methanol is
recovered for recycle to the reactor. The base stream from distillation aqueous solution of
formaldehyde is usually sent to an anion exchange unit which reduces the formic acid to
specification level. The product contains up to 55% formaldehyde and less than 1.5% methanol.
A typical catalyst bed is very shallow (10 to 50 mm) (76, 77). In some plants the catalyst is
contained in numerous small parallel reactors; in others, catalyst bed diameters up to 1.7 and 2.0
m (77, 80) and capacities of up to 135,000 t/yr. reactor are reported. The silver catalyst has a
useful life of three to eight months and can be recovered. It is easily poisoned by traces of
transition group metals and by sulfur.
The reaction occurs at essentially adiabatic conditions with a large temperature rise at the inlet
surface of the catalyst. The predominant temperature Control is thermal ballast in the form of
excess methanol or steam, or both, which is in the feed. If a plant is to produce a product
containing 60 to 65% formaldehyde and no more than 1.5% methanol, the amount of steam that
can be added is limited, and both excess methanol and steam needed as ballast. Recycled
methanol required for 50-55% product is 0.25-0.50 parts per pact of fresh methanol.
With the increase in energy cost, maximum methanol conversion is desirable eliminating the
need of energy-intensive distillation for methanol recovery. If a dilute product containing 40 to
44% formaldehyde and 1.0 -1.5% methanol is acceptable then the ballast steam can be increased
to a level where recycled methanol is eliminated with significant saving in capital cost and
energy. In another process, tail gas from the absorber is recycled to the reactor. This additional
gas plus steam provides the necessary thermal ballast without the need for excess methanol. This
process can produce 50% formaldehyde then with about 1.0% methanol without a distillation
tower. Methanol recovery can be obviated in two-stage oxidation systems where, for example,
part of the methanol is converted with a silver catalyst, the product is cooled, excess air is added,
15
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
and the remaining methanol is converted over a metal oxide catalyst such as that described below
(85). In another two-stage process, both first and second stages use silver catalysts (86-88).
Formaldehyde-methanol solutions can be made directly from methanol oxidation product by
absorption in methanol. The absorber tail gas contains about 20 mol% hydrogen and has a higher
heating value of ca 2420 kJ/m3 (65 Btu/SCF). With increased fuel costs and in-creased attention
to the environment and tail gas is burned for the twofold purpose of generating steam and
eliminating organic and carbon monoxide emissions.
Aqueous formaldehyde is corrosive to carbon steel, but formaldehyde in the vapor phase is not.
All parts of the manufacturing equipment exposed to hot formaldehyde solutions must be a
corrosion-resistant alloy such as type-316 stainless. Theoretically the reactor and the upstream
can be carbon steel but in practice alloys are required in this part of the plant to protect the
sensitive silver catalyst from metal contamination [5].
16
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Process
Tail Gas
Process DT-12
S = Steam; Water
CW = Cooling
Water AT-11 CW
V-04 DT-13
PW-10 DT-14
S
Distillation
03
Absorption
Tower
Tower
Reactor
Vaporizer
AT-09 AT-07
S
S
CW CW
Air-02
DT-08
Blower Formaldehyde
Air
CW AT-06
Product
Pump-3 55 %
MF-01 Pump-2
R-05
DT-15
Methanol Pump-1 Methanol
Feed Recycle
17
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Processes
The Formax process established by Reichhold chemicals to make formaldehyde through direct
catalytic oxidation of methanol and some other by-products such as carbon monoxide and
dimethyl ether produced. In 1921, the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde with vanadium
pentoxide catalyst was introduced to and patented. Then in 1933, the iron-molybdenum oxide
catalyst was also patented and used till the early 1990’s. Developments to the metal oxide
catalyst were done through the metal composition, inert carriers and preparation methods. The
first commercial plant for the production of formaldehyde using the iron-molybdenum oxide
catalyst was put into achievement in 1952. Unlike the silver centered catalyst in this project, the
iron-molybdenum oxide catalyst produces formaldehyde from the exothermic reaction (1)
entirely. Under atmospheric pressure and 300 – 400 oC, methanol conversion inside the reactor
could reach 99% and a yield of 88% - 92%.
The air is provided by the turbo blower. Methanol to the plant is provided by the pump and is
inserted into the air stream through a spray nozzle ring. The air methanol mixture is then permits
through the methanol vaporizer, where the methanol is vaporized.
The oxidation of methanol takes place in a fixed bed reactor with 2450 stainless steel tubes. The
tubes are loaded with the metallic oxide catalyst to a specific deepness. The bottom and top
sections of the tubes are occupied small inert rings to develop the heat transfer. The reactor tubes
are surrounded by the liquid heat transfer medium, Dowtherm by which part of the heat of the
reaction is detached.
The gas mixture entering the top of the catalyst tubes is preheated by the boiling Dowtherm in the
reactor shell, while passing over the upper inert rings in the catalyst tube. As the gas reaches the
catalyst, the reaction starts and temperature increases quickly to a maximum. Then temperature
drops because of the conversion of the Dowtherm from liquid as Dowtherm is heat transfer fluid.
The reactor gasses pass out of the reactor bottom and into the vaporizer. In the vaporizer heat
transfer arises and the methanol from liquid is changed into the gas by this heat and from there
the gasses continue to the absorption tower.
The lower part of absorption tower contains of a spray section with several spray nozzles. The
upper part consists of a 27trays with 64 bubble cap.
When the hot entering gas first reaches the spray section it is cooled by the circulating solution of
formaldehyde concentration of final product. The heat of the absorption is detached by cooling
water pumped through coils located below the liquid level on each tray. The Dowtherm is
circulated by thermo-siphon circulation over the reactor shell and the Dowtherm vapor separator.
In the separator the Dowtherm vapors are separated from the liquid and continues further to the
18
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Processes
condenser, where the vapors are condensed liquid flows them back over the separator and further
to the reactor again.
The Dowtherm condenser which is a shell and tube pipe heat exchanger is operated as a steam
boiler. This steam is further used.
19
Chapter No.2 Manufacturing Processes
Evaporator
Methanol
Condensor
Separator
Reactor
Formaldehyde
20
Chapter No.02 Manufacturing Processes
15
Methanol
Recycle O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr CW= 1425 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr CH3OH = 785.11304 kg/hr
T= 298 K 17 H2O = 9170.57632 kg/hr
CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr T= 393 K H2 = 236.715 kg/hr H2O = 139.65797 kg/hr
P= 2.4 atm T= 350 K 23
V-100 P= 2 atm P = 1.66 atm CH2O =83.144928 kg/hr
8 10
Methanol
1 12
Feed 2 Process Tail Gas
T= 298 K 16 Water T= 438 K
P= 1 atm P-100 22
S=5838.87 kg/hr 7 T= 303 K
P= 1.8 atm 14
Steam 4 19
T= 298 K 3
P= 2 atm D-100
B-101
O2 = 4444.444 kg/hr A-100
N2 =14629.63 kg/hr
CW=1100 Kg/hr 18 R-100
Air
13
6 T= 358 K T= 323 K
T= 473K E-100 27
O2 = 4444.444 kg/hr
P= 1.7 atm
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr T= 393 K 9 20 24 25 Storage Tank
CH3OH = 9661.836 kg/hr P= 2 atm T= 338K 21 T= 353 K T= 303 K
Outlet =30735.91 kg/hr
H2O = 2000 kg/hr T= 338 K P= 1.8 atm 26
P= 1.5 atm 11 Formaldehyde Product
CW= 303 K
P-101 T= 355 K 37%
21
Chapter No.02 Manufacturing Processes
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Components
kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
CO - - - - - 13.87 - - 13.87 - -
H2 - - - - - 236.71 - - 236.71 - -
9661.836 9661.836 19074.07 2000 30735.91 30735.91 9107.53 23073.33 16770.11 22065.41 1007.91
Total
30735.91 30735.91 39843.45 39843.45 23073.33
Temp 298 K 393 K 298 ℃ 493 K 393 K 473 K 303 K 338 K 438 K 358 K 350 K
22
Chapter No. 3 Material Balance
Chapter No. 3
3 Material Balance
23
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
3.2 Capacity:
=200 ton/day
Amount of O2 =138.889kmol/hr
Amount of N2 =522.487kmol/hr
T= 443 K
Condensate= 5838.87 Kg/hr
17
1 V-100
2
T= 298 K T= 393 K
P= 2.4 atm P= 2 atm
CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr 16 CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr
T= 443 K
Steam= 5838.87 Kg/hr
24
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
19074.07+2000+9661.83 = 30735.91
7 T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
19 CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
CW=1100 Kg/hr
18 R-100
T= 393 K
P= 2 atm 6
O2 = 4444.444 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 9661.836 kg/hr
H2O = 2000 kg/hr
25
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
For Reaction 1
CH3OH CH2O + H2
Conversion 0.40
40% of 98 %
O2 = 138.8889 kmol/hr
26
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
CO = 0.495652 kmol/hr
27
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
T= 303 K T= 438 K
P= 1.8 atm P= 1.5 atm
H2O = 9170 kg/hr
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
AT-100
T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr T= 338
7
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr 9 P= 1.5 atm
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
= 15.110 m3/hr
= 15110 kg/hr
Tail Gases:
28
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
12
T= 350 K
P = 1.66 atm T= 350 K
22 CH3OH = 785.11304 kg/hr
H2O = 139.65797 kg/hr
14
CH2O =83.144928 kg/hr
D-100
9
13
T= 358 K
T= 338 K
P= 1.8 atm
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
20
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
T= 355 K 21
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr P = 1.66 atm T= 353 K
11 CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr
H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr
CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr
29
Chapter No.03 Material Balance
F=D+W
Inlet Stream
Outlet Stream Kg/hr
Components Kg/hr
9 12 11
CH3OH 793.04 785.11 7.93
H2O 13965.8 139.65 13826.14
CH2O 8314.49 83.14 8231.34
Total 23073.33 23073.33
From Bottom:
30
Chapter No. 4 Energy Balance
Chapter No. 4
4 Energy Balance
31
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
T= 443 K
Condensate= 5838.87 Kg/hr
17
1 V-100
2
T= 298 K T= 393 K
P= 2.4 atm P= 2 atm
CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr 16 CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr
T= 443 K
Steam= 5838.87 Kg/hr
Q = mCpΔT
Q = 1040861.784 kj/hr
32
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
Temperature = 133.54 ℃
=406.54 K
Q= mλ
m= Q/λ
m= 1040861.784/2163.22
= 5838.8725 kg/hr
7 T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
19 CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
CW=1100 Kg/hr
18 R-100
T= 393 K
P= 2 atm 6
O2 = 4444.444 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 9661.836 kg/hr
H2O = 2000 kg/hr
33
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
Q in = mtotal*Cp*(393-298)
= 4622485 kj/hr
Q out =mtotal*Cp*(473-393)
= 3523734.2 kj/hr
Heat of Reaction:
For Reaction 1
= 84000 kj/kmol
= 177.54 kmol/hr
= 84000*177.54
= 14913360 kj/hr
For Reaction 2:
= -159000 kj/kmol
=118.3541 kmol/hr
34
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
=-159000*118.3541
= -18817872.6 kj/hr
Adding 1 & 2:
= -18817872.6 + 14913360
= -3904513 kj/hr
L.H.S:
= 4622485 + (-3904513)
=717972.64 Kj/hr
R.H.S:
=-3523734.2 kj/hr
Difference:
= R.H.S-L.H.S
= -2805761 Kj/hr
Q=mCpΔT
m= Q/((Cp*ΔT)+λ+(Cp*ΔT)
m= 2805761/((1.89*348)+2257+(1.89*353))
=1100.3202 Kg/hr
35
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
T= 303 K T= 438 K
P= 1.8 atm P= 1.5 atm
H2O = 9170 kg/hr
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
AT-100
T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr T= 338
7
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr 9 P= 1.5 atm
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
Inlet Absorber:
36
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
Qin = mCpΔT
Qin = mCpΔT
Outlet Absorber:
Qout = mCpΔT
Qout = mCpΔT
37
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
12
T= 350 K
P = 1.66 atm T= 350 K
22 CH3OH = 785.11304 kg/hr
H2O = 139.65797 kg/hr
14
CH2O =83.144928 kg/hr
D-100
9
13
T= 358 K
T= 338 K
P= 1.8 atm
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
20
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
T= 355 K 21
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr P = 1.66 atm T= 353 K
11 CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr
H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr
CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr
Reboiler:
38
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
Q total = m λ
Q= 22837707 Kj/hr
For Steam:
Pressure = 1 atm
λ= 2250.76 Kj/Kg
Total 1007.91 -
Q= mλ
Q = 1063351.3 Kj/hr
Water requirement:
Cp = 1.865 Kj/Kg.K
Q=mCp (ΔT)
m=Q/Cp (ΔT)
=22806.463 kg/hr
39
Chapter N0. 4 Energy Balance
T= 323 K
27
24 E-100
25
T= 353 K T= 303 K
P = 1.66 atm P = 1.45 atm
CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr 26 CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr
H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr
CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr
T= 298 K
Cp = 1.873 kJ/kg.K
Q=mCpΔT
=36601.539*(323)
=1830076.9 kJ/hr
Cp = 4.204 kJ/kg.K
Q=mCpΔT
m= Q/CpΔT
=1830076.9/4.204* (293)
40
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Chapter No. 5
5 Equipment Selection and Design
41
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Vaporizer:
Vaporizers are heat exchangers which are specially designed to supply latent heat of vaporization
to the fluid. In some cases it can also preheat the fluid then this section of vaporizers will be
called upon preheating zone and the other section in which latent heat is supplied; is known as
vaporization zone but the whole assembly will be called upon a vaporizer.
Vaporizers are called upon to fulfill the multitude of latent-heat services which are not a part of
evaporative or distillation process.
There are two principal types of tubular vaporizing equipment used in industry: Boilers and
Vaporizing Exchangers. Boilers are directly fired tubular apparatus, which primarily convert fuel
energy into latent heat of vaporization. Vaporizing Exchangers are unfired and convert latent or
sensible heat of one fluid into the latent heat of vaporization of another. If a vaporizing exchanger
is used for the evaporation of water or an aqueous solution, it is now fairly conventional to call it
an Evaporator, if used to supply the heat requirements at the bottom of a distilling column,
whether the vapor formed be stream or not, it is a Reboiler; when not used for the formation of
steam and not a part of a distillation process, a vaporizing exchanger is simply called a vaporizer.
So any unfired exchanger in which one fluid undergoes vaporization and which is not a part of
evaporation or distillation process is a vaporizer.
Types of Vaporizers:
Vertical Vaporizer
Indirect Fluid Heater
Electric Resistance Vaporizers
Tubular Low Temperature Vaporizers
42
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
T= 443 K
Condensate= 5838.87 Kg/hr
17
1 V-100
2
T= 298 K T= 393 K
P= 2.4 atm P= 2 atm
CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr 16 CH3OH=9661.836 Kg/hr
T= 443 K
Steam= 5838.87 Kg/hr
Design Calculations:
Process conditions required
Passes = 1 Passes = 2
Preheat:
Qp mC p T
43
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
∆T = 72oF
Q p = 45242686.8 Btu/hr
Vaporization:
Qv mCvT m
m = 21300.7 lb/hr
λ = 473.0582 Btu/lb
∆T = 99
Q v = 49944565 Btu/hr
Methanol Q = Qp + Qv
T1 = 338oF T2 = 338oF
t1 = 77 oF t2 = 149oF
44
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
(𝑇1−𝑡2)−(𝑇2−𝑡1)
LMTD = (𝑇1−𝑡2)
𝐿𝑛[ 𝑇2−𝑡1 ]
(LMTD) p = 127.48oF
T1 = 338oF T2 = 338oF
t1 = 149oF t2 = 248oF
(𝑇1−𝑡2)−(𝑇2−𝑡1)
LMTD = (𝑇1−𝑡2)
𝐿𝑛[ ]
𝑇2−𝑡1
(LMTD) v = 35.177oF
Weighted ∆t = 6.38009 oF
Assumption:
A = Q/Ud*∆t
A = 45242686.8 / (500*127.48)
A = 709.8005 ft2
45
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
N = 709.8005 / (16*0.3271)
N = 135.62
Select number of tubes, shell ID and passes at1 (1/4) in, OD tubes on 1(9/16) in. triangular pitch
Number of passes = n = 02
Area = A = N × L × at = 0.3271*16*136
Ud = Q / A*∆t
(3): Tc and tc: Average value of temperature will be satisfactory for preheat zone.
Hot Fluid: Tube Side, Steam Cold fluid: Shell Side, Methanol
Preheating:
at Nt 2
at = ft as = ID*C’B/144Pt
144 n
46
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
n = number of passes = 2
at = 0.985*136 / 144*2
at = 0.4651389 ft2
ws ws
G G
as as
µ = 0.015 µ = 0.4
GD GD
Re t Re s
(7): JH = 170
Øs = 1
47
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
(9): h JH K C
1/ 3
(9): hio for condensing stream:
o
De De
Up = (1128.89*329.69697) / (1128.89+329.69697)
Ap = Qp / Up (∆t)p
Ap = 354900.273/ 255.17283
Ap = 1390.8231 ft2
Vaporization:
µ = 0.37
Dis = 0.825 ft
GD
Re s
Res = 12155.428
48
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
(7): JH = 80
(8): At 149oF
Øs = 1
1/ 3
(9): hio for condensing stream: (9): h JH K C
o
De De
hio=(ID/OD)*ho
Uv = (385.15144225*112.4848) / (385.15144225+112.4848)
Uv = 87.058966
Av = qv/Uv (∆t)v
Av = 1420089.996 / 87.058966
Av = 16311.818 ft2
Ac = Ap + Av
Ac = 1390.8231 + 16311.818
Ac = 17702.641 ft2
49
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
UC = ∑UA/Ac
Uc = 480 Btu/ft2 oF hr
Ud = Q(p+v) / A ∆t
Ud = 449 Btu/ft2 oF hr
17702.641 ft2 required for which 16311.818 ft2 used for vaporization. For total surface required
711.77 ft2 will be provide, it can be assume then thus the surface provided for vaporization is
A = (Av/Ac)*Total surface
A = (16311.818/17702.641) * 711.77
A = 655.84881 ft2
The flux is
Rd = (Uc-Ud) / (Uc*Ud)
Rd = 0.001438
50
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Pressure Drop
Tube Side, Steam:
S = 1/ (26.8*62.5)
S = 0.000597015
(2): P fG 2 Ln
1
Preheat:
Lp = Lap / Ac
N+1 = 12Lp/B
51
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
fGs2 DsN 1
(4): PS1
5.22 1010 DeSs
s 1
w
Vaporization:
N+1 = 12Lv/B
N+1 = 12*14.7429/5
S inlet = 0.5
52
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
fGs2 Ds N 1
PS1
5.22 1010 DeSs
s 1
w
53
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Specification Sheet
Identification:
Item: Vaporizer (V-100)
Type: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Function: To Vaporize the Methanol
Heat Duty: 95187252 btu/hr
Shell Side Tube side
Flow rate 21300.8 lb/hr Flow rate 12868.87 lb/hr
Inlet = 298 K, Outlet = 393 K Inlet = 443 K, Outlet = 443 K
Pressure = 2 atm Pressure = 2 atm
Passes = 1 Passes = 2
Pressure drop 0.38 atm Pressure drop 0.43
Shell dia = 23.25 in OD = 1 in
Baffle Spacing = 4.65 in No. of tubes =136
2
UD = 449 Btu/ft F.hr UC = 480 Btu/ft2F.hr
54
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Introduction:
Chemical reactors are basically specific apparatus used for industrial transformations (chemical
reactions) and their design is one of the well-established and developed areas of Chemical
engineering.
The reactor does not generally represent a large financial commitment in the chemical plant, but
it is technically the most important part. And it is the job of chemical engineer to ensure the safe
operation of reactor. The most significant factors which control the behavior of a chemical
reactor are briefly listed below:
Types of Reactors:
The general types of chemical reactors which differ in design are enlisted below:
Fixed-Bed Reactor
Multi-tubular Reactor
Slurry Reactor
Moving Bed Reactor
Fluidized-Bed Reactor
Thin or Shallow Bed Reactor
Dispersion Reactor
Film Reactor
Introduction:
Fixed-bed catalytic reactors have been characterized as the workhorses of me process industries.
For economical production of large amounts of product, they are usually the first choice,
particularly for gas-phase reactions. Many catalyzed gaseous reactions are amenable to long
catalyst life (1-10 years); and as the time between catalyst changes outs increases, annualized
replacement costs decline dramatically, largely due to savings in shutdown costs. It is not
surprising, therefore, that fixed-bed reactors now dominate the scene in large-scale chemical-
product manufacture.
55
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Equipment Selection:
As our process is continuous we only consider reactors for continuous and heterogeneous
processes as gas, liquid and solid phases are present. Reactors are;
They primarily used for gas, liquid phase solid catalyzed reaction.
They have low operating cost
Continuous operation
High conversion /unit mass of catalyst
Can handle Large volume
For economical production of large amounts of product
7 T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
19 CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
CW=1100 Kg/hr
18 R-100
T= 393 K
P= 2 atm 6
O2 = 4444.444 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 9661.836 kg/hr
H2O = 2000 kg/hr
56
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Design Calculations:
Temperature = 473 K
Pressure = 2 atm
Conversion = 0.98
Reaction:
𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2
𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻 + ½ 𝑂2 → 2 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂
Design Equation:
𝑋𝐴
𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐴𝑜 ∫
0 −𝑟′𝐴
Where W is the weight of the catalyst Silver, FAo is the flow rate at inlet stream, −rAis the rate of
the reaction.
( 𝐾1𝐶𝑎𝑅𝑇)
-r =
(1+𝐾2𝐶𝑎𝑅𝑇)
Ca = Cao (1-X)
𝐾1𝑅𝑇𝐶𝑎𝑜(1−𝑋)
-r=
1+ 𝐾2𝑅𝑇𝐶𝑎𝑜(1−𝑋)
K1 = exp10.79 – (3810/T)
K1 = 0.00278 kgmol/m3hr
K2 = exp11.43 – (7040/T)
K2 = 0.01
R = 8.314 kj/kgmol.K
57
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
= Mass/density
Vo = 1.801879 m3/s
Cao = Fao/Vo
58
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Levenspiel Plot:
Levenspiel Plot
1200000
Inverse Of Rate Law (1/-ra)
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Conversion (X)
Figure 5.3: Levenspiel Plot between Conversion and Inverse of Rate Law
Weight of Catalyst:
= 0.98/2 = 0.49
∆X FAo FAo
W= [ ′ + ′ ]
2 −r A (X = 0) −r A (X = 0.98)
=0.49*(2899.415037 + 144968.1514)
W = 72455.11 kg
Density of Catalyst:
= 10490 kg/m3
= Weight of catalyst/Density
59
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
= 72455.11/10490
Vc = 6.907065 m3
Volume of catalyst
Volume Of Reactor = 1−Voidage
Vr = Vc/1- φ
φ = 0.6
Vr = 6.907065/(1-0.6)
Vr = 17.26766 m3
Space Time:
Volume of Reactor
Space Time = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
=Vr/Vo
= 17.26766/1.801879
= 9.583142 s
L/D =3
Diameter of Reactor:
𝜋
Volume = D2L
4
𝜋
Vr - D2*(3D)
4
𝜋
Vr - 3*D3
4
60
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Dia = ((𝑉𝑟∗4)
(𝜋∗3)
)^0.33
= (17.26766*4/3.14*3)^0.33
Length of Reactor:
L = 3D
L = 3*1.929879
L = 5.789637 m
Number of Tubes:
𝜋
=Volume of Catalyst/( *D2*L)
4
Length Of Tube = 16 ft
= 242.7636/(3.14/4)*(0.3937)2*16
Nt = 777
Pressure Drop:
Ergun’s equation (Unit Operation in Chemical Engineering by McCabe Smith 7th Edition).
61
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Superficial velocity = volumetric flow rate / cross sectional area = 0.6163 m/s
Dp = 0.004 m
L = 5.789637 m
Ɛ = 0.5
∆P/L = 6299.08
∆P = 36469.42 pas
∆P = 36469.42/105
62
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Specification Sheet
Identification:
Item: Reactor (R-100)
Type: Packed Bed Catalytic Reactor
Function: To Produce CH2O From CH3OH using Silver Catalyst
Operating Pressure 2 atm
Operating Temperature 473 K
Space Time 9.58 s
Volume of Reactor (Vr) 17.26 m3
Volume of Catalyst (Vc) 6.90 m3
Weight of Catalyst 72.45 ton
Dia of Reactor (D) 1.92 m
Length of Reactor (L) 5.78 m
No. of Tubes 777
Pressure Drop (ΔP) 0.32 atm
63
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Absorption:
Absorption is the phenomena of separation of solute gases from gaseous mixtures of non-
condensable by transfer into a liquid solvent. This recovery is attained by contacting the gas
stream with a liquid that offers specific or selective solubility for the solute gas or gases to be
recovered. It is the second main operation of chemical engineering based on mass transfer.
The Purpose of this Absorber is to absorb methanol and formaldehyde from the product stream of
gas using water natural solvent. And removing the tail gases from the top of absorber.
Types of Absorption
1) Physical Absorption
2) Chemical Absorption
Physical Absorption
In it mass transfer takes place purely by diffusion and is governed by the physical equilibria.
Chemical Absorption
In this type of absorption a chemical reaction occurs as soon as a certain component comes in
contact with the absorbing liquid.
Types of Absorber:
1) Packed Columns
2) Plate Columns
Packing Selection
It is the most important factor of the system. The packing provides adequate area for intimate
contact between phases. The efficiency of packing with respect to both HTU and flow capacity
determines to an important extent the overall size of the tower. The economics of the installation
are therefore tied up by the packing choice.
64
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
3) It must contain sufficient passages for both streams without extreme liquid holdup or
pressure drop.
4) It must offer good contact between liquid and gas.
5) It must be reasonable in cost.
The packing is the heart of the performance of the absorber. Its proper selection involves an
understanding of packing operational features and the effects on performance of the points of
major physical difference between several types. The types and corresponding merits and
demerits are given below.
Rashing Rings
Berl Saddles
Intalox Saddles
Pall Rings
For the absorption packing selected in this case are Pall Rings because of the following features.
Selection of Column
Selection of packing and material
Selection of packing and material
Calculating the size of packing
Calculate Flow Factor
Calculate K4& Mass Velocity
Calculate the Area of Column
Calculating the diameter of column
Determining the height of transfer unit (HOG)
Determining the number of transfer units (NOG)
65
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Tail Gas
Process
8 10
Water
T= 303 K T= 438 K
P= 1.8 atm P= 1.5 atm
H2O = 9170 kg/hr
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr
AT-100
T= 473 K
P= 1.7 atm
O2 = 1903.768 kg/hr
N2 = 14629.63 kg/hr
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr T= 338
7
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr 9 P= 1.5 atm
CO2 = 21.08 kg/hr CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
CO = 13.87 kg/hr H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
H2 = 236.715 kg/hr CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr
Design Calculations:
G = Gas flow rate = 30735.90982 kg/hr
66
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
𝐿 ʃ
FLV =𝐺 √ ʃ𝐺
𝐿
FLV = 0.020762154
𝐾4
Percentage flooding =√𝐾
4 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
k 4 *ρg * ρ L -ρg
0.5
G*
13.1*Fp* µL /ρ L 0.1
67
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
G* = 4.0432 kg/m2.s
4
Diameter = √π ∗ Column area required
Diameter = 1.640 m
Onda’s Method
Calculation of Height transfer Unit:
g = 9.81 m/s2
aw
0.75
Lw
0.1
Lw 2 a
0.05
Lw 2
0.2
1 exp 1.45 c 2
g a
a
l a L L L L
aw/a = 0.10182
68
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
aw = 0.10182*a
aw = 0.10182*102
aw = 10.3866 m2/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
1 2 1
3 L 3
ad
2
K L L 0.0051 w L
0.4
L g a w L L DL
p
KL = 0.000463 m/s
R = 0.08314 bar.m3/kmol.K
69
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
DG= µG/ʃG
DG = 3.906*10-6m2/s
1
0.7
V g 3
ad p 2
K G RTg
K5 w
aDg a D
g g g
KG = 0.000552 kmol/m2.s.bar
Ct = 1000/18
Ct = 55.55 kmol/m3
70
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Colburn has suggested the economic value of mGm/Lm from 0.7 to 0.8
mGm
H oG H G HL
Lm
HOG = 5.011 m
Y1= Mole fraction of CH3OH and CH2O in entering gas stream = 0.2375
Y1/Y2 = 0.2375/0.02375 = 10
mGm/Lm = 0.75
NOG is obtained From Appendix B Figure 5.10 using Y1/Y2 and mGm/Lm
NOG = 5
71
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Z = 5*5.011
Z = 25m
Total Height = 27 m
𝐿 ʃ
FLV =𝐺 √ ʃ𝐺
𝐿
FLV = 0.0207
k 4 *ρg * ρ L -ρg
0.5
G*
13.1*Fp* µL /ρ L 0.1
72
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
G = 4.043 kg/s
𝐿 ʃ
FLV =𝐺 √ ʃ𝐺
𝐿
FLV = 0.0207
With respect to FLV the value of K4 from graph 11.44 at flooding is = 6.0
k 4 *ρg * ρ L -ρg
0.5
G*
13.1*Fp* µL /ρ L 0.1
G = 6.7875 kg/s
Volumetric liquid flow rate per unit cross sectional area = 0.001198 m3/m2.s
73
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
ΔPflooding = 0.115Fp0.7
ΔPflooding = 0.115*660.7
𝐺𝑥 ʃ𝑦
√ = 0.016789
𝐺𝑦 (ʃ𝑥 − ʃ𝑦 )
gc = 32
74
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
𝐺 2 ∗ 𝐹𝑝 ∗ µ0.1
= 0.07633
ʃ𝑔 (ʃ𝑙 − ʃ𝑔 )𝑔𝑐
𝐺𝑥 ʃ𝑦 𝐺 2 ∗𝐹𝑝 ∗µ0.1
With respect to 𝐺𝑦
√(ʃ and pressure drop from the graph will be From Appendix B
𝑥 −ʃ𝑦 ) ʃ𝑔 (ʃ𝑙 −ʃ𝑔 )𝑔𝑐
Figure B-3
ΔP = 1.764mmH2O/ft of packing
Total ΔP = 5.785*25
75
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item: Absorber (A-100)
Type: Packed Column
Packing: Metal Pall Rings
Function: To Absorb CH3OH & CH2O Gas From Product Stream
Operating Pressure 1.7 atm
Operating Temperature 473 K
Dia of Absorber 1.64 m
Column Height 27 m
Area 2.11 m2
Height of Transfer Unit 5.01 m
No. of Transfer Unit 5
Pressure Drop (ΔP) 0.2 atm
76
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
The purpose of following distillation design is to recover unreacted methanol from the solution of
water and formaldehyde. Methanol is recovered from the top and mixture of water and
formaldehyde is received from the bottom of the column.
Types of distillation:
Batch distillation
Continuous distillation
Here continuous distillation is selected to get continuous and large quantity of product in a short
period. Operating pressure is one atm, moderated temperature. Sieve plates are used for
economical separation.
Designing steps:
77
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Pressure drop.
The height of the column.
12
T= 350 K
P = 1.66 atm T= 350 K
22 CH3OH = 785.11304 kg/hr
H2O = 139.65797 kg/hr
14
CH2O =83.144928 kg/hr
D-100
9
13
T= 358 K
T= 338 K
P= 1.8 atm
CH3OH = 793.0435 kg/hr
20
H2O =4858.21 kg/hr
T= 355 K 21
CH2O =8314.493 kg/hr P = 1.66 atm T= 353 K
11 CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr
H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr
CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr
Design Calculations:
Compositions
78
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Flash calculations:
Antoine Equation
B
log p A
T C
Antoine Coefficients
Component A B C
Using Antoine equation find the partial vapor pressure (pi) of each component
Component A B C log Pi Pi
Components Pi Ki Xi ki.xf yi
79
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Z L V
pvap
Ki
pTotal
ki = 3.64/1.6
ki = 3.60
zi ki
yi
1 v (k 1)
yi = 0.81
zi
xi
1 v (ki 1)
xi = 0.23
Use flash calculation method to find fraction of liquid and vapor of each component in feed
P = 1.8 atm
Components Pi Ki Xi ki.xf Yi Α
Total - - 1 1.83 1 -
ki
i
kc
80
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
αi = 3.84
i xi
yi
i xi
yi = 0.12
1
kc
i xi
kc = 3.59
T = 350 K
P = 1.8 atm
Components Α Ki Xd Σxi=ΣXd/Ki
CH3OH 3.84 13.82 0.78 0.06
CH2O 1.00 3.60 0.08 0.02
H2O 0.03 0.09 0.14 1.54
Total - - - 1.62
So Dew Point is 350 K at 1.8 atm
Components Ki xb Ki..x b
CH3OH 17.77 0.00 0.01
CH2O 2.31 0.37 0.86
H2 O 0.21 0.63 0.13
Total - - 1.00
So the bubble point is 355 K at 1.8 atm [8]
81
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Underwood Correlation
76.12+81.717
Tavg= = 78.83 Co, 351 K
2
B
log p A
T C
P = 1.8 atm
pvap
Ki
pTotal
Ki = 17.77
ki
i
kc
αi = 3.21
by trail ϴ = 2.71
Components P Ki Α Xd ϴ Rm+1=Σ(αi*Xd)/(αi-ϴ)
𝛼𝑖−𝑥𝑓 3.21−0.003
= =2.707
𝛼𝑖− θ 3.21−2.71
82
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
i x f
1 q
i
q 1
1 q 0
Rm = 3.93
R = 3.93(1.2) = 4.72
Ideal no of stages:
Fenskey equation
x x
log lk hk
xhk d xlk b
N min 1
log lk
Nmin +1 = 7.88
Nmin = 6.88
N = 14.87
83
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
B
log p A
T C
Z L V
pvap
Ki
pTotal
Ki = 0.16
zi
xi
1 v (ki 1)
xi = 0.96
l xi i
ρi = 815.00 kg/m3
l xi i
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑙 = 815
𝑚3
v yi i
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.03
𝑚2
Column efficiency:
Eo = 0.89%
84
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
N x B x 2
0.206
lk B
log E hk
NS xlk F D xhk D
𝑁𝐸
log ( ) = −0.53
𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝐸
( ) = 0.29
𝑁𝑠
N NE Ns
𝑁𝐸 = 0.29𝑁𝑆
𝑁 = 1.29 𝑁𝑆
𝑁𝑆 = 0.53
Flooding Velocity:
L v
Flv w
Vw l
Flv = 0.66
At 0.45 m spacing
l v
0.2
U f K1
v 0.02
Uf = 0.01 m/s
85
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
𝑈𝑜𝑝 = 𝑈𝑓 × 0.75
𝑚
𝑈𝑜𝑝 = 0.0075
𝑠
Vw
Qv
v
𝑚3
𝑄𝑣 = 0.003
𝑠
Uf = 0.01m/s
Volumetric flowrate:
Assumptions
Vw
Flow rate Qv
v
𝑚3
𝑄𝑣 = 0.003
𝑠
Qv
An
U op
𝐴𝑛 = 0.44 𝑚2
86
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
An Ac Ad
Ad 0.12 Ac
An 0.88 Ac
An
Ac
0.88
𝐴𝑐 = 0.50 𝑚2
Diameter:
4 * Ac
Dc
𝐷𝑐 = 0.80 𝑚
Ad 0.12 Ac
𝐴𝑑 = 0.06 𝑚2
Active Area:
Aa Ac 2 Ad
𝐴𝑐 = 0.38𝑚2
Hole Area:
𝐴ℎ = 0.012 × 𝐴𝑎
𝐴ℎ = 0.005 𝑚2
87
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Weir Length:
Ad
100 12
Ac
lw
0.75
Dc
𝑙𝑤 = 0.6 𝑚
2/3
L
how 750 w
w lw
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 14.35 𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑜𝑤 + ℎ𝑤 = 14.3 + 40
ℎ𝑜𝑤 + ℎ𝑤 = 54.3𝑚𝑚
Weeping point:
K2 = 29.7
Uh
K2 0.9(25.4 dh )
v 0.5
𝑚
𝑈ℎ = 0.44
𝑠
88
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Vw
vap
U act 0.7
v Ah
𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑚
𝑈𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.47
𝑠
𝐼𝑝 = 2.8 × 4
𝐼𝑝 = 9.8 𝑚𝑚
2
Ah d
0.9 h
Ap l p
𝐴ℎ 3.5
= 0.9 × [ ]
𝐴𝑝 11.20
Ah
0.114
Ap
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 3
=
𝑑ℎ 3.5
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 0.86
𝑑ℎ
Co = 0.81
Uh v
2
hd 51
Co L
ℎ𝑑 = 10.96 𝑚𝑚 of liquid
Residual head:
12.5*103
hr
L
89
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
ℎ𝑟 = 15.39 𝑚𝑚
Pt 9.81103 ht l
𝛥𝑃𝑡 = 642.87 𝑝𝑎
dh2
Area of Single Hole =
4
ht hd hw how hr
ℎ𝑡 = 80.70 𝑚m
Pressure Drop:
ΔP = 9.8 * 10-3h1ρ
90
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item: Distillation column (D-100)
Type: Multi component Distillation column
Function: To recover methanol from water and formaldehyde
Operating Pressure 1.82 atm Operating temperature 351 K
91
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Heat Exchanger:
Heat transfer is a much important and most of an applied process in the area of chemical and
petrochemical plants. The general economics of a specific plant operation most of the time are
maintained by efficient utilization and recovery of heat or cold fluid. The mostly used word
exchanger is implemented to all the kinds of equipment which exchange the heat but mostly used
specifically to represent the equipment in which the heat is exchanged between two process
streams.
Heat exchanger is usually a part of equipment which continuously transfers the heat from one
media to another in order to carry process energy, without mixing the process fluids. Heat
exchangers are used here to pre-heat the feed for the distillation column.
The “Selection Guide to Heat Exchanger Types” provides a view of different types of heat
exchanger. We will choose the best one to fulfill our requirements.
Approximate
Applications best relative cost in
Type Significant feature Limitations
suited carbon-steel
construction
Condensers; liquid-
Temperature
liquid; gas-gas; gas-
Fixed tube Both tube sheets fixed difference at extremes
liquid; cooling and 1.0
sheet to shell. of about 200 oF Due to
heating, horizontal or
differential expansion.
vertical and reboilling.
92
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Bends must be
High temperature
carefully made, or
differentials, which
mechanical damage
might require
Only one tube sheet and danger of rupture
U-tube; provision for
required. Tubes bent can result. Tube side
expansion in fixed 0.9-1.1
in U-shape. Bundle is velocities can cause
U-Bundle tube units. Easily
removable. erosion of inside of
cleaned conditions on
bends. Fluid should be
both tube and shell
free of suspended
side.
particles.
Relatively small
transfer area service,
Each tube has own Services suitable for
or in banks for larger
shell forming annular finned tube. Piping-up
applications.
Double pipe space for shell side a large number often 0.8-1.4
Especially suited for
fluid. Usually use requires cost and
high pressures in tube
externally finned tube. space.
(greater than 400
psig).
93
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
T= 323 K
27
24 E-100
25
T= 353 K T= 303 K
P = 1.66 atm P = 1.45 atm
CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr 26 CH3OH = 7.90435 kg/hr
H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr H2O = 9016.461 kg/hr
CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr CH2O =8231.348 kg/hr
T= 298 K
Q mC p T
Q = 1506475.8 Btu/hr
94
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
LMTD
(𝑇1−𝑡2)−(𝑇2−𝑡1)
LMTD = (𝑇1−𝑡2)
𝐿𝑛[ 𝑇2−𝑡1 ]
= 25.15 oF
Tm t
=15.59 oF
Assumed calculations
Q
A
U D t
A= 389.4 ft2
BWG=16
No.of passes=Nt=2
95
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
𝐴
=
(𝑎𝑡)∗(𝐿−(𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
= 123 tubes
Tube OD =0.75 in
= De = 0.0792 ft
Flow area
IDxC ' B
as
PT
a s =0.0926 ft2
Mass velocity
W
Gs
as
96
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
G s = 410800 lb/ft2hr
Reynold’s No
DeGs
Re
Re =19800
JH Factor
jH = 90
1
ho k Cp 3
JH
o De k
=1012.5 Btu/ft². F
ho = 1012.5 Btu/ft2.F
97
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Flow area
No of passes= 2
𝑁𝑡∗𝑎𝑡
at =
𝑛
= 0.0650 ft²
W
Gt
at
G t= 738200.6 lb/ft2hr
Reynolds No
D Gt
Re
Re =19900
JH Factor
JH = 80
ho∗hio
Uc =
ho+hio
Ud = Q/A*ΔT
Ud = 248.1Btu/ft2 oF hr
98
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Dirt factor:
Rd = (Uc-Ud)/(Uc*Ud)
Rd = 0.00165
fGs Ds ( N 1)
2
Ps
2.54x1011 De s s
ΔPs=6.17 psi
2
1 fGt Ln
Ps
2 2.54x1011 Dst
Result:
99
Chapter No.5 Equipment Selection and Design
Specification Sheet
Identification:
Item: Cooler (E-100)
Type: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Function: To reduce the temperature of Product Formaldehyde
Heat Duty = 1506475.8 btu/hr
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Handled = Mixture of feed Utility = Cooling Water
Flow rate = 38042.32 lb/hr Flow rate = 47985.5 lb/hr
Baffle Spacing = 3.5 in No. of Tubes = 124
Passes = 1 Passes = 2
Shell Dia = 15.25 OD = 0.75 in
Inlet = 350 K, Oulet = 303 K Intet = 307 K, Outlet =320 K
Pressure Drop (ΔP) = 0.41 atm Pressure Drop (ΔP) = 0.22 atm
100
Chapter No. 6 Mechanical Design
Chapter No. 6
6 Mechanical Design
101
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
= 0.000268 N/mm2
= 0.222 N/mm2
= 1.1 * 200
= 220℃
Diameter = Di = 1929.87 mm
Height = 5780 mm
Joint Efficiency = J = 1
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑒=
2𝑓𝐽 − 𝑃𝑖
0.222 ∗ 1929.87
𝑒=
2 ∗ 1 ∗ 101 − 0.22
𝑒 = 2.12 𝑚𝑚
102
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
𝑒 = 2.12 + 2
𝑒 = 4.12 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑅𝑐
𝐶𝑠 = (3 + √ )
4 𝑅𝑘
𝐶𝑠 = 1.77
𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 𝐶𝑠
𝑒=
2𝑓𝐽 − 𝑃𝑖 (𝐶𝑠 − 0.2)
𝑒 = 3.75 𝑚𝑚
𝑒 = 3.75 + 2
𝑒 = 5.75 𝑚𝑚
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the
design temperature and pressure and the vessel location and arrangement. The types of support
are
103
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
σh = 52 mm
σL = 26 mm
𝐶𝑣 = 1.08
𝑊𝑣 = 15.14 𝑘𝑁
= 739.69 kN
Total Diameter = D + 2t
= 1.92 + 2*0.00412
= 1.93 m
F = PD
F = 1030 * 1.93
F = 1.996 N/m
104
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
𝜎𝑟 = 0.101 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑊𝑋 2
𝑀𝑥 =
2
𝑀𝑥 = 33.457 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑤 = 29.50 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜋(𝐷𝑜4 − 𝐷𝑖4 )
𝐼𝑣 =
64
𝑀𝑥 𝐷𝑖
𝜎𝑏 = ( + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑣 2
𝑁
𝜎𝑏 = 2.76
𝑚𝑚2
Circumferential Stress:
1
σ1 = [σ + σ𝑧 + √(σh − σ𝑧 )2 + 4𝑡 2 ]
2 h
σ1 = 52 N/mm2
Longitudinal Stress:
1
σ2 = [σ + σ𝑧 − √(σh − σ𝑧 )2 + 4𝑡 2 ]
2 h
σ2 = 32.27 N/mm2
105
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
Radial Stress:
σ3 = 0.5P
σ3 = 0.101 N/mm2
σ1 − σ2 = 19.73 N/mm2
σ1 − σ3 = 51.90 N/mm2
σ2 − σ3 = 32.17 N/mm2
σ1 − σ3 < 𝑓
The vessel wall thickness is sufficient to ensure the maximum stress intensity does not exceed the
design stress. [16] [17]
106
Chapter No.6 Mechanical Design
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item: Reactor R-100
Type : Packed Bed Catalytic Reactor
Function
To Produce Formaldehyde From Methanol Using Silver Catalyst
Operating Pressure 2 atm
Design Pressure 2.2 atm
Operating Temperature 473 K
Design Temperature 493 K
Wall Thickness 0.00412 m
Diameter Of Reactor (D) 1.929 m
Length Of Reactor (L) 5.789 m
Support Bracket
Pressure Drop 0.32 atm
107
Chapter No. 7 Pump Sizing
Chapter No.7
7 Pump Sizing
108
Chapter No.7 Pump Sizing
1. P1 and P2
2. Process Equipment
3. Z1 and Z2
Z1 = 0 m
Z2 = 0.61 m
4. Pump Work
𝑔 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑊= (𝑍1 − 𝑍2 ) + − (𝐸𝑆 + 𝐸𝐷 )
𝑔𝑐 𝜌
𝐽
𝑊 = 221.6
𝑘𝑔
109
Chapter No.7 Pump Sizing
𝑚𝑊
𝑃𝑝 =
𝜂𝑝
2.68 ∗ 221.6
𝑃𝑝 =
0.45
𝑃𝑝 = 1.32 𝑘𝑊 = 1.77 ℎ𝑝
Efficiency = η = 86%
𝑃𝑝
𝑃𝐸 =
𝜂
𝑃𝐸 = 2.06 ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑝 = 2.06 ∗ 1.1
𝑃𝑝 = 3 ℎ𝑝
NPSH:
1 Pa − Pv
NPSH = ( − hfs ) − Za
g ρ
1 101325 − 40500
NPSH = ( − 0) − 0
9.8 792
NPSH = 6.67 m
110
Chapter No.7 Pump Sizing
Specification Sheet
Identification:
Item: Pump (P-100)
Type: Centrifugal Pump
No. of Required: 1
Function
To increase the pressure from 1 atm to 2.4 atm
Inlet Flow rate 9661 kg/hr
Inlet Pressure 1 atm
Outlet Pressure 2 atm
Pump Work 221.6 J/kg
Shaft Power 1.77 hp
Motor Power 3 hp
Motor Type Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
NPSH 6.67 m
Pump (101):
Specification Sheet
Identification
Item: Pump (P-101)
Type: Centrifugal Pump
No. of Required: 1
Function
To increase the pressure from 1.5 atm to 1.8 atm
Inlet Flow rate 31942 kg/hr
Inlet Pressure 1.5 atm
Outlet Pressure 1.8 atm
Pump Work 107.90 J/kg
Shaft Power 2.06 hp
Motor Power 3 hp
Motor Type Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
NPSH 2m
111
Chapter No. 8 Cost Estimation
Chapter No. 8
8 Cost Estimation
112
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
8.1 Equipment’s Cost:
Vaporizer (V-100):
Area = 66.08 m2
Reactor (R-100):
Dia = 1.92 m
Material Factor CS = 1
113
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Equipment Cost in 2004 = 20000 $ * Pressure Factor * Type Factor
Absorber (A-100):
Column Height = 27 m
Material Factor CS = 1
Packing Height = 25 m
𝜋𝐷 2
Volume Of Packing = ∗ 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
4
= (3.14*1.642/4)*25
114
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
= 52.78 m3
=71785.424 $
= 100000 $ + 71785.424 $
= 171785.42 $
Purchased cost= Bare cost from fig * Material factor * Pressure factor
115
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Plate diameter = 0.8 m
No of plates = 16
Cooler (E-100):
Area = 36.15 m2
116
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Type Factor U-tube = 0.85
Pump (P-100):
Centrifugal Pump
a = 6900
b = 206
n = 0.9
Ce = a +bSn
Pump (P-101)
Centrifugal Pump
117
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Capacity = S = 6.9L/s
a = 6900
b = 206
n = 0.9
Ce = a +bSn
Blower:
Capacity = S = 182 kw
Ce = CSn
n = 0.8
Ce in 2007 = 123412.26$
118
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Equipments Cost($)
Vaporizer (V-100) 28609.88
Reactor (R-100) 25003.70
Absorber (A-100) 214763.52
Distillation (D-100) 28304.18
Cooler (C-001) 18744.40
Pump (P-100) 8886.03
Pump (P-101) 9542.51
Blower (B-100) 145899.47
Total 479753.69
= 3.6 * 479753.69
=1727113.29
= $ 1.73 million
= 690845.32
= $ 0.69 million
119
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
= 2417958.61 $
= $ 2.42 million
= 0.15*2417958.61
= 362693.79 $
= 362693.79+ 2417958.61
= 2780652.40 $
Methanol:
Air:
120
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Utilities:
Water:
Steam:
Cost = 15 $/ton
Catalyst:
=200,000 kg/day
Processing Step = 7
121
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
8.9 Total Production Cost:
Variable Cost:
Fixed Cost:
Overhead Cost:
122
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
8.10 General Expenses:
Table 8.3: General Expenses
Percentage of Total
Function Cost ($)
Production Cost
Administration 2% 300201.08
Distribution and Marketing 2% 300201.08
Research and Development 5% 750502.70
Total 1350904.87
= 247.89 $/ton
8.11 Depreciation:
V− Vs
Depreciation = D = N
Salvage Value = s = 5%
Number of Years = N = 20 yr
D = $ 0.11 million
123
Chapter No.8 Cost Estimation
Gross Income = Total Income – Total Production Cost – Depreciation
= 71.73%
= 1.39years [19]
124
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
Chapter No. 9
9 Instrumentation and Control
125
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
9.1 Introduction
In manual control an operator may periodically read the process variable and adjust the input up
or down in such a direction as to derive the temperature to its desired value. Manual control is
used in non- critical application, where any process condition occurs slowly and in small
increments and where a minimum of operator attention is required. While in programmed control,
measurement and adjustments are made automatically on a continuous basis. Today automatic
control is used in industry due to following benefits.
The Controllers reorganizes the offer signal and produces an output signal relative to some
function of the error. The output signal of the controller is the initiating force positioning of the
final control element.
Control in one form or in another is an important part of any chemical engineering operation. In
all practices, there rises the necessity of keeping flows, pressures, temperatures, compositions,
etc. Within certain limits for reasons of safety or conditions. It is self-evident that automatic
control is highly desirable, as manual operation would necessitate continuous monitoring of the
controlled variable by a human operator and the efficiency of observation of the operator would
unavoidable fall off with time. Moreover, variabilities in the controlled variable may be too quick
and frequent.
126
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
Process:
Any operation or series of operations that produce a desired final result in a process.
Measuring Element:
As all parts of control system, determining element is perhaps the most important. If
measurements are not made properly the Remaining of the system cannot operate suitably, also
the measured variable is chosen to symbolize the desired conditions in the process.
Controller:
The controller is the device that replies to any error detecting mechanism. The output of the
controller is determined function of the error. Final Control Element: The final control element
receives the signal from the controller and by some prearranged relationship change energy input
to the process.
Many different types of controls are used in industry dependent upon requirements and particular
needs. They range from very simple control to very complex system, in general they may be
divided into two major classes as follows:
Feedback control.
Feed forward control
It is our general behavior that we leant from practice. A feedback control, as the name suggest, is
also founded on same principal. If any input to a system is changed it will change in the system
called as “disturbances”. These disturbances are noted down and modified action is taken on the
input to unwrap the effect that change.
Advantages
127
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
It waits until the effect of disturbance has been felt by the system.
Poor response for slow processes or with significant dead time.
It may create uncertainty in the closed loop response.
In daily life experience we pride on being able to plan forward. No deriver of automobile waits
for his vehicle to leave the road before operating the steering wheel.
Relatively, he participate the effect of curbed road by introducing the corrective action before
controlled variable is affected. When this idea is properly applied to control system the loop that
is formed is called feed forward in appreciation of the fact that the manipulating variable is open
to a disturbance rather than to controlled variable.
Advantages
The operation of a process is rely upon the control of the process variables. These are defined as
situation in process materials or machine, which are subjected to alter the temperature, pressure,
flow and liquid level are the main variable, and trailed by perhaps a dozen less often encountered
variables such as chemical composition, viscosity, density, humidity, moisture content and so
forth. Measurement is a important requisite to process control either the control can be achieve
automatically, semi automatically or manual. The quality of control attainable also bears a
128
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
relationship to precision, reproducibility and reliability of the measurement technique, which are
selected.
So, selection of the most effective means of measurements is an significant first step in the design
and modeling of any process control system. An automatic control is used to measure, accurate
and modifies changes of the four principle types of process variations.
Temperature measurements
Pressure measurements
Flow rate measurements
The temperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and inlet Streams in
heat exchangers, reactors etc most temp measurement in the industry are made by means of
thermocouples to assist the bringing measurement to integrated location for local measurements
at the apparatus bi –metallic or filled system thermometers are used to a minor extent usually,
high measurements accuracy resistance thermometer are used .all these meters are installed with
thermo-walls when used locally .This delivers against atmosphere and other physical elements.
Like temperature, pressure is a variable indicating material state and composition. In fact, these
two measurements considered together are the primary calculating devices of industrial materials.
In the reactor, pressure measurements are of main importance. Pumps, compressors and other
process equipment related with pressure changes in the process material are done with pressure
measuring devices. Thus pressure measurements become a signal of energy increase or decrease.
Most pressure measurements in industry are elastic elements devices, either directly connected
for local use at show type to centralized location. Most widely used industrial pressure element is
bourdon tube or a diaphragm bellows.
The measurement of flow is an important part of almost every industrial process, and many
procedures have been discovered for it. Measurement of flow usually occupy the same principle
as the measurement of pressure i.e., sensing device coupled with a DP cell.
For superior applications other flow meters may be applied e.g. for process no external
disturbance in the fluid stream is needed for magnetic flow meters. Flow indicator –controllers
are used to control the amount of liquid, also all manually set streams need some flow indication
or some easy means for occasional sample. Most flow measurements in industry are variable
129
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
head devices. To minor extent variables is used, as are the many available types as special
measuring situations arise.
Table 9.2: Various types of measuring instruments flow Rate and level
Orifice plate
Venture flow nozzle Measuring pressure drop
Dell flow tube across a flow constriction.
Pitot tube
Flow Rate Dennison flow nozzle Positive displacement and
Turbine flow meter Mass flow meter for high
Hot wire anemometer accuracy. Quantity
Positive displacement and Flow meter
Mass flow meter
Coupled with Various
Float actuated devices
Types of indicators and signal
Displacer devices
Converters good for system
Liquid Level Liquid head pressure
with two phases.
devices Dielectric
Secondary method of
measurement
hydrostatic pressure.
According to Stephanopoulos (1984), the hardware elements that can be established in control
configuration include:
130
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
i. Chemical Process:
It indicates the material equipment together with the physical or chemical operations that occur
there.
ii. Sensor:
These type of measuring instruments are usually used for the measurement of the disturbances,
the controlled output variables, or secondary output variables. It represents the behavior of the
process. For instance, thermocouple, venture meter and gas chromatographs.
iii. Transducer:
It used to convert measurement to physical quantities (such as electrical voltage or pneumatic
signal) which can be transmitted easily
v. Controller:
It is usually a hardware element of an instrument which has “intelligence” features. It accepts the
facts and decides what action should be taken.
1. Shut off valves – The main purpose of shut off valves is to close off the flow.
2. Control valves – They can be either automatic or manual and their objective is used to
regulate the flow.
Control Valves:
Selection of control valves is an important factor. It is important that good flow control is
achieved
131
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
Whilst the pressure drop is kept low as possible. Control valves may fail to open, this is occurs
when power supply failure happens. Diaphragm valves are commonly used in this case. This type
of valve can be seen in the figure below:
Flanged Valves:
Flanged valves can be used for drainage. An example of the type of flanged valve used in this
case is shown in figure below. These are generally closed and are in operation usually during site
or unit maintenance.
Gate Valves:
Gate valves are frequently used for shut –off purposes. It is important that a valve selected for
this purpose gives a positive seal in the closed position and minimum resistance to the flow when
the valves are open. Gate valves exist in a wide range of sizes and it is possible to operate them
manually or automatically by the use of a motor. When gate valves are fully open they have a low
pressure drop. When operating gate valves attention must be paid to ensure they are not operated
partially open. This is because the valve seal can become deformed, so as a result the valve will
not seal properly. Below figure shows a diagram of a gate valve which has been frequently used
in the piping and instrumentation diagram.
132
Chapter No.9 Instrumentation and Control
Condensor
TIC
TT-2
101 Set Point Reflux Drum
FIC
FT-2
101
Top Product
Feed DT-100
V-3 V-1
TIC
TT-1
Set Point 100
FIC
100
FT-1
V-1
Reboiler Bottom Product
V-2
133
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
Chapter No.10
10 Hazop Study
134
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
10.1 Background:
A HAZOP study identifies hazards and operability problems. The concept involves investigating
how the plant might deviate from the design intent. If, in the process of identifying problems
during a HAZOP study, a solution becomes apparent, it is recorded as part of the HAZOP result;
however, care must be taken to avoid trying to find solutions which are not so apparent, because
the prime objective for the HAZOP is problem identification. Although the HAZOP study was
developed to supplement experience based practices when a new design or technology is
involved, its use has expanded to almost all phases of a plant's life. HAZOP is based on the
principle that several experts with different backgrounds can interact and identify more problems
when working together than when working separately and combining their results. The "Guide-
Word" HAZOP is the most well-known of the HAZOPs; however, several specializations of this
basic method have been developed.
10.2 Introduction:
The HAZOP study is a formal procedure to identify hazards in a chemical process facility. The
procedure is effective in identifying hazards and is well accepted by the chemical industry. The
basic idea is to let the mind go free in a controlled fashion in order to consider all the possible
ways that process and operational failures can occur. Before the HAZOP study is started, detailed
information on the process must be available. This includes up-to-date process flow diagrams
(PFDs), process and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs), detailed equipment specifications,
materials of construction, and mass and energy balances.
The full HAZOP study requires a committee composed of a cross-section of experienced ' plant,
laboratory, technical, and safety professionals. One individual must be a trained HAZOP leader
and serves as the committee chair. This person leads the discussion and must be experienced with
the HAZOP procedure and the chemical process under review. One individual must also be
assigned the task of recording the results, although a number of vendors provide software to
perform this function on a personal computer. The committee meets on a regular basis for a few
hours each time. The meeting duration must be short enough to ensure continuing interest and
input from all committee members. A large process might take several months of biweekly
meetings to complete the HAZOP study. Obviously, a complete HAZOP study requires a large
investment in time and effort, but the value of the result is well worth the effort.
The completeness and accuracy of drawings and other data used as a basis for the study.
The technical skills and insights of the team.
135
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
The ability of the team to use the approach as an aid to their imagination in visualizing
deviations, causes, and consequences.
HAZOP is best suited for assessing hazards in facilities, equipment, and processes and is capable
of assessing systems from multiple perspectives:
Design:
Assessing system design capability to meet user specifications and safety standards. Identifying
weaknesses in systems
Assessing engineered controls (ex: automation), sequences of operations, procedural controls etc.
Assessing different operational modes start-up, standby, normal operation, steady & unsteady
states, normal shutdown, emergency shutdown, etc.
10.5 Advantages:
1. Helpful when confronting hazards that are difficult to quantify that is,
Hazards rooted in human performance and behaviors
Hazards that are difficult to detect, analyze, isolate, count, predict, etc.
Methodology doesn’t force you to explicitly rate or measure deviation probability of
occurrence, severity of impact, or ability to detect
2. Built-in brainstorming methodology.
3. Systematic & comprehensive methodology.
4. More simple and intuitive than other commonly used risk management tools.
10.6 Disadvantages:
136
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
10.7 Effectiveness:
The effectiveness of a HAZOP will depend on:
HAZOP team.
Full description of process.
Relevant guide words.
Conditions conducive to brainstorming.
Recording of meeting.
Follow up plan.
137
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
Cleaning of
line
No Feed in storage
Level control
tank
Decrease in system
Feed pump rupture
Flowrate production Maintenance
Supply pipe
or no of pipes
rupture
production Automatic
Valve is closed
valve
Pump is off
Automatic
pump
No Decrease in Maintenance
Level Blockage in line production of pipes
Valve is closed or no Automatic
production valve
Decrease in
Temperature Fault in Preheater production Maintenance
Steam pipe rupture or no of pipes
production
Decrease in
Pressure production Maintenance
Fault in Preheater
or no of Preheater
production
Flowrate Automatic
Explosion
More valve valve
Less
opening Check reactor
conversion
conditions
Pressure Less
Fault in Preheater Check valve.
production
138
Chapter No.10 Hazop Study
Automatic
Flowrate Less valve
Less of opening of production Temperature
valves control at
reactor feed
preparation
Level Less of opening of Less
Less Check Valve
valves Production
Pressure Less
Fault in Preheater Maintenance
Production
Low
Quality control
conversion
Impurities in Problem in raw of raw
As well as rate
feed stream material material and
Decrease in
Fouling in pipes product
product
Maintenance
quality
Higher or More or less
High quality of Quality control
Lower pure
Part of feed of raw
percentage of production
Less quality of material and
Feed than
feed product
intended
Replacement Better
Wrong connection
Other than of Raw management
during plant Explosion
Material of changing
modification
procedure
139
Chapter No. 11 Environmental Impact Assessment
Chapter No. 11
11 Environmental Impact Assessment
140
Chapter No. 11 Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process of assessing the likely environmental
impacts of a proposal and identifying options to minimize environmental damage. The main
purpose of EIA is to inform decision makers of the likely impacts of a proposal before a decision
is made. EIA provides an opportunity to identify key issues and stakeholders early in the life of a
proposal so that potentially adverse impacts can be addressed before final approval decisions are
made. The EIA also includes a description of the measures taken to avoid, reduce or remedy
these effects.
11.1.1 Overview:
The US Environmental Protection Agency Pioneered the use of pathway analysis to determine
the likely human health impact of environmental factors. The technology for performing such
analysis is properly called as environmental science. The principal phenomenon or pathways of
impact are:
11.1.2 Objectives:
Ensuring environmental factors are considered in the decision-making process.
Ensuring that possible adverse environmental impacts are identified and avoided or
minimized.
Informing the public about the proposal.
11.1.3 Advantages:
Allows people to examine the underlying need for a project.
Gives people the opportunity to identify problems.
Helps a developer to design a more publicly acceptable project.
11.2 Methanol:
Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol among others, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH..
Methanol acquired the name wood alcohol because it was once produced chiefly as a byproduct
of the destructive distillation of wood. Today, industrial methanol is produced in a catalytic
process directly from carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. Methanol is a colorless
liquid that boils at 64.96 °C (148.93 °F) and solidifies at −93.9 °C (−137 °F). It forms explosive
mixtures with air and burns with a no luminous flame. It is completely miscible in water.
141
Chapter No. 11 Environmental Impact Assessment
Methanol has an odor that is similar to ethyl alcohol, the intoxicant of alcoholic beverages, but is
a dangerous poison; many cases of blindness or death have been caused by drinking mixtures
containing it.
11.2.1 Hazard:
11.2.1.1 Fire Hazards:
Highly flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Non-flammable in presence of
shocks. Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available.
Explosive in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Flammable liquid, soluble or dispersed
in water. Small Fire Use Dry chemical powder. Large Fire: Use alcohol foam, water spray or fog.
Explosive in the form of vapor when exposed to heat or flame. Forms an explosive mixture with
air due to its low flash point. Explosive when mixed with Chloroform, sodium methoxide and
diethyl zinc. It boils violently and explodes.
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for at least
15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact:
Wear chemical protective clothing e.g. gloves, aprons, boots. In some operations wear a chemical
protective, full-body encapsulating suit and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).In case of
contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient.
Inhalation Protection:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult,
give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
142
Chapter No. 11 Environmental Impact Assessment
11.3 Formaldehyde:
Formaldehyde (systematic name methanal), is a naturally occurring organic compound with the
formula CH2O (H-CHO). It is the simplest of the aldehydes. Formaldehyde is a colorless
poisonous gas synthesized by the oxidation of methanol and used as an antiseptic, disinfectant,
histologic fixative, and general-purpose chemical reagent for laboratory applications.
Formaldehyde is readily soluble in water and is commonly distributed as a 37% solution in water;
formalin, a 10% solution of formaldehyde in water, is used as a disinfectant and to preserve
biological specimens. Environmentally, formaldehyde may be found in the atmosphere, smoke
from fires, automobile exhaust and cigarette smoke. Small amounts are produced during normal
metabolic processes in most organisms, including humans.
11.3.1 Hazards:
11.3.1.1 Fire Hazards:
Formaldehyde becomes a fire or explosion hazard in the presence of heat, flames or other sources
of ignition. Upon ignition, the chemical decomposes into carbon oxides (i.e. carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide), which can be hazardous to humans. Use dry Chemical, CO2, water spray or
alcohol resistant foam as extinguisher agents. Use water spray to reduce the vapors.
143
Chapter No. 11 Environmental Impact Assessment
144
References:
[1]. Formaldehyde,” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Web
[3]. Couper, James R. Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
2005. Print.
[4]. Felder, Richard M., and Ronald W. Rousseau. Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes.
New York: Wiley, 2005. Print.
[5]. Kirk, Raymond E., Donald F. Othmer, Jacqueline I. Kroschwitz, and Mary Howe-Grant.
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. New York: Wiley, 1991. Print.
[6]. Rosaler, Robert C. Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1995. Print.
[7]. ScienceLab: Chemicals & Laboratory Equipment." ScienceLab: Chemicals & Laboratory
Equipment Web <http://www.sciencelab.com/>.
[8]. Smith, J. M., Hendrick C. Van. Ness, and Michael M. Abbott. Introduction to Chemical
Engineering Thermodynamics. New York [etc.: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Print.
[11]. Fair, James R. Advanced Process Engineering. New York, NY: American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, 1980. Print.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol>.
[14].https://www.academia.edu/6244446/iii_MANUFACTURE_OF_FORMALDEHYDE_FRO
M_METHANOL_A_PROJECT_REPORT
[15]. Perry, R.H., and D.W. GREEN, Perry’s chemical engineers’ Handbook, Seventh edition,
McGraw-Hill, 1997.
145
[16]. Coulson, J.M., J.F. Richardson, “Chemical Engineering” Volume 1 Sixth Edition
[17]. Coulson, J.M., J.F. Richardson, “Chemical Engineering” Volume 6 Sixth Edition
[19]. Max S. Peter,Klaus D. Timmerhaus , Ronald E West “Plant Design and Economics of
Chemical Engineering” Fifth Edition.
[25].http://www.referatele.com/referate/engleza/online2/FORMALDEHYDE---Physical-
Properties-Chemical-Structure-Preparation-Methods-Reactions-Usagem-Danger-Ma.php
146
Appendix
147
Appendix A:
Figures:
Figure A-1: JH Factor
Tables:
Table A-1: Design Coefficient
148
Figures:
149
Figure A-3: Reynolds Number
150
Table:
Table A-1: Design Coefficient
151
Appendix B:
Figures:
Figure B-1: Generalized Pressure Drop correlation
Figure B-2: Number of transfer units NOG as a function of Y1/Y2 with mGm/Lm as parameter
Tables:
152
Figures:
Figure B-2: Number of transfer units NOG as a function of Y1/Y2 with mGm/Lm as parameter
153
Figure B-3: Generalized correlation for pressure drop
154
Tables:
Table B-1: Design data for various packing’s
155
Appendix C:
Figures:
Figure C-1: Flow Factor
Figure C-2: (Ad/Ac)*100 vs. lw / Dc
Figure C-3: K2
Figure C-4: Orifice Coefficient Co
156
Figures:
157
Figure C-3: K2
158
Appendix D:
Figures:
Figure D-1: Shell side heat-transfer Curve
Tables:
Table D-1: Design Coefficient
Table D-2: Tube-Sheet Layout Square Pitch
Table D-3: Heat Exchanger Tube Data
159
Figures:
160
Figure D-3 Friction Factor
161
Tables:
Table D-1: Design Coefficient
162
Table D-3: Heat Exchanger Tube Data
163
Appendix E:
Figures:
Figure E-1: Pump Selection
Tables:
Table E-1: Process Equipment
Table E-2: Pressure Drop
Table E-3: Pump Type
164
Figures:
165
Tables:
Table E-1: Process Equipment
166
Table E-3: Pump Type
167
Table E-5: Horsepower
168
Appendix F:
Figures:
Figure F-1: Vaporizer Cost
Figure F-2: Reactor Cost
Figure F-3: Absorber Cost
Figure F-4: Distillation Cost
Figure F-5: Exchanger Cost
Figure F-5: Operating Labor (h/day)
Tables:
Table F-1: Absorber Packing Cost
Table F-2: Pump Cost
169
Figures:
170
Figure F-3: Absorber Cost
171
Figure F-4: Distillation Plate Cost
172
Figure F-5: Operating Labor (h/day)
173
Tables:
Table F-1: Absorber Packing Cost
174
Table F-3: Blower Cost
175
Table F-5: Variable & Fixed Cost
176