CHAPTER-2

STUDY AREA

2.1 Generation Introduction

The study area, Palamau Tiger Reserve (PTR) lies in the western part of the
Chhotanagpur plateau in the newly formed state of Jharkhand, which is carved out of
the state of Bihar. The Chhotanagpur plateau is a region of great unevenness and
consists of a succession of plateau, hills and valleys. It covers parts of three districts
namely Latehar, Garhwa, Lohardaga. The PTR has an extremely diverse predator prey
ecosystem which shelters a wide variety of wildlife consisting of tiger (Panthera
tigris), elephant (Elephas maximus), panther (Panthera pardus), wild boar (Sus-
Scrofa), bison (Bos gaurus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), nilgai (Boselaphus
tragocamelus), langur (Presbytis entellus), spotted deer (Axis axis), sambar (Cervus
unicolor), mouse deer (Moschiola meminna) small Indian civet (Viverricula indica),
mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), hare (Lepus nigricollis), porcupine (Hystrix indica),
giant squirrel (Petauristapetaurista) and large variety of birds, such as fowls, quills,
partridges, reptiles, snakes etc and is equally rich in flora mainly sal (Shorea robusta
Roxb. ex Gaertn. f), mahua (Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Macbride var. latifolia
(Roxb.) Chev.) and bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.). Due to human
interference, the well-balanced and beautiful biological system becomes stressed. This
plateau has impinged on the attention of researchers as being one of the ancient sites
of continuous human habitation.

At the end of the 19th century, estimated number of tigers was approximately 40,000.
In the 21 st century, the fast dwindling population of Indian Tiger (Panthera tigris) has
put this species on the edge of extinction (Thapar, 1986). The high rate of extinction
of this species has been noted in the systematic census carried out in the country. The
world's first tiger census was done in Palamau forests in 1932. The country wide
census conducted in 1972 showed alarming rate of decrease in its population. Thus,
on the basis of census operation nine states were selected for the conservation of tiger.
In the state of Bihar, the forests in the southern part of Palamau (Presently in
Jharkhand) found to be suitable for tigers and consequently Palamau Tiger reserve
was created in June 1972 (Mishra, 2001).

50
2.2 Why tiger and why Palamau?

Tigers are the great "umbrella" species. To save the tiger, one has to protect the
landscapes in which they live. By this, biodiversity and ecosystem functionality can
be conserved along with the tiger (Mountfort, 1981). The present investigation takes
tiger as a key species to assess the habitat parameters, model the habitat suitability
and study the anthropogenic processes to identify the zones of conflict. The tiger has
been chosen due to following reasons.

• The population of tiger is now drastically decreasing.

• All species of tigers are declared as critical or endangered by IUCN.
• The Palamau Wildlife Sanctuary is having high diversity of flora and fauna.
• Very few research works has been carried out in Palamau for tiger
conservation.
• High pressure of human being, causing the habitat loss of the tiger, needs a
serious study on it.

Palamau - An introduction
Origin of name of Palamau dates back to different theories as mentioned in literature.
L.R. Fobes settlement report of 1872 by Bridge, the word Palamau is derived from the
Hindi word Palana, which means 'a place of refuge'. Another thought collected from
D.H.E. Sunder Settlement Report, 1898 is that the name is combination of 'pala'
meaning 'frost' and lmu', the patois root for 'dead', the whole meaning 'dead from
frost', parts of the district being liable during the winter months to serve frost.
Another opinion by Rev. F. J. Hahn is that Palamau is a Dravidian name and it may be
a corruption of 'pall-ammu-u'. Pall meaning 'tooth', 'amm' (which when combined
with another noun assumes the form am) meaning 'water', and u is a kind of genitive
or possessive case meaning 'village', 'country', 'fortress', etc. In support of this
theory, it may be mentioned that the name is spelt Palamau in the vernacular and was
originally applied to the village, which was the seat of the Chero chiefs and in which
their forts were built. These forts overlook the river Auranga and the bed of that river
for some miles above and beyond the forts is studded with rocks. When these are in

51
flood, they look like jagged teeth. The name may thus perhaps mean 'the place of the
fanged river' (Roy Chaudhury, 1961).
According to another opinion it is a combined form of Palas (Butea monosperma
(Lam.) Taub.) and Mahua (Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Macbride var. latifolia
(Roxb.) Chev.). During the flowering time of Palas, the whole area is covered with
red flowers which is the peak summer season and gives the impression of a fire ball
from a distance. In this area, Palas tree is extensively used as a host tree for 'Rangini'
lac cultivation.

The name also refers to the fort of the great tribal king 'Sri Medini Roy', situated
inside the reserve in Betla. There are ruins of two forts situated at New Qila on a
hillock and Old Qila on the bank of the river Auranga. According to the name of the
king, the district is also named as Medininagar.

2.3 Location

The Palamau tiger reserve is situated between latitudes 23° 25' and 23° 55' north and
longitude 83° 50' and 84° 36' east (Fig 2.1). Total area of tiger reserve is 1026 km2.
The PTR lies in Deccan Plateau, a province of Chotnagpur plateau (6D) of the Bio-
geographic zone (Rodger and Panwar, 1988). The parts of area which falls in these
three different districts are Latehar district 54.1 km2, Garhwa 156.05 km2 and
Lohardaga 15.82 km2. Out of the total area of the reserve, 979.97 km2 is notified as
Palamau Wildlife Sanctuary (as on 17.07.1976) and 226.32 km2 out of this is notified
as Betla National Park (as on 22.01.1996). Mahuadanar Wolf Sanctuary is of 63 km2
notified in the year 1976 is also under the management of the Tiger Project Circle. At
present The Palamau Tiger Reserve is divided into three zones viz., Buffer zone (813
km2), Core zone (213 km2), and Tourism zone (53.78 km2) (overlapping) (Fig 2.1).

The forest of PTR now forms part of the two forest Divisions namely Project Tiger
Division and Dalonganj South Division. The Project tiger Division includes Betla
Range, Chhipadohar east range, Chhipadohar west range and Kutku Range. The area
of this division is 575 km2. The Daltonganj South East Division includes Garu east
Range, Garu west Range and Mahuadanr range. The area of Daltengaj South Division
spreads over 730 km2. Some parts of the Mahuadanar are outside the Tiger Reserve.

52
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2.4 Topography

Topographically the area falls under undulating tracks in association with some steep
slopes, low hills and flat lands. The altitude of the PTR ranges from 100m -1140m
from above Mean Sea Level. The hill system of this area consists of a series of
parallel ridges running east and west, pierced by the Koel river. Important hills are
Murhar, Neterhat, Huluk and Gulgul (1140 m) in the western and southern part of die
PTR which extends up to the border of Chhattisgarh. There are a number of hills
extending from Garu to Hulluk and in between Garu and Latoo village. Quite a few
hills facing in the southern part of the reserve are very steep. The Northern part of the
reserve is comparatively less hilly and hill slopes are also easy.

2.5 Physiography, soil, geology and rock

Physiographically, the area can be divided into three major units viz., hill and
escarpment zone, piedmont plain and alluvial plain. The soils on the hills and
escarpments are mostly shallow; where as in depressions/valleys are deep to very
deep. The soils in the piedmont plain zone range from moderately deep to very deep
following toposequence. The soils in alluvial plain are silt and clay soils (Gupta et ai,
1998). The general soil types in the study area are murmu, sandy, alluvial, and sandy
loamy (Ghosh, 2002).
The geological formation of die PTR is mainly gneiss. The gneiss layer is of varied
constitution and includes granite, hornblende and calcareous gneiss associated with
limestone. The Talchir, Mahadeva and Barakar groups composed of sandstones and
shales represent the Gondwana formation. The rocks of this region can be classified
into the following main groups

I Laterite- The minerals are Laterite and bauxite.

II Quartzite- Quartzite, microline, epidosite, biotite schist, diopsidite, pegmatite,
biotite hillimaniteschist.
III Gneiss- Horneblende-granulite, horneblende-gneiss, diopsidite, biotite gneiss,
microcline and quartzaplite, horneblende-biotite gneiss, magnetetite, tufa,
olivine, epidosite and pegmatite.

54
IV Amphibolite- Amphibolite, pyroxene granulite, hypersthena gneiss,
homeblende granulite and quartz.
V Gondwana- Brakar and Mahadeva sandstones, grits, shales, hemaitie,
conglomerate.
VI Alluvial- An alluvial deposit is an accumulation of alluvium (sediment),
sometimes containing valuable ore and gemstones, or simply consisting of
gravel, sand, or clay, in the bed or former bed of a river (Mishra, 2001).

2.6 Minerals

The mineral constituent of this area is mainly coal. This is available in different places
of Palamau district, namely, the Auranga, Hutar and Daltonganj coal fields. Except
coal other minerals are bauxite, iron - ore, dolomite and limestone, graphite, mica,
feldspars, fire - clays, lead and mineral water.

2.7 Drainage

The general drainage line is from south to north. The main rivers are Koel and its
tributaries. Koel river has three tributaries namely Auranga, Burha and Pandra, all of
which pass through the reserve. All these rivers are perennial. The koel and Auranga
are similar in respect to their upper reaches that are characterized by high banks,
generally rugged and occasionally precipitous with a rapid stream over boulders and
shingle or gliding calmly. The northern portion of the reserve is encircled by the north
Koel river in the north-west and Auranga river in the north-east. The north Koel river
runs from south-eastern portion of the PTR to the northern side, dividing the reserve
into almost two equal parts. Few other perennial sources of water are Kujrum pond,
Kamaldah lake, Barwadhi dam and Harindegwa dam. The drainage map is shown in
Fig. 2.2.

2.8 Water holes-resource

Palamau is a drought- prone area. A severe drought occurred in the year 1967 and
1993. In the reserve there are 322 water holes almost evenly spread in the area.

55
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Many water holes do not dry during summer. There are few aquifers also. The
waterhole map is shown in Fig. 2.3.

2.9 Climate

The area lies in tropical zone. The tropical climate characterizes the areas with four
distinct seasons. The four different seasons in the study area is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Four different seasons in Palamau district

Season Month
Winter Mid-Nov to Mid-Feb
Summer Mid-Feb to Mid-June
Rainv Mid-June to Mid-Sept
Autumn Mid-Sept to Mid-Nov

2.10 Rainfall

The rainfall of this area is mainly due to South-west monsoon. It is confined to a

period of three months from middle of June to middle of September. The Southern
pan of the area gets more rainfall than the northern part. The mean annual rainfall is
1075 mm. The minimum rain fall in this area is approximately 600 mm and the
maximum is 1100 mm per year. The monthly distribution of the rainfall over last
seven years is shown in Fig. 2.4.

58
 500 Y

45<) B January

400
1 Q February

• March
350
' DApril

rr^
1 300
1 DMay

.a • June

~ 250 DJuly

O August
200

150
' f r • September

• October
100 11B
B November

1M
•H ._ ...

Q December
50

1999 2000
4r
2001
liJkd. J
0 2002 2003 2004 2005
Years
Source: (Mishra, 2001) and collected data from forest department

Fig. 2.4: Yearly rainfall in PTR

2.11 Temperature

Winter is usually quite cold, especially at night and sometimes frost occurs in late
December to early January. During winter, temperature dips to 4°C in valleys in the
reserve. The summer season is very hot and dry in late April to early June. At times,
temperature rises up to 50°C in the northern portion of the reserve. The southern area
being at higher elevation and protected by a forest cover, is comparatively less hot.
Frost does occur, almost every year, especially in grassy blank patches of the reserve.
The areas covered with forest cover are usually free of frost.

2.12 Fog

Fog occurs specially in valleys and moist areas during months of December and
January. The forests and hills become hazy during evening and morning. The monthly
distribution of temperature over last twenty years is shown in Fig 2.5.

59
 Month

-*- 1990 Max <> 1990 Min 1991 Max 1991 Min -*~ 1992 Max - • - 1992 Min 1993 Max
- 1993 Min 1994 Max 1994 Mm 1995 Max 1995 Min 1996 Max 1996 Min
1997 Max 1997 Min 1998 Max 1998 Min 1999 Max 1999 Mb
Source (Mishra, 2001) and collected data from forest department
Fig. 2.5: Monthly distribution of temperature over last twenty years

2.13 Precipitation

Precipitation is in the form of rains. The South-west monsoon constitutes all the
rainfall in this area. This rainfall continues to three months from the middle of June to
the middle of September.

2.14 Humidity

The area is dry and humidity is very low during the month of March to early June.
The humidity is higher in the morning than in the evening. The morning humidity
ranges from 68 to 83, where as in the evening, it is 25 to 75, depending up on the
season. The monthly distribution of humidity over last ten years is shown in Fig 2.6.

61)
 1997(5.-0C*.M) (10QOP.M) 1968(500AM) (IftOOP.M) _ 1999(5;0OA.M) (10:00PAQ

Source: (Mishra, 2001) and collected data from forest department

Fig. 2.6: Monthly distribution of humidity over last ten years

2.15 Wind

Hot wind blows during daytime from 9A.M. in the month of April and May. This hot
wind, known as 'Loo', is more severe in the northern part of the reserve. The intensity
is reduced, as one proceeds towards the south of the reserve.

2.16 Flora

The area is dominated mainly by the tropical dry deciduous forest. Sal is the main
species, mixed with bamboos and miscellaneous species. Nicholson had classified the
forest according to the character of the underlying rock and soil condition.

There is no doubt that the parent rock and the soil derived from them, play an
important role in governing the distribution and determining the growth of different
species and that detailed field study should yield most interesting result, but for the
convenience of management a silvicultural classification of the forest based on the
synecology of principal species is more rational and desirable.

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 Table 2.2: Forest types with respect to the rock types
Approx.Area in
No of
Designation Nature of Crop sq. Milion over
type
which found
I Latente Pure sal forest 14
II Quartzite Sal and Mixed forest 95
III Gneiss Sal, Mixed and Bomboo forest 110
IV Amphibolite Mixed and Bomboo forest 13
V Gondwana Sal and mixed forest 11
Sal with small proportion of bamboo
VI Alluvial 6
and mixed forest
Source: (Mishra. 200i)

2.17 Forest type

According to Champion and Seth's classification of forest types of India the forest of
Palamau Tiger Reserve comes under the following types and sub-types:

TYPE I - Moist tropical forests

Group 3 - Tropical Moist Deciduous forests.
Sub - Group- 3C Northern Indian Moist Deciduous forests
Sub-Types-3C2 (e) Moist Peninsular Sal forest.
TYPE II - Dry tropical forests
Group 5-Trpical Dry Deciduous Forests.
Sub-Group 5B-Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous forests.
Sub-types 5B/C1 (e)-Dry Peninsular Sal forests.
(i) 5B/C2-Northern dry mixed deciduous forest.
(ii) 5B/E6-Aegle forest.
(iii) 5B/E9-Dry Bamboo brake

From the stand point of management, the forests may be conveniently divided into the
following main types:
(i) Dry mixed forest.
(ii) Dry sal forest
(iii) Moist sal forest
(iv) High level plateau sal forest.
(v) Moist mixed forest

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2.17.1 Dry Mixed forest
This is widely distributed and found on exposed rocky hill tops, slopes generally and
also on low grounds, where the biotic influences, have a far reaching effect. It is
found in both northern and southern slopes. This type occurs on quartzite, Gneiss,
Amphibolite and Gondwana. The vegetation consists of Anogeissus latifolia,
Boswellia serrata, Chloroxylon swietenia, Chochlospermum religiosa, Cleistanthus
collinus, Lannea coromandelica, Lagerstroemia parviflora etc. Dendrocalamus
strictus occurs commonly mixed with tree species in this type of forest. The trees
except Anogeissus and Boswellia are mostly stunted and malformed. The thorny
shrubs like Gardenia turgida, Carissa carandas, Feronis limonia, Acacia catechu and
Zizyphus bushes etc are also found. On the low hills and broken grounds the
composition of the forest improves with better cover Adina cordifolia, Mitragyna
parviflora, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros melanoxylon, Soymida febrifusa,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Madhuca indica and Terminalia tomenlosa. On lower
ground, Holoptelia integrifolia, Salmalia malabarica, Schleichera oleosa, Miliusa
tomentosa, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Bridelia retusa etc further enrich the
composition. A characteristic feature of this type of forest in the plane, is the presence
of pure crop of Bel, a result of past jhumming. Sal is a very rare species in this type
and is only met with in pockets with deep soil. In the undergrowth Carissa carandas,
Feronis limonia, Flueggea obovata, Flacourtia indica, Wrightia tomentosa,
Woodfordia fruiticosa, Zzylopyrus, 2 mauritiana and Acacia catechu are the most
common species. Among the grasses, Apluda varia, Themada quadrivalvism,
Arundinella setos, Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogan montanus and Cymbopogon
martini are typical.

2.17.2 Dry Sal Forest

These types of forests are found on the plains, low hills and on the northern and
eastern aspect of higher hill slopes over shallow and infertile soil. The plain areas
have been extensively cleaned and maltreated owing to adverse physical and biotic
conditions. Sal is the dominant species but it seldom attains 70 feet height. The most
common association of Sal in this type are Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia spp.,
Ougenia oogeinensis,, Emblica officinalis, Cassia fistula, Anogeissus latifolia,
Buchanani lanzan, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Madhuca indica, Diospyros
melenoxylon and zizyphus xylopyrus. Among the shrubs Carrissa carandas,

63
Woodfordia fruiticosa, Indigofera pulchela and Gardinia turgidia are most
prominent. Hetropogon contortus and Chrysopogn montanus are the typical grasses.

2.17.3 Moist Sal forest

This type is found on the lower slopes of the hills, more particularly on the sheltered
aspects and the valleys of the Baresand block south of the river Koel. Optimum
conditions obtain in sheltered aspects, and the valleys of the Baresand block south of
the river Koel. The tree species found are Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros
melanoxylon, Terminalia tomentisa and emblica officinalis with Wendlandia tinctoris,
Woodfordia fuiticosa and Symplocas recemosa as typical shrubs. Phoenix acaulis is
often abundant. Among the shrubs the most common are Moghania chopper, Croion
oblongifolius, Glochidion lanceolarium, Randia dumetorum, Indigofera pulchela,
Wendlandia inctoria.

2.17.4 High level plateau Sal Forest

This type of forest is confined to the Neterhat plateau above 3000 feet in elevation
characterized by high rain fall and lower temperature. The underlying rock is almost
exclusively laterite. The most characteristic feature of the crop is die presence of
uniform stands of sal in great purity having the height up to 70 ft. In secondary
growth areas gregarious sal is mixed with other species like Syzygium cumini,
Mahuca indica, Anogeissus latfolia, Lagersromia parviflora, Bauhinia retusa, Kydia
calycina, Miliusa velutina, Callicarpa arborea, Symplocos racemosa, Careya
arborea, Bridelia retusa, Butea monosperma, Casearia graveolens, Terminalia
tomentosa, T. Chebula, Cassia fistula and Heynea trijuga etc. Among the shrub
species the most commonly represented are Indigofera pulchella, Sophora bakeri,
Woodfordia fruticosa, Antidesma diandrum, A. ghaesembilla, Strobilanthus
auriculatus and Moghania Chopper. Bauhinia Vahlii etc are a common climber.

2.17.5 Moist Forest

This type of forest is very limited and scattered in its distribution, mostly confined to
valley bottoms occupying the flat lands on the bends of larger streams. The vegetation
type is characterized by Terminalia tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Syzygium cumini,
Bauhinia retusa, B. purpursera, Albizzia procera, Ceiba malabarica, Bridelia retusa,
Portium serratum, Garuga pinnata, Litsea glutinosa, Litsea sebifera, Stereospermum

64
peraosatum, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Terminalia belarica, T. chebla, Mallows
philippinensis, Miliusa velulina, Millusa tomentosa etc. Among the climbers most
frequently come across are Militia auriculata, Combretum decandrum and Bahuinia
vahlii. The canopy is invariably closed and hence grasses are usually absent but trie
blends are often colonized by Imperata cylindrica with tufts Vetiveria zizinoides.

2.18 Main Fauna

The main fauna found in PTR are tiger, leopard, chital, sambar, barking deer, wolf,
wild dog, elephant, mouse deer, pangolin, four horned antelope and Indian rattle.
Nearly 200 species of birds are found in this reserve. The main birds found in the area
are partridges, quails, jungle fowl, common peafowl, hornbills, vultures.

2.18.1 Tigers {Panthera tigris)

The tiger is well distributed through out the reserve. The main prey species of tiger
are chital, sambar, deer, wildboar and gaur. During 1986 to 1989 there were eight
tigers including male, female and cubs at Betla in Betla compartment-I, Betla
compartment -2 and Saidupe compatt-I.

2.18.2 Leopard (Panthera pardus)

The leopard is found scattered over the entire area of the reserve. They like the places
of open area having rocks and scrub. The prey species for leopard are chital, barking
deer, fawns of sambar and cattle calves, langur, rhesus monkey, porcupines and birds
such as peafowl and red jungle fowl. The information from the villagers in and around
the reserve, suggested that there are a fair number of leopards present in the area.

2.18.3 Chital/ Spotted deer (Axis axis)

Chital are the most abundant species of wild ungulates in the Reserve. They
commonly occur in herd of 10-25 individuals. It prefers open and shrubby areas, but
do require cover also. They are generally seen in open grassy blanks in the morning
and evening hours and retire in cover during day time. Chital are the major food for
tiger and leopard. They are also found near the villages due to presence of cultivated
crops. They are fond of mahua flowers and hence are seen in large number under the
mahua trees during flowering.

65
2.18.4 Sambar (Cervus unicolour)
The sambar is largest deer in India. It is well distributed through out the forested area
of the reserve. The main foods for sambar are leaves and shoots of woody species,
various kinds of wild fruits, such as fruits of Aegle marmelos (Bel) and grasses.
Bamboo leaves are the staple diet of sambar. It feeds mainly during nights and retires
in heavy cover during the day.

2.18.5 Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak-kakar)

Barking deer are found all over the reserve. They are shy animal and hence are seen
very rarely. They are best known by their call, which is quite distinctive than other
deer. Their haunts are thickly wooded hills and they peep more or less to thick jungle
and come out to graze in the outskirts of forests, they are fairly diurnal in habit. The
food consists of various leaves, grasses, and wild fruit.

2.18.6 Wolf (Cants lupus- Bhediya, Hundar)

The wolf species is low in number, but they are seen in every part of the reserve from
Betla to Chhipadohar. They mostly remain in vicinity of the villages. They prefer
open shrubby areas and rocky hills, where they rest during the day time.

2.18.7 Elephant (Elephas maximus- Hathi)

Elephants are commonly frequent in the areas of high forests, where topography in
undulating and where bamboo grow in profusion. They prefer denser forests during
summer where cover, food and water in plentiful. They often raid maize and paddy
crops.

2.18.8 Gaur (Bos gaurus- Indian Bison)

Gaurs are found all over the reserve, except in the Rud forest. Gaur generally prefers
the habitats, which are free from disturbance and having good cover. They are mostly
found near grassy land, bamboo and palatable shrubs. Their number is quite high in
Betla forests and they are found in preferred locality in Saidupe, Ramandag and
Baresand areas. Tiger prey upon all the sizes of Gaur, but most preferred of calves
upto the age of 3 years.

66
2.19 Communication

The main metalled road that passes through the sanctuary is the State highway, which
connects Ranchi-Daltenganj to Netarhat (140km). Another metalled road is
connecting Betla to Barwadih. The unmetalled road passes through out the sanctuary.
The road and rail map is shown in Fig. 2.7.

2.20 Socio-economic aspects

2.20.1 Population
There are in total 199 villages present in and around the PTR. Among these, 3 villages
are in core zone, 72 villages are situated within Buffer zone where as 124 villages
within 5 kms radius of the PTR (zone of influence).The human population of PTR is
1,05,094 according to the census of 1991. The whole area is dominated by tribal
people of Mundas, Oraon, Cheros, Korwa, Birjia, Asur, Birhor, Kherwar etc.
Dominant religions are Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. There is a high population
pressure on the PTR. It varies from north to south. In the northern part the population
pressure is very high due to good transport, communication facility with the near by
town area of Daltenganj, Latehar and also due to topographic condition. In
comparison to southern part, the northern part is having plane area, where as the
southern part is having very high hill ranges (700-1140m). Though the population in
the zone of influence is smaller than the population inside the PTR, the pressure in the
zone of influence is very high. The settlement map is shown in Fig. 2.8.

2.20.2 Livestock Population

The total cattle population in the villages in and around PTR is about 70,000. There is
also an additional pressure of 15,000 cattle from the villages situated at 30 to 40 km
away from the Reserve.

67
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2.20.3 Occupation
People residing in and around the sanctuary have 3 ways of lively hood. First is
collection of forest products, second agriculture, and third daily labour. They are
totally dependant on the forest for their day-to-day life like collection of fuel wood,
fodder, NTFP, medicine, forage for cattle etc. The main occupation of villagers is
agriculture. Except Paddy, people cultivate Marwa, Wheat, Maize, Kurthi, Arhar,
Sarguja, Lotni etc. The agriculture is dependant on rainfall. Lack of irrigated
agricultural and life below poverty level increases population pressure on forests for
the livelihood.

2.20.4 Education
Education status is poor in the Reserve. Literacy rate is 27.71 percent. There are very
less primary schools, only one high school and the main college is in Daltenganj. Due
to poor infrastructure the people in the villages are illiterate (Ahmed, 2004).

2.20.5 Recent threats

The recent threats to the PTR are grazing, forage collection for cattle, firewood
collection, man-animal conflict, poaching, railway line, electric transmission line etc.

Grazing and forage collection for cattle: The cattle population is dependant on
resources of PTR. There are approximately 85000 cattle in and around the reserve.
Due to this, there is always a competition for forage between wildlife and cattle.
Another reason, which leads to this problem, is the insufficient amount of agricultural
residue available as forage for cattle.

Fire hazards; Fire occasionally occurs during the cleaning of the underneath of
Mahua trees during the collection of Mahua flowers and fruits. This fire can also
occur due do different reasons, such as fire for hunting, for converting forest into
pasture land etc.

Firewood collection: Being one of the backward area and most of the people being
below poverty line, they are totally dependent on forest, for their livelihood. Most of
the people collect firewood on an average of 20-30 kg per day.

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Man-animal conflict: Human beings are also one of the threats to wild animals.
During the period of ripening of crops, most of the animals enter the croplands and
destroy the crops. To protect their crop from damage, villagers sometimes come
directly in path of prowling group and are killed. Animals are also killed using ways
e.g. poisoning, fire etc.

Poaching- Poaching was one of the biggest threat in past few years. Recently it has
been checked. Mainly the poachers plunder deers. Except this, other animals like
elephant, tiger are also poached.

Railway line: One railway line passes through sanctuary from west to east which is
main migratory route of elephants. Most of the accidental death of wild animals
mainly elephants is caused on this route.

Electric transmission line: A high power electric transmission line passes through
Betla and Chippadohar. This is also a major passage line for elephants. Since 98-99
till date 5 elephant died due to this line.

2.21 References

Ahmed, T. 2004. Report on Man-Animal conflict in Palamau Tiger Reserve.

Gupta, S. K., Mumtaj Ahmed, Hussain M., Pandey A. S., Singh Pratap and Das, S. N.
1998. Inventory of degraded lands of Palamau district, Bihar, A remote
sensing approach. In: RS and GISfor Natural Resource Management. A joint
publication of ISRS & NNRMS, 75-84.
Mishra, A. K. and Kumar, D. 2001.'Management plan for Palamau Tiger Reserve
(2001-02 to 2010-11), Project Tiger Circle, Palamau, Daltonganj
Mountfort, G. 1981. Saving the Tiger. Viking Press, New York. 120 pp. (Account of
international efforts to save the tiger. Presents the life history and historical
background that resulted in the species being placed on the endangered species
list.)
Roy Chaudhury, P. C. 1961. Bihar District Gazetteers - Palamau, Secretariat Press,
Bihar, Patna.

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Thapar, V. 1986. Tiger. Portrait of a Predator. Facts on File Publications, New York.
200. (Describes Project Tiger, an experiment in wildlife conservation in India
in 1973. Focuses on Ranthambhore, a tiger reserve).
Ghosh, K. D. 2002. Final report on water harvesting in PTR. Indian Eco-
development Project, Palamau Tiger Reserve-Jharkhand.

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