More to Criminal Tendency than what meets the eye

Rohan Joy

XI-K

Delhi Public School, Sector - 19

Faridabad, Haryana

2020-21
Cover Letter

To
Mr. Anil Kumar
Principal
Delhi Public School
Sector - 19, Faridabad

5-6-2020
Subject : Submission of research paper

Dear Sir,

I would like to submit the manuscript titled "More to Criminal Tendency than what meets the
eye". It is an unpublished original manuscript. It was written using verified sources such as
studies,meta-analyses and other research.

I thank you for this opportunity to present this research paper.

Sincerely

Rohan Joy

XI - K
Abstract

The human mind is very complex and there is so much about it we have yet to find out. From
what we know with current research, it has so many different activities that are definitely
influenced by factors other than just personality. One such activity is crime. The purpose of
this research paper is to show that there is so much that influences criminal tendency in
various degrees which makes some people have a higher criminal tendency. The different
findings from this research all show that established studies also favour the perspective of
some people being more prone to crime than others. This research paper has also been of
great personal value as it has helped me to understand much more about how the mind works,
why it in many cases sees crime as a solution to problems and also about various methods of
crime prediction, both successful and failed ones.

1. Introduction

In the curious case of the Bogle family, 601 members of the extended family were
incarcerated or placed on probation or parole. This connection to crime lasted for over 4
generations. What is important here is that this family is not an organized criminal family, it's
a household. In the family, criminal mentality was encouraged but the criminal lifestyle was
not forced upon children. We can understand this from the fact that there are some people in
this family who are not criminals and have a clean case sheet such as Ashley Bogle who
decided to break the chain.

This case throws light on an interesting topic .Are there some people who are more prone to
crime than others?

Research suggests that criminals are affected by many different factors such as increased risk
for psychiatric illnesses2, genetic variations3, biological aspects ,unconscious influences in the
person's life such as parents or parent figures who have criminal tendencies4 or environmental
1
Butterfield, F. (2018) In My Father's House: A New View of How Crime Runs in the Family
2
Ghiasi, N; Azhar, Y; Singh, J. (2020) Psychiatric Illness And Criminality
3
Smoller, JW ; Neale, B ; Doyle A ; Palotie, A. (2013) Identification of Risk Loci With Shared Effects on Five
Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Genome-Wide Analysis. Lancet
4
van Dijk, M., Kleemans, E. & Eichelsheim, V. (2019) Children of Organized Crime Offenders: Like Father,
Like Child? An Explorative and Qualitative Study Into Mechanisms of Intergenerational (Dis)Continuity in
Organized Crime Families.
, social and living conditions5, which all play an important role in defining their criminal
mentality. All these factors have varying levels of influence in defining this tendency towards
crime and all of them together greatly change the person's capability for crime. It is important
to fit all these factors into perspective when we do research about criminals and their mental
processes. This research paper will discuss about these factors to help understand what makes
certain people more prone to criminal tendencies.

2. Underlying psychiatric illness

Mental health plays a very big role in the wellbeing of an individual. If not properly
maintained, it can cause harm for both the individual and indirectly harm others. Psychiatric
illness should be kept under control using means available such as medication and therapy.
Even though in general6 the chances of a crime being directly linked to the symptoms of an
illness is quite low, statistics and studies show that some mental disorders can be linked to a
higher chance of crime being committed by the individual such as in the example of a case
study7 conducted on male patients suffering from Schizophrenia - "A total of 282
schizophrenia patients was divided into three subgroups (representing schizophreniform
disorder, acute schizophrenia, and chronic schizophrenia). The same number of control
subjects was drawn from the general population and matched with the patients for sex, age,
marital status, occupational level, and community size." The important result to conclude
from this study is the conclusion that the patients of the illness were 5 times more likely to
have committed violent crimes such as assault, 2.5 times more likely to have been convicted
of crimes against property, and almost 3 times more likely to have violated drug laws.
Another important finding from the study shows that “Criminality rates in schizophrenia
depended, however, not only on the type of offense but also on the type or stage of the
illness, which contributes to criminal behaviour to some extent independently of
sociodemographic factors." This is a very serious issue which helps us understand why
proper diagnosis, therapy, medication and regular or semi-regular monitoring and checkups
are required for people suffering from such psychiatric illnesses. Such therapy may help them
to feel emotionally stable and might reduce their criminal tendencies8.

5
Wikström, POH ; Treiber, K. (2016) Social Disadvantage and Crime: A Criminological Puzzle
6
Peterson, J; Kennealy, P; Skeem, J; Bray, B ; Zvonkovic, A. (2014) How Often and How Consistently do
Symptoms Directly Precede Criminal Behavior Among Offenders With Mental Illness?
7
Modestin, J ; Ammann, R. (1996) Mental Disorder and Criminality: Male Schizophrenia
8
Kirchner, L. (first ver. 2013) Treating mental illness prevents crime and saves us money
From this we understand that people with certain mental illnesses are more prone to have
criminal tendencies than the the people who do not have such illnesses.

3. Family background

Crime can very possibly run in the family depending on how children are brought up by
parents. To an extent the ideologies followed by the parent are the ones that most children
adopt in their life. Harmful ideologies are thus are passed on through generations. In this
paper, by family background, reference is made to children brought up in criminal
backgrounds and not to children who suffered neglect in their childhood. "Parents who are
abusive, neglectful, inconsistent, and psychologically disturbed are likely to have an adverse
impact on their offspring.  However, this is not to say that, invariably, their children become
perpetrators of heinous crimes. Fortunately, most boys and girls who suffer neglect and abuse
do not become criminals."9 However, we also have to take the case of severe childhood
trauma. It is statistically proven that people who are sexually or physically abused in their
childhood have a higher chance to commit crimes in their adulthood.10 In the case of children
who have criminal parents, they are exposed to the criminal lifestyle and the criminal
mentality, that too during formative years. Taking data based on the United States, it was
found in a study11 that children of incarcerated parents on an average are 6 times more likely
to face incarceration themselves. Aggression is also dangerous and needs to be curbed. It was
found in another study12 that 20% of boys whose parents were incarcerated had become more
aggressive in behaviour. These children might have faced lots of stress as a cause of their
parents' actions. This stress can be very harmful for the children in the future. Increased
antisocial behaviour including criminal activity is also found in children with incarcerated
parents13.

We can see from these studies that parents or parental figures definitely play a huge role in
shaping a person's tendencies towards crimes.

4. Living conditions, social conditions and the environment

9
Samenow, S. (2016) Parents Don't Turn Children Into Criminals
10
Spatz Widom, C. (1995) Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse– Later Criminal Consequences
11
Cox, M. (2009) The Relationships Between Episodes of Parental Incarceration and Students' Psycho-Social
and Educational Outcomes: An Analysis of Risk Factors
12
Dyer, W. (2009) Investigating the Various Ways Parental Incarceration Affects Children: An Application of
Mixture Regression
13
Murray, J ; Farrington, D ; Sekol, I. (2012) Children's Antisocial Behavior, Mental Health, Drug Use, and
Educational Performance After Parental Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Living and social conditions of an individual and the environment in which a person lives and
grows also attribute to shaping and altering a person's behaviour and attitude towards various
situations faced by them in their daily life.

4.1) Broken Windows - Broken Windows14 was a very controversial theory introduced in
1982 which had a good amount of influence on the way police viewed crime and also
influenced the criminal tendency prediction method of the time. The theory states that a calm
neighbourhood will result in calmer citizens living there. Similarly, disturbing or unpleasant
visual imagery in the neighbourhood would cause a rise in stress for everyone living there.
This applies mainly to crime and antisocial behaviour. For the theory to apply, the citizens of
the neighbourhood should be able to see the anti social behaviour to be influenced by it.
Examples of the theory would be broken public utilities and graffiti on walls inducing the
idea that the area is not well monitored by the law. This gives the public the idea that criminal
enforcement is not strict in the area and encourages criminal activity. The theory gets its
name from frequent broken windows in a neighbourhood, another subliminal sign that there
is increased crime in the area.

Police Officers such as Bill Bratton15 implemented the theory in New York and saw a
substantial decrease in crime. At the time, the media was quick to praise the theory and its
application. This was though later subject to lots of controversy. This mainly arose to the fact
that other urban cities also saw a similar drop in crime. The NPR report on the topic states
"Harcourt points out that crime dropped not only in New York, but in many other cities
where nothing like broken windows policing was in place. In fact, crime even fell in parts of
the country where police departments were mired in corruption scandals and largely viewed
as dysfunctional, such as Los Angeles."16 This theory was soon used in a wrong manner soon
after Michael Bloomberg came into the chair of the Mayor of New York in 2002. Previous
misconceptions about this theory were still prevalent at that point of time and the police
thought it was a viable method to prevent criminal tendencies from increasing in the public
by supervising people extremely tightly so that they don't cause public disturbances. This led
to the system of stop-and-frisk which increased from 97,296 stops in 2002 to peaking at

14
Kelling, GL ; Wilson, JQ. (1982) Broken Windows The police and neighborhood safety. The Atlantic
15
Kennedy, B. (2016) Broken Windows and Bill Bratton. The Contemporary
16
Vedantam, S ; Benderev, C ; Boyle, T ; Klahr, R ; Penman, M ; Schmidt, J. (2016) How A Theory Of Crime
And Policing Was Born, And Went Terribly Wrong. NPR
685,724 stops in 2011.17 This was very problematic as it increased the mistrust between the
public and the police to a great extent.18

Today the theory although disproven to an extent, played an important role in understanding
the methods used by the NY police to try and curb crimes in the 90s and how those methods
influenced the stop-and-frisk system that was in place prominently from 2002 to 2013. This
system was a failed method by the NY police to try find criminal tendencies in people and
reduce them.

4.2) Situational Action Theory - The Situational Action Theory by Prof. Per-Olof H.
Wikström is a method to explain and view crimes on the basis of the environmental factors
around a person and tries to analyse crime as moral factors.19 This can be used to explain a
person's tendency to commit crimes in the viewpoint of living conditions, social conditions
and environment.

20

One of Prof. Wikström's and his colleague's writings21 answer the question on how social
conditions, environment and living conditions affect the person using the SAT. They explain
that a person who lives disadvantaged living conditions is more prone to facing situations
where the person's morality is worsened and is exposed to an environment where the law is
not usually enforced as well as compared to a better off environment. The relation of this to
higher crime rate can be understood through the risk aversion theory22. Such an environment
where morality is already worsened ties in with the law being less enforced gives us people
who'll take the risk since there is a lesser chance for punishment. This is a situation that is
present all over the world, in both developing and developed countries. An example from
India would be the recent case of a poor 16 year old boy who stole money to feed his family
but got caught in Nalanda, Bihar - The boy's family had not eaten for days. Fortunately he

17
Dunn, C ; Shames, M. (2019) Stop-and-Frisk in the de Blasio Era.
18
Fratello, J ; Rengifo, AF ; Trone, J. (2013) Coming of Age with Stop and Frisk
19
Wikström, POH. (2014) Why crime happens: A situational action theory
20
Wikström, POH. ; Mann, RP ; Hardie, B. (2017) Young people’s differential vulnerability to criminogenic
exposure: Bridging the gap between people- and placeoriented approaches in the study of crime causation
21
Wikström, POH ; Treiber, K. (2016) Social Disadvantage and Crime: A Criminological Puzzle
22
Kahneman, D ; Tversky, A. (1984) Choices, Values and Frames. American Psychologist
was aided by the court and his family was provided food and clothes. The boy told the court "
I used to earn money by working at local restaurants, dhabas or somebody's house. But the
lockdown left no means of earning and my family was on the brink of starvation, which
prompted me to commit the crime."23 Although in such a situation we cannot check if the boy
was affected by other factors, we definitely can conclude that he did the crime affected by the
environment and living conditions (lack of money with no other methods to gain it in the
individual's view). We can say that there is a very good chance the boy would have not
committed the crime unless he was put in such a situation or a similar one.

From this we can understand that living Conditions, social conditions and environmental
factors all play an important role in determining criminal tendencies of an individual. All
three are directly proportional to a person's criminal tendency. We also have to keep in mind
the fact for most people all three factors are out off their control to a certain extent.

4.3) Twin Studies

Identical kinds of twin studies are particularly very important to the method of studying
criminal tendencies. We very much need more of them to further research on this topic. Since
identical twins have incredible genetic similarities, we can test the influence of many
different external factors which will generally have a profound impact on the person's life in
either way, positive or negative. This greatly helps us to further increase our understanding of
how genetics play a role in a person's outlook towards life which in turn will tell us about a
person's criminal tendencies. Both existing types of twins however are not a fairly equal in
genetic similarity to put this into test accurately. There are two types of twins - MZ
(Monozygotic) and DZ (Dizygotic). In the case of monozygotic twins, the twins are formed
from a single embryo which splits into two after conception.24 In this case there is extremely
beneficial genetic similarity between both the twins in most cases which is very good for
conducting research on tendencies as it will limit the genetic aspect of such tendencies and
will allow researchers to get more accurate results in terms of other factors such as
environmental, social and living conditions. The minor differences (if any) between the twins
in the case of MZ twins usually arise from non genetic factors such as womb conditions. For
example, if one of the children receive lesser or more nutrition than the other twin, then there
is a possibility that that child may grow slightly taller or shorter than the other twin

23
Ramashankar. (2020) Bihar: Held for stealing, minor boy gets court’s generous aid. Times Of India, Apr 19
2424
Cummings, MR. (1962) Human Heredity Principles and issues
depending on whether the child in foetal stage got more or less nutrition than the other twin.25
In the case of DZ twins, we can only hope for up to 50% similarity since there are two sperms
separately fertilizing two different ova producing the twins so the babies are born from two
different embryos. Thus the right approach has to be followed that is the approach where we
compare identical twins for maximum accuracy, which is comparing MZ twins.

It is also not right to account the studies about Twins-crime relations which are not passably
accurate such as the study by MJ Lyons26 where the study does not take into account the fact
that the individuals tend to lie on certain topics unless they are interviewed anonymously.

Unfortunately, even though there are around 10 studies conducted on similar topics, there
aren't any perfectly accurate MZ twin studies studying criminal activity that uses up-to-date
methods for studying environmental, social or living conditions so findings can't fully be
confirmed on the topic. This is because the few existing studies on similar topics are all
flawed to different extents. Some of them have inaccuracies that build up and some of them
were done using outdated methods or using inaccurate methods like Lyons who was
mentioned above. This is why these are needed. We need more of them so that we can
confirm the already existing ideas we have on the topic.

4.4) Peer Pressure

It is indeed true that bad company can do lots of harm to the person. According to a study,
"When peers become delinquent, the odds of individuals engaging in criminal activities
themselves multiply by 3.7"27 This clearly shows us that the influence of the company a
person keeps plays a huge role in determining a person's tendency towards crime.

This can be clearly illustrated with the tragic case of Latisha Frazier. The then 18 year old
woman was accused of stealing $900 from Johnnie Sweet. According to a report28 on the
issue, Johnnie persuaded others into beating Frazier. This case can be seen an accurate
example of a degree of peer influence in criminal tendency. It is to be noted that the during
the prosecution process, it was stated that one of the people charged with involvement in the
murder, Lanee Bell was capable of influencing the main criminals to stop the attack but still

25
FAQ (latest ver. 2020) Are identical twins 100% genetically identical? University of Miami Health System
26
Lyons, MJ. (1996) A Twin Study of Self-Reported Criminal Behaviour
27
Rokven, JJ ; Boer, G ; Tolsma, J ; Ruiter, S. (2016) How friends’ involvement in crime affects the risk of
offending and victimization
28
Ray, P. (2013) Beating Death of Latisha Frazier was ‘Like a Peer Pressure Thing,’ Witness Testifies.
Homicide Watch D.C.
didn't do it.29 Similarly, we must take into consideration that for each other person who was
influenced by Sweet's statements for attacking Frazier, there would have been a variety of
factors that played out which made them commit the attacks. But it is still clear that there was
definitely an influence from Sweet's words which induced the crime. The degree of influence
is however very easily debatable.

5. Genetic factors

Even though not heavily influenced by genes, there are several mental disorders and
conditions that have a genetic connection that increases the person's risk of obtaining them
such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The study30 that discusses this took into account
over 33,000 patients with one of the five disorders: autism, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, major depression and schizophrenia to 28,000 people without a diagnosis. All these
disorders seem to overlap to a certain extent and it is comparatively harder to distinguish
amongst them. The study suggests that all of their similar symptoms are indeed caused by
biological similarities as it was thought earlier. The study tells us about how certain
chromosomes (3 and 10) of the people with these disorders varies from the general public.
Similar studies31 have also shown a connection between two genes (MAOA and HTR2B) and
mental disorders but with the viewpoint of violence.

These studies are really useful as we can draw a link between criminal tendency and genetics
through mental disorders. These studies further our understanding about the human mind and
to what extent genetics influence our behaviour and actions.

6. Other biological factors

In recent years, there has been a lot of attention put into finding more conclusive evidence of
other biological factors that promote the tendency to commit crime.

6.1) ENA Theory

29
Ray, P. (2013) Lanee Bell Sentenced to Three Years for Latisha Frazier Murder, Jail Time Suspended.
Homicide Watch D.C.
30
Smoller, JW ; Neale, B ; Doyle A ; Palotie, A. (2013) Identification of Risk Loci With Shared Effects on Five
Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Genome-Wide Analysis. Lancet
31
Tiihonen, J., Rautiainen, M., Ollila, H. et al. Genetic background of extreme violent behavior. Mol Psychiatry
One of the theories that tried to find biological relations to crime was one put forward called
the Evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory32 which suggested explaining why in most
cases of rape crimes, the perpetrators are mostly always male. The theory suggested that
males are biologically more prone to commit such crimes. The theory states that males
victimize others due to elevated testosterone and androgen levels for the purpose of
competition with other males to the extent that they end up having a tendency to victimize
others. As of current developments in this field, this theory has been disproven so far. The
reason why Walsh and Hemmens33 explain the theory is false is that nearly all genes are
shared by both males and females. The only plausible way to try and prove the ENA theory is
by assuming that there is a criminal gene present in the Y chromosome that females do not
possess. Thus we can state that adequate research has not been done to conclude that the
ENA theory is plausible.

6.2) Relations to Neuromoral Circuit

There has also been research in the topic of antisocial behaviour being related to certain brain
activities. From a study34, connections were made between the PFC (part of the brain that
handles activities such as decision making and morality), amygdala (part of the brain that
handles activities such as facial and auditory expressions of emotions) The research states the
following :

"Within the brain, the PFC and amygdala have reciprocal connections, with the PFC often
conceptualized as monitoring and regulating amygdala activity (Gillespie, Brzozowski, &
Mitchell, 2018). Disruption of PFC-amygdala connectivity has been linked to increased
antisocial/criminal behaviour, typically thought to be due to the impaired top-down regulation
of amygdala functioning by the PFC." The model also explains how the neuromoral circuit in
the PFC part of the brain is responsible for proper moral decision making.

The significance of this research lies in the fact that if the research is accepted by judicial and
criminal systems, criminal responsibility could be reduced for individuals who have impaired
neuromoral circuits the people who don't have these would face difficulties making the right
choice in moral decision making situations which is required for proper lawful behaviour.

32
Eliis, L. (2005) A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality. European Journal of Criminology
33
Walsh, A ; Hemmens, C. (2008) Introduction to Criminology: A Text/Reader
34
Ling, S ; Umbach, R ; Raine, A. (2019) Biological explanations of criminal behavior
7. Conclusion

All the cases and findings mentioned above have strongly pointed towards the fact that there
are lots of factors that decide a person's inclination towards crime. In fact there is so much we
possibly couldn't have discovered yet about the human mind's working and what affects our
personality, behaviour and attitude. In the future, we may be able to predict crimes before
they happen. This is already happening in certain places to an extent. The Norwegian
government collects a massive amount of information to predict if a child will commit a
crime before their 18th birthday. They do this by compiling information on an individual
including even by connecting information from parents into a report called the "identification
file". 35

In essence we can conclude that predicting criminal tendencies in humans is undoubtedly a

topic that we need to discover more about as it paves a path for a good crime prevention
method.

7.1) Suggestions

There are a few things that can be done to substantially increase understanding on criminal
tendency in people.

More MZ Twin case studies have to be conducted where the twins grow up in different
environments. It is very unfortunate that all the nearly 10 studies that have been done on the
topic are flawed to some extent as mentioned in the research paper. A proper case study has
to be conducted using the latest understanding in the scenario of separated twins to see the
impact of non genetic and non biological factors such as environment, social conditions and
living conditions on the criminal tendencies of the twins.

Other than this, more studies have to be put into what the ENA theory tried to establish.
Although the theory has been proven to be flawed, it puts forward the interesting topic of
men being the perpetrators of rape related crimes in most cases. There is surely more to it that
we have yet to discover.

Dräger, J ; Eiselt, RM. (2020) We Humans and the Intelligent Machines: How algorithms shape our lives and
35

how we can make good use of them

References and Citations

Butterfield, F. (2018) In My Father's House: A New View of How Crime Runs in the Family
2
Ghiasi, N; Azhar, Y; Singh, J. (2020) Psychiatric Illness And Criminality
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537064/
3
Smoller, JW ; Neale, B ; Doyle A ; Palotie, A. (2013) Identification of Risk Loci With
Shared Effects on Five Major Psychiatric Disorders: A Genome-Wide Analysis. Lancet
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)62129-1/fulltext
4
van Dijk, M., Kleemans, E. & Eichelsheim, V. (2019) Children of Organized Crime
Offenders: Like Father, Like Child? An Explorative and Qualitative Study Into Mechanisms
of Intergenerational (Dis)Continuity in Organized Crime Families.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10610-018-9381-6
5
Wikström, POH ; Treiber, K. (2016) Social Disadvantage and Crime: A Criminological
Puzzle
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4962323/
6
Peterson, J; Kennealy, P; Skeem, J; Bray, B ; Zvonkovic, A. (2014) How Often and How
Consistently do Symptoms Directly Precede Criminal Behavior Among Offenders With
Mental Illness?
https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/lhb-0000075.pdf
7
Modestin, J ; Ammann, R. (1996) Mental Disorder and Criminality: Male Schizophrenia

https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-pdf/22/1/69/5412188/22-1-69.pdf

8
Kirchner, L. (first ver. 2013) Treating mental illness prevents crime and saves us money

https://psmag.com/social-justice/treating-mental-illness-prevents-crime-and-saves-us-money-60236

9
Samenow, S. (2016) Parents Don't Turn Children Into Criminals
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/inside-the-criminal-mind/201602/parents-dont-turn-children-
criminals#:~:text=Fortunately%2C%20most%20boys%20and%20girls,can%20and%20usually%20do%20fail.
10
Spatz Widom, C. (1995) Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse– Later Criminal
Consequences
https://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/abuse.txt
1
Cox, M. (2009) The Relationships Between Episodes of Parental Incarceration and Students'
Psycho-Social and Educational Outcomes: An Analysis of Risk Factors
https://digital.library.temple.edu/digital/api/collection/p245801coll10/id/45778/download
2
Dyer, W. (2009) Investigating the Various Ways Parental Incarceration Affects Children: An
Application of Mixture Regression

13
Murray, J ; Farrington, D ; Sekol, I. (2012) Children's Antisocial Behavior, Mental Health,
Drug Use, and Educational Performance After Parental Incarceration: A Systematic Review
and Meta-Analysis

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3283435/

14
Kelling, GL ; Wilson, JQ. (1982) Broken Windows The police and neighborhood safety.
The Atlantic
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465/
15
Kennedy, B. (2016) Broken Windows and Bill Bratton. The Contemporary

https://thecontemporarygroup.com/2016/09/30/broken-windows-and-bill-bratton/

16
Vedantam, S ; Benderev, C ; Boyle, T ; Klahr, R ; Penman, M ; Schmidt, J. (2016) How A
Theory Of Crime And Policing Was Born, And Went Terribly Wrong. NPR
https://www.npr.org/2017/05/29/530192364/how-a-theory-of-crime-and-policing-was-born-and-went-
terribly-wrong
17
Dunn, C ; Shames, M. (2019) Stop-and-Frisk in the de Blasio Era.
https://www.nyclu.org/sites/default/files/field_documents/20190314_nyclu_stopfrisk_singles.pdf
18
Fratello, J ; Rengifo, AF ; Trone, J. (2013) Coming of Age with Stop and Frisk. Vera
https://www.vera.org/publications/coming-of-age-with-stop-and-frisk-experiences-self-perceptions-and-
public-safety-implications
19
Wikström, POH. (2014) Why crime happens: A situational action theory
http://www.ssp-samraadet.dk/media/1378/why-crime-happens.pdf
20
Wikström, POH. ; Mann, RP ; Hardie, B. (2017) Young people’s differential vulnerability
to criminogenic exposure: Bridging the gap between people- and placeoriented approaches in
the study of crime causation
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1477370817732477
21
Wikström, POH ; Treiber, K. (2016) Social Disadvantage and Crime: A Criminological
Puzzle

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0002764216643134#:~:text=Drawing%20on
%20situational%20action%20theory,self%2Dselection%20place%20the%20former

22
Kahneman, D ; Tversky, A. (1984) Choices, Values and Frames. American Psychologist
http://web.missouri.edu/~segerti/capstone/choicesvalues.pdf
23
Ramashankar. (2020) Bihar: Held for stealing, minor boy gets court’s generous aid. Times
Of India, Apr 19

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/held-for-stealing-minor-boy-gets-courts-generous-
aid/articleshow/75226744.cms

24
Cummings, MR. (1962) Human Heredity Principles and issues
25
FAQ (latest ver. 2020) Are identical twins 100% genetically identical? University of Miami
Health System
http://gap.med.miami.edu/learn-about-genetics/have-questions-about-genetics/are-identical-twins-100-
genetically-identical
26
Lyons, MJ. (1996) A Twin Study of Self-Reported Criminal Behaviour

27
Rokven, JJ ; Boer, G ; Tolsma, J ; Ruiter, S. (2016) How friends’ involvement in crime
affects the risk of offending and victimization
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1477370816684150
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