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seventh edition
psychology
themes
variations
Wayne Weiten
7th E D I T I O N
Psychology
Themes and Variations
Wayne Weiten
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
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Psychology: Themes and Variations, Seventh Edition

Wayne Weiten
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2005930919
Student Edition: ISBN 0-495-09303-3
Loose-leaf Edition: ISBN 0-495-17040-2
Beth,
This one is for you
About the Author
WAYNE WEITEN is a graduate of Bradley University tion in Psychology and in 1996–1997 he served as
and received his Ph.D. in social psychology from the President of the Society for the Teaching of Psychol-
University of Illinois, Chicago in 1981. He currently ogy. Weiten has conducted research on a wide range
teaches at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He of topics, including educational measurement, jury
has received distinguished teaching awards from Di- decision making, attribution theory, stress, and cere-
vision Two of the American Psychological Associa- bral specialization. His recent interests have included
tion (APA) and from the College of DuPage, where pressure as a form of stress and the technology of
he taught until 1991. He is a Fellow of Divisions 1 textbooks. He is also the co-author of Psychology Ap-
and 2 of the American Psychological Association. In plied to Modern Life (Wadsworth, 2006) and the crea-
1991, he helped chair the APA National Conference tor of an educational CD-ROM titled PsykTrek: A Multi-
on Enhancing the Quality of Undergraduate Educa- media Introduction to Psychology.
iv ABOUT THE AUTHOR

To the Instructor
If I had to sum up in a single sentence what I hope their common core by accenting their connections
will distinguish this text, that sentence would be and similarities. Consequently, I portray psychology
this: I have set out to create a paradox instead of a as an integrated whole rather than as a mosaic of
compromise. loosely related parts. A principal goal of this text,
Let me elaborate. An introductory psychology text then, is to highlight the unity in psychology’s intel-
must satisfy two disparate audiences: professors and lectual heritage (the themes), as well as the diversity
students. Because of the tension between the divergent of psychology’s interests and uses (the variations).
needs and preferences of these audiences, textbook 2. To illuminate the process of research and its inti-
authors usually indicate that they have attempted to mate link to application. For me, a research-oriented
strike a compromise between being theoretical ver- book is not one that bulges with summaries of many
sus practical, comprehensive versus comprehensible, studies but one that enhances students’ appreciation
research oriented versus applied, rigorous versus ac- of the logic and excitement of empirical inquiry. I
cessible, and so forth. However, I believe that many want students to appreciate the strengths of the em-
of these dichotomies are false. As Kurt Lewin once re- pirical approach and to see scientific psychology as a
marked, “What could be more practical than a good creative effort to solve intriguing behavioral puzzles.
theory?” Similarly, is rigorous really the opposite of ac- For this reason, the text emphasizes not only what
cessible? Not in my dictionary. I maintain that many psychologists know (and don’t know) but how they
of the antagonistic goals that we strive for in our attempt to find out. The book examines methods in
textbooks only seem incompatible and that we may some detail and encourages students to adopt the
not need to make compromises as often as we assume. skeptical attitude of a scientist and to think critically
In my estimation, a good introductory textbook about claims regarding behavior.
is a paradox in that it integrates characteristics and Learning the virtues of research should not mean
goals that appear contradictory. With this in mind, I that students cannot also satisfy their desire for con-
have endeavored to write a text that is paradoxical crete, personally useful information about the chal-
in three ways. First, in surveying psychology’s broad lenges of everyday life. Most researchers believe that
range of content, I have tried to show that its inter- psychology has a great deal to offer those outside the
ests are characterized by both diversity and unity. field and that we should share the practical implica-
Second, I have emphasized both research and appli- tions of our work. In this text, practical insights are
cation and how they work in harmony. Finally, I have carefully qualified and closely tied to data, so that
aspired to write a book that is challenging to think students can see the interdependence of research and
about and easy to learn from. Let’s take a closer look application. I find that students come to appreciate
at these goals. the science of psychology more when they see that
worthwhile practical applications are derived from
Goals careful research and sound theory.
3. To make the text challenging to think about and
1. To show both the unity and the diversity of psy- easy to learn from. Perhaps most of all, I have sought
chology’s subject matter. Students entering an intro- to create a book of ideas rather than a compendium
ductory psychology course are often unaware of the of studies. I consistently emphasize concepts and the-
immense diversity of subjects studied by psycholo- ories over facts, and I focus on major issues and tough
gists. I find this diversity to be part of psychology’s questions that cut across the subfields of psychology
charm, and throughout the book I highlight the enor- (for example, the extent to which behavior is gov-
mous range of questions and issues addressed by psy- erned by nature, nurture, and their interaction), as
chology. Of course, psychology’s diversity proves dis- opposed to parochial debates (such as the merits of
concerting for some students who see little continuity averaging versus adding in impression formation).
between such disparate areas of research as physiol- Challenging students to think also means urging them
ogy, motivation, cognition, and abnormal behavior. to confront the complexity and ambiguity of psy-
Indeed, in this era of specialization, even some psychological knowledge. Hence, the text doesn’t skirt
chologists express concern about the fragmentation around gray areas, unresolved questions, and theo-
of the field. retical controversies. Instead, it encourages readers
However, I believe that the subfields of psychology to contemplate open-ended questions, to examine
overlap considerably and that we should emphasize their assumptions about behavior, and to apply psy-
TO THE INSTRUCTOR v
chological concepts to their own lives. My goal is not titude and to engage in more critical thinking about
simply to describe psychology but to stimulate stu- information of all kinds.
dents’ intellectual growth.
However, students can grapple with “the big issues Theme 2: Psychology is theoretically diverse.
and tough questions” only if they first master the Students are often confused by psychology’s theoret-
basic concepts and principles of psychology—ideally, ical pluralism and view it as a weakness. I don’t down-
with as little struggle as possible. I never let myself play or apologize for the field’s theoretical diversity,
forget that a textbook is a teaching tool. Accordingly, because I honestly believe that it is one of psychol-
great care has been taken to ensure that the book’s ogy’s greatest strengths. Throughout the book, I pro-
content, organization, writing, illustrations, and peda- vide concrete examples of how clashing theories have
gogical aids work in harmony to facilitate instruction stimulated productive research, how converging on
and learning. a question from several perspectives can yield in-
Admittedly, these goals are ambitious. If you’re creased understanding, and how competing theories
skeptical, you have every right to be. Let me ex- are sometimes reconciled in the end.
plain how I have tried to realize the objectives I have
outlined. Theme 3: Psychology evolves in a sociohistori-
cal context. This theme emphasizes that psychol-
Special Features ogy is embedded in the ebb and flow of everyday life.
The text shows how the spirit of the times has often
A variety of unusual features each contributes in its shaped psychology’s evolution and how progress in
own way to the book’s paradoxical nature. These spe- psychology leaves its mark on our society.
cial elements include unifying themes, Featured Stud-
ies, Personal Application sections, Critical Thinking THEMES RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGY’S SUBJECT
Application sections, a didactic illustration program, MATTER
Web Links and other Internet-related features, an in- Theme 4: Behavior is determined by multiple
tegrated running glossary, Concept Checks, Preview causes. Throughout the book, I emphasize, and re-
Questions, interim Reviews of Key Points, and Prac- peatedly illustrate, that behavioral processes are com-
tice Tests. plex and that multifactorial causation is the rule. This
theme is used to discourage simplistic, single-cause
Unifying Themes thinking and to encourage more critical reasoning.
Chapter 1 introduces seven key ideas that serve as uni-
fying themes throughout the text. The themes serve Theme 5: Behavior is shaped by cultural her-
several purposes. First, they provide threads of conti- itage. This theme is intended to enhance students’
nuity across chapters that help students see the con- appreciation of how cultural factors moderate psy-
nections among various areas of research in psychol- chological processes and how the viewpoint of one’s
ogy. Second, as the themes evolve over the course of own culture can distort one’s interpretation of the be-
the book, they provide a forum for a relatively sophis- havior of people from other cultures. The discussions
ticated discussion of enduring issues in psychology, that elaborate on this theme do not simply celebrate
thus helping to make this a “book of ideas.” Third, diversity. They strike a careful balance—that accu-
the themes focus a spotlight on a number of basic in- rately reflects the research in this area—highlighting
sights about psychology and its subject matter that both cultural variations and similarities in behavior.
should leave lasting impressions on your students.
In selecting the themes, the question I asked myself Theme 6: Heredity and environment jointly in-
(and other professors) was “What do I really want fluence behavior. Repeatedly discussing this theme
students to remember five years from now?” The re- permits me to air out the nature versus nurture issue
sulting themes are grouped into two sets. in all its complexity. Over a series of chapters, stu-
dents gradually learn how biology shapes behavior,
THEMES RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGY AS A FIELD how experience shapes behavior, and how scientists
OF STUDY estimate the relative importance of each. Along the
Theme 1: Psychology is empirical. This theme is way, students will gain an in-depth appreciation of
used to enhance the student’s appreciation of psy- what we mean when we say that heredity and envi-
chology’s scientific nature and to demonstrate the ronment interact.
advantages of empiricism over uncritical common
sense and speculation. I also use this theme to en- Theme 7: People’s experience of the world is
courage the reader to adopt a scientist’s skeptical at- highly subjective. All of us tend to forget the ex-
vi TO THE INSTRUCTOR
Unifying Themes Highlighted in Each Chapter

THEME
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Theoretical Sociohistorical Multifactorial Cultural Heredity and Subjectivity of
Chapter Empiricism Diversity Context Causation Heritage Environment Experience
1. The Evolution of
Psychology
2. The Research Enterprise

in Psychology
3. The Biological Bases

of Behavior
4. Sensation and
Perception
5. Variations in
Consciousness
6. Learning
7. Human Memory
8. Language and Thought
9. Intelligence and
Psychological Testing
10. Motivation and Emotion
11. Human Development

Across the Life Span
12. Personality: Theory,

Research, and Assessment
13. Stress, Coping, and Health
14. Psychological Disorders
15. Treatment of Psychological

Disorders
16. Social Behavior
tent to which people view the world through their I have not tried to make every chapter illustrate a
own personal lenses. This theme is used to explain certain number of themes. Rather, the themes were
the principles that underlie the subjectivity of human allowed to emerge naturally, and I found that two
experience, to clarify its implications, and to repeat- to five surfaced in any given chapter. The above
edly remind the readers that their view of the world chart shows which themes are highlighted in each
is not the only legitimate view. chapter. Color-coded icons near the beginning of
each “Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes” section
After introducing all seven themes in Chapter 1, indicate the specific themes featured in each chapter.
I discuss different sets of themes in each chapter, as
they are relevant to the subject matter. The connec- Featured Studies
tions between a chapter’s content and the unifying Each chapter except the first includes a Featured
themes are highlighted in a standard section near the Study that provides a relatively detailed but succinct
end of the chapter, in which I reflect on the “lessons summary of a particular piece of research. Each Fea-
to be learned” from the chapter. The discussions of tured Study is presented in the conventional purpose-
the unifying themes are largely confined to these sec- method-results-discussion format seen in journal ar-
tions, titled “Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes.” ticles, followed by a comment in which I discuss why
TO THE INSTRUCTOR vii

the study is featured (to illustrate a specific method, with cumulative and conjunctive probabilities.
raise ethical issues, and so forth). By showing research The specific skills discussed in the Critical Think-
methods in action, I hope to improve students’ un- ing Applications are listed in the accompanying
derstanding of how research is done while also giv- table on the next page, where they are organized
ing them a painless introduction to the basic format into five categories using a taxonomy developed by
of journal articles. Additionally, the Featured Studies Halpern (1994). In each chapter, some of these skills
show how complicated research can be, so students are applied to topics and issues related to the chap-
can better appreciate why scientists may disagree ter’s content. For instance, in the chapter that covers
about the meaning of a study. The Featured Studies drug abuse (Chapter 5), the concept of alcoholism is
are fully incorporated into the flow of discourse in used to highlight the immense power of definitions
the text and are not presented as optional boxes. and to illustrate how circular reasoning can seem so
In selecting the Featured Studies, I assembled a seductive. Skills that are particularly important may
mixture of classic and recent studies that illustrate a surface in more than one chapter, so students see
wide variety of methods. To make them enticing, I them applied in a variety of contexts. For example,
tilted my selections in favor of those that students in Chapter 7 students learn how hindsight bias can
find interesting. Thus, readers will encounter explo- contaminate memory, while in Chapter 12 they see
rations of sleep deprivation among college students, how hindsight can distort analyses of personality. Re-
the neuroanatomy of sexual arousal, and gender dif- peated practice across chapters should help students
ferences in mating priorities. This edition includes to spontaneously recognize the relevance of specific
six new Featured Studies. critical thinking skills when they encounter certain
types of information. The skills approach taken to
Personal Applications critical thinking and the content it has spawned are
To reinforce the pragmatic implications of theory and unprecedented for an introductory psychology text.
research stressed throughout the text, each chapter
closes with a Personal Application section that high- A Didactic Illustration Program
lights the practical side of psychology. Each Personal When I first outlined my plans for this text, I indi-
Application devotes two to five pages of text (rather cated that I wanted every aspect of the illustration
than the usual box) to a single issue that should be of program to have a genuine didactic purpose and that
special interest to many of your students. Although I wanted to be deeply involved in its development.
most of the Personal Application sections have a “how In retrospect, I had no idea what I was getting my-
to” character, they continue to review studies and self into, but it has been a rewarding learning experi-
summarize data in much the same way as the main ence. In any event, I have been intimately involved
body of each chapter. Thus, they portray research in planning every detail of the illustration program.
and application not as incompatible polarities but as I have endeavored to create a program of figures, dia-
two sides of the same coin. Many of the Personal Ap- grams, photos, and tables that work hand in hand
plications—such as those on finding and reading with the prose to strengthen and clarify the main
journal articles, understanding art and illusion, and points in the text.
improving stress management—provide topical cov- The most obvious results of this didactic approach
erage unusual for an introductory text. to illustration are the six Illustrated Overviews that
combine tabular information, photos, diagrams, and
Critical Thinking Applications sketches to provide well-organized reviews of key
A great deal of unusual coverage can also be found ideas in the areas of history, learning, development,
in the Critical Thinking Applications that follow the personality theory, psychopathology, and psycho-
Personal Applications. Conceived by Diane Halpern therapy. But I hope you will also notice the subtleties
(Claremont McKenna College), a leading authority of the illustration program. For instance, diagrams
on critical thinking, these applications are based on of important concepts (conditioning, synaptic trans-
the assumption that critical thinking skills can be mission, experimental design, and so forth) are often
taught. They do not simply review research critically, repeated in several chapters (with variations) to high-
as is typically the case in other introductory texts. light connections among research areas and to en-
Instead, they introduce and model a host of critical hance students’ mastery of key ideas. Numerous easy-
thinking skills, such as looking for contradictory evi- to-understand graphs of research results underscore
dence or alternative explanations; recognizing anec- psychology’s foundation in research, and photos and
dotal evidence, circular reasoning, hindsight bias, diagrams often bolster each other (for example, see
reification, weak analogies, and false dichotomies; the treatment of classical conditioning in Chapter 6).
evaluating arguments systematically; and working Color is used carefully as an organizational device,
viii TO THE INSTRUCTOR

Taxonomy of Skills Covered in the Critical Thinking Applications
Verbal Reasoning Skills
Understanding the way definitions shape how people think about issues Chapter 5
Identifying the source of definitions Chapter 5
Avoiding the nominal fallacy in working with definitions and labels Chapter 5
Understanding the way language can influence thought Chapter 8
Recognizing semantic slanting Chapter 8
Recognizing name calling and anticipatory name calling Chapter 8
Recognizing and avoiding reification Chapter 9
Argument/Persuasion Analysis Skills
Understanding the elements of an argument Chapter 10
Recognizing and avoiding common fallacies, such as irrelevant reasons, Chapters 10 and 11
circular reasoning, slippery slope reasoning, weak analogies, and false dichotomies
Evaluating arguments systematically Chapter 10
Recognizing and avoiding appeals to ignorance Chapter 9
Understanding how Pavlovian conditioning can be used to manipulate emotions Chapter 6
Developing the ability to detect conditioning procedures used in the media Chapter 6
Recognizing social influence strategies Chapter 16
Judging the credibility of an information source Chapter 16
Skills in Thinking as Hypothesis Testing
Looking for alternative explanations for findings and events Chapters 1, 9, and 11
Looking for contradictory evidence Chapters 1, 3, and 9
Recognizing the limitations of anecdotal evidence Chapters 2 and 15
Understanding the need to seek disconfirming evidence Chapter 7
Understanding the limitations of correlational evidence Chapters 11 and 13
Understanding the limitations of statistical significance Chapter 13
Recognizing situations in which placebo effects might occur Chapter 15
Skills in Working with Likelihood and Uncertainty
Utilizing base rates in making predictions and evaluating probabilities Chapter 13
Understanding cumulative probabilities Chapter 14
Understanding conjunctive probabilities Chapter 14
Understanding the limitations of the representativeness heuristic Chapter 14
Understanding the limitations of the availability heuristic Chapter 14
Recognizing situations in which regression toward the mean may occur Chapter 15
Understanding the limits of extrapolation Chapter 3
Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills
Using evidence-based decision making Chapter 2
Recognizing the bias in hindsight analysis Chapters 7 and 12
Seeking information to reduce uncertainty Chapter 13
Making risk-benefit assessments Chapter 13
Generating and evaluating alternative courses of action Chapter 13
Recognizing overconfidence in human cognition Chapter 7
Understanding the limitations and fallibility of human memory Chapter 7
Understanding how contrast effects can influence judgments and decisions Chapter 4
Recognizing when extreme comparitors are being used Chapter 4
TO THE INSTRUCTOR ix
and visual schematics are used to simplify hard-to- sible. However, the approach does so without inter-
visualize concepts (for example, see the figure ex- rupting the flow of discourse, while eliminating re-
plaining reaction range for intelligence in Chapter 9). dundancy between text matter and marginal entries.
And in this edition we have strived to enhance the
realism and pedagogical value of our drawings of the Concept Checks
brain and other physiology. All of these efforts have To help students assess their mastery of important
gone toward the service of one master: the desire to ideas, Concept Checks are sprinkled throughout the
make this an inviting book that is easy to learn from. book (two to four per chapter). In keeping with my
goal of making this a book of ideas, the Concept
Internet-Related Features Checks challenge students to apply ideas instead of
The Internet is rapidly altering the landscape of mod- testing rote memory. For example, in Chapter 6 the
ern life, and students clearly need help dealing with reader is asked to analyze realistic examples of con-
the information explosion in cyberspace. To assist ditioning and identify conditioned stimuli and re-
them, this text has two features. First, I recruited web sponses, reinforcers, and schedules of reinforcement.
expert Vincent Hevern (Le Moyne College), formerly Many of the Concept Checks require the reader to
the Internet Editor for the Society for the Teaching put together ideas introduced in different sections of
of Psychology, to write an essay on how to critically the chapter. For instance, in Chapter 2 students are
evaluate websites and online resource materials. His asked to look for various types of deficiencies in hypo-
highly informative essay is found in the back of the thetical studies, and in Chapter 4 students are asked
book in Appendix E. Given the highly variable qual- to identify parallels between vision and hearing.
ity and frequently questionable validity of much of Some of the Concept Checks are quite challenging,
the information on the web, I think this will be a val- but students find them engaging, and they report
uable resource for students. Second, I also asked Pro- that the answers (available in Appendix A) are often
fessor Hevern to evaluate hundreds of psychology- illuminating.
related sites on the web and come up with some
recommended sites that appear to provide reason- Preview Questions and
ably accurate, balanced, and empirically sound in- Reviews of Key Points
formation. Short descriptions of these recommended To help students organize and remember important
websites (called Web Links) are dispersed through- ideas, each chapter includes five to eight sets of Pre-
out the chapters, adjacent to related topical cover- view Questions and companion Reviews of Key Points.
age. Because URLs change frequently, we have not Generally speaking, the Preview Questions are found
placed the URLs for these Web Links in the book it- at the beginning of each major section in a chapter,
self. Insofar as students are interested in visiting these in the margin, adjacent to a level-one heading; the
sites, we recommend that they do so through the Psy- Reviews of Key Points are found at the end of each
chology: Themes & Variations home page at the Wads- major section, just before the next level-one heading.
worth website (http://psychology.wadsworth.com/ Of course, some exceptions to this rule-of-thumb had
weiten_themes7e). Links to all the recommended to be made to accommodate very long or very brief
sites are maintained there, and the Wadsworth Web- sections under level-one headings. The Preview Ques-
master periodically updates the URLs. Of course, stu- tions are short, thought-provoking learning objec-
dents can also use a search engine, such as Google, tives that should help students focus on the key is-
to locate recommended websites that interest them. sues in each section. Each Review of Key Points is an
interim summary that addresses the issues posed in
Integrated Running Glossary the preceding Preview Questions. Interspersing these
An introductory text should place great emphasis on reviews throughout the chapters permits students to
acquainting students with psychology’s technical check their understanding of each section’s main
language—not for the sake of jargon, but because a ideas immediately after finishing the section instead
great many of the key terms are also cornerstone con- of waiting until the end of the chapter. This approach
cepts (for example, independent variable, reliability, also allows students to work with more modest-sized
and cognitive dissonance). This text handles terminol- chunks of information.
ogy with a running glossary embedded in the prose
itself. The terms are set off in blue boldface italics, Practice Tests
and the definitions follow in blue boldface roman Each chapter ends with a 15-item multiple-choice
type. This approach retains the two advantages of a Practice Test that should give students a realistic as-
conventional running glossary: vocabulary items are sessment of their mastery of that chapter and valu-
made salient, and their definitions are readily acces- able practice taking the type of test that many of them
x TO THE INSTRUCTOR
will face in the classroom (if the instructor uses the evolved into its modern form and why misconcep-
Test Bank). This feature grew out of some research that tions about its nature are so common.
I conducted on students’ use of textbook pedagogi- I also devote an entire chapter (Chapter 2) to
cal devices (see Weiten, Guadagno, & Beck, 1996). the scientific enterprise—not just the mechanics of
This research indicated that students pay scant atten- research methods but the logic behind them. I be-
tion to some standard pedagogical devices. When I lieve that an appreciation of the nature of empirical
grilled my students to gain a better understanding of evidence can contribute greatly to improving stu-
this finding, it quickly became apparent that students dents’ critical thinking skills. Ten years from now,
are very pragmatic about pedagogy. Essentially, their many of the “facts” reported in this book will have
refrain was “We want study aids that will help us pass changed, but an understanding of the methods of
the next test.” With this mandate in mind, I devised science will remain invaluable. An introductory psy-
the Practice Tests. They should be very realistic, as I chology course, by itself, isn’t going to make a student
took most of the items from previous editions of the think like a scientist, but I can’t think of a better place
Test Bank (these items do not appear in the Test Bank to start the process. Essential statistical concepts are
for this edition). introduced in Chapter 2, but no effort is made to
In addition to the special features just described, teach actual calculations. For those who emphasize
the text includes a variety of more conventional, statistics, Appendix B expands on statistical concepts.
“tried and true” features. The back of the book con- Overall, I trust you’ll find the coverage up to date,
tains a standard alphabetical glossary. Opening out- although I do not believe in the common practice of
lines preview each chapter, and a thorough Recap of piling up gratuitous references to recent studies to
Key Ideas appears at the end of each chapter, along create an impression of currency. I think that an ob-
with lists of Key Terms (with page numbers indicat- session with this year’s references derogates our in-
ing where the terms were introduced) and Key People tellectual heritage and suggests to students that the
(important theorists and researchers). I make frequent studies we cite today will be written off tomorrow. I
use of italics for emphasis, and I depend on frequent often chose to cite an older source over a newer one
headings to maximize organizational clarity. The pref- to give students an accurate feel for when an idea first
ace for students describes these pedagogical devices surfaced or when an issue generated heated debate.
in more detail.
Changes in the
Content Seventh Edition
The text is divided into 16 chapters, which follow a A good textbook must evolve with the field of in-
traditional ordering. The chapters are not grouped quiry it covers. Although the professors and students
into sections or parts, primarily because such group- who used the first six editions of this book did not
ings can limit your options if you want to reorganize clamor for alterations, there are some changes. Per-
the order of topics. The chapters are written in a way haps the most noticeable is our systematic effort to
that facilitates organizational flexibility, as I always improve the drawings of neuroanatomy and physi-
assumed that some chapters might be omitted or pre- ology throughout the book. Over the course of the
sented in a different order. last several editions, as we added new neuroanatom-
The topical coverage in the text is relatively con- ical and physiological drawings from a variety of
ventional, but there are some subtle departures from sources, our illustrations gradually became less con-
the norm. For instance, Chapter 1 presents a relatively sistent in style than I wanted them to be. To remedy
“meaty” discussion of the evolution of ideas in psy- this problem, we secured the services of Fred Harwin,
chology. This coverage of history lays the foundation a superb medical illustrator, who redrew all the neuro-
for many of the crucial ideas emphasized in subse- anatomical and physiological graphics in a more
quent chapters. The historical perspective is also my consistent, more realistic, and strikingly beautiful
way of reaching out to the students who find that style. Fred has completely rerendered over 40 illus-
psychology just isn’t what they expected it to be. If trations. We have also added cartoons to the text for
we want students to contemplate the mysteries of the first time. I have wanted to do this for a while,
behavior, we must begin by clearing up the biggest but constraints on the length of an introductory text
mysteries of them all: “Where did these rats, statis- made it a tough decision. However, some subtle style
tics, synapses, and JNDs come from, what could they changes have allowed us to fit in two to five carefully
possibly have in common, and why doesn’t this selected cartoons in each chapter. My take on car-
course bear any resemblance to what I anticipated?” toons is that a little comic relief can help maintain
I use history as a vehicle to explain how psychology students’ interest. Moreover, some of the comics can
TO THE INSTRUCTOR xi
be surprisingly effective in reinforcing key points in This booklet contains a two-page Concept Chart for
the text. each chapter. Each Concept Chart provides a detailed
You will also find a variety of other changes in visual map of the key ideas found in the main body
this edition, including a new color treatment of the of that chapter. These color-coded, hierarchically or-
Integrated Running Glossary intended to make it ganized charts create snapshots of the chapters that
more salient to students and an enhancement of the should allow your students to quickly see the rela-
lists of Key Terms and Key People in the Reviews tionships among ideas and sections.
found near the end of each chapter, which now in-
clude the page numbers on which the key terms or PsykTrek: A Multimedia
key people were first introduced. Also new to this Introduction to Psychology
edition are the theme icons, found at the beginning
of each “Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes” sec- PsykTrek is a multimedia supplement that will pro-
tion. These icons should help to make the thematic vide students with new opportunities for active learn-
structure of the book more prominent. Yet another ing and reach out to “visual learners” with greatly
addition to this edition is the new Appendix D on increased efficacy. PsykTrek is intended to give stu-
careers in psychology. I have come to the conclusion dents a second pathway to learning much of the con-
that this is an overlooked topic that we should try to tent of introductory psychology. Although it does
address, at least briefly, in introductory courses. This not cover all of the content of the introductory
new appendix is written by Professor Marky Lloyd course, I think you will see that a great many key
(Georgia Southern University), who has maintained concepts and principles can be explicated more effec-
a widely lauded website on psychology careers for tively in an interactive audiovisual medium than in a
many years. textbook.
Of course, the book has been thoroughly updated PsykTrek consists of four components. The main
to reflect recent advances in the field. One of the component is a set of over 60 Interactive Learning Mod-
exciting things about psychology is that it is not a ules that present the core content of psychology in a
stagnant discipline. It continues to move forward at whole new way. These tutorials include thousands of
what seems a faster and faster pace. This progress has graphics, hundred of photos, hundreds of anima-
necessitated a host of specific content changes that tions, approximately four hours of narration, over
you’ll find sprinkled throughout the chapters. Of the 35 carefully selected videos, and about 160 uniquely
roughly 3000 references cited in the text, almost 1200 visual concept checks and quizzes. The Simulations
are new to this edition. allow students to explore complex psychological
phenomena in depth. They are highly interactive,
Writing Style experiential demonstrations that will enhance stu-
dents’ appreciation of research methods. The Multi-
I strive for a down-to-earth, conversational writing media Glossary allows students to look up over 800
style; effective communication is always the para- psychological terms, access hundreds of pronuncia-
mount goal. My intent is to talk with the reader rather tions of obscure words, and pull up hundreds of re-
than throw information at the reader. To clarify con- lated diagrams, photos, and videos. The Video Selector
cepts and maintain students’ interest, I frequently allows students to directly access the video segments
provide concrete examples that students can relate that are otherwise embedded in the Interactive Learn-
to. As much as possible, I avoid using technical jar- ing Modules.
gon when ordinary language serves just as well. The key strength of PsykTrek is its ability to give
Making learning easier depends, above all else, on students new opportunities for active learning out-
clear, well-organized writing. For this reason, I’ve side of the classroom. For example, students can run
worked hard to ensure that chapters, sections, and themselves through re-creations of classic experi-
paragraphs are organized in a logical manner, so that ments to see the complexities of data collection in
key ideas stand out in sharp relief against supportive action. Or they can play with visual illusions on screen
information. in ways that will make them doubt their own eyes.
Or they can stack color filters on screen to demon-
Concept Charts for strate the nature of subtractive color mixing. PsykTrek
Study and Review is intended to supplement and complement Psychol-
ogy: Themes & Variations. For instance, after reading
To help your students organize and assimilate the about operant conditioning in the text, a student
main ideas contained in the text, I have created a could work through three interactive tutorials on op-
unique supplement—a booklet of Concept Charts. erant principles, watch three videos (including his-
xii TO THE INSTRUCTOR

toric footage of B. F. Skinner shaping a rat), and then • Strategies for Effective Teaching, by Joseph Low-
try to shape Morphy, the virtual rat, in one of the man (University of North Carolina), discusses practi-
simulations. cal issues such as what to put in a course syllabus, how
to handle the first class meeting, how to cope with
Other Supplementary Materials large classes, and how to train and organize teaching
assistants.
The teaching/learning package that has been devel- • AV Media for Introductory Psychology, by Russell J.
oped to supplement Psychology: Themes and Variations Watson (College of DuPage), provides a comprehen-
also includes many other useful tools. The develop- sive, up-to-date, critical overview of educational films
ment of all its parts was carefully coordinated so that relevant to the introductory course.
they are mutually supported. Moreover, the materials • The Use of Computers in Teaching Introductory
have been created and written by highly experienced, Psychology, by Susan J. Shapiro (Indiana University–
top-flight professors I have worked hard to recruit. East), offers a thorough listing of computer materials
germane to the introductory course and analyzes
Study Guide (by Richard Stalling their strengths and weaknesses.
and Ronald Wasden) • Introducing Writing in Introductory Psychology, by
Dana Dunn (Moravian College), discusses how to
An exceptionally thorough Study Guide is available to
work toward enhancing students’ writing skills in
help your students master the information in the text.
the context of the introductory course and provides
It is written by two of my former professors, Richard
suggestions and materials for specific writing assign-
Stalling and Ronald Wasden of Bradley University.
ments chapter by chapter.
They have over 30 years of experience as a team writ-
• Crossing Borders/Contrasting Behaviors: Using
ing study guides for introductory psychology texts,
Cross-Cultural Comparisons to Enrich the Introductory
and their experience is readily apparent in the high-
Psychology Course, by Ginny Zahn, Bill Hill, and Mi-
quality materials that they have developed.
chael Reiner (Kennesaw State University), discusses
The review of key ideas for each chapter is made
the movement toward “internationalizing” the cur-
up of an engaging mixture of matching exercises, fill-
riculum and provides suggestions for lectures, exer-
in-the-blank items, free-response questions, and pro-
cises, and assignments that can add a cross-cultural
grammed learning. Each review is organized around
flavor to the introductory course.
learning objectives written by me. The Study Guide is
• Teaching Introductory Psychology with the World
closely coordinated with the Test Bank, as the same
Wide Web, by Michael R. Snyder (University of Al-
learning objectives guided the construction of the
berta), discusses how to work Internet assignments
questions in the Test Bank. The Study Guide also in-
into the introductory course and provides a guide
cludes a review of key terms, a review of key people,
to many psychology-related sites on the World
and a self-test for each chapter in the text.
Wide Web.
• Using InfoTrac in Introductory Psychology, by
Instructor’s Resource Manual
Randolph Smith, discusses how to make effective use
(coordinated by Randolph Smith)
of the InfoTrac subscription that is made available to
A talented roster of professors have contributed to
students with this text. InfoTrac College Edition is an
the Instructor’s Resource Manual (IRM) in their respec-
online database of recent full-text articles from hun-
tive areas of expertise. The IRM was developed under
dreds of scholarly and popular periodicals.
the guidance of Randolph Smith, the editor of the
journal Teaching of Psychology. It contains a diverse
Test Bank Volume I (by Lisa Valentino,
array of materials designed to facilitate efforts to teach
Seminole Community College)
the introductory course and includes the following
A large, diversified, and carefully constructed Test
sections.
Bank accompanies this text. The questions are closely
• The Instructor’s Manual, by Randolph Smith tied to the chapter learning objectives and to the lists
(Kennesaw State University), contains a wealth of de- of key terms and key people found in both the text
tailed suggestions for lecture topics, class demonstra- and the Study Guide. The items are categorized as
tions, exercises, discussion questions, and suggested (a) factual, (b) conceptual/applied, (c) integrative, or
readings, organized around the content of each chap- (d) critical thinking questions. The Test Bank also in-
ter in the text. It also highlights the connections be- cludes a separate section that contains about 600
tween the text coverage and PsykTrek content and multiple-choice questions based on the content of
features an expanded collection of masters for class PsykTrek’s Interactive Learning Modules. Data on item
handouts. difficulty are included for many questions.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR xiii

Computerized Test Items CD-ROM. Students save time by taking notes directly
Electronic versions of the Test Bank are available for on the figures, and can spend more time listening
a variety of computer configurations. The ExamView and participating in class.
software is user-friendly and allows teachers to insert
their own questions and to customize those provided. Featured Studies Reader (by Martin Bink,
Western Kentucky University)
Test Bank Volume II (by Cheryl Hale, This reader includes the full research articles cited in
Jefferson Community College) the Featured Studies sections of the main text. An in-
Available in ExamView only, this alternative test bank troduction explains each article, which is then fol-
allows professors to draw from an entirely new set of lowed by seven to ten questions.
questions. Each chapter has 100–125 multiple choice
questions. Multimedia Manager Instructor’s Resource
CD-ROM: A Microsoft® PowerPoint® Tool
Challenging Your Preconceptions: (by Brian Malley, University of Michigan)
Thinking Critically About Psychology This lecture and class preparation tool makes it easy
(by Randolph Smith) for you to assemble, edit, and present customized,
This brief paperback book is a wonderful introduc- media-enhanced lectures for your course using Mi-
tion to critical thinking as it applies to psychological crosoft PowerPoint. It includes chapter-specific lec-
issues. Written by Randolph Smith (Kennesaw State ture outlines and art from the text (all on ready-
University), this book helps students apply their crit- made Microsoft PowerPoint slides), as well as video
ical thinking skills to a variety of topics, including clips and other integrated media. This CD also con-
hypnosis, advertising, misleading statistics, IQ test- tains the full Instructor’s Resource Manual and the Test
ing, gender differences, and memory bias. Each chap- Bank Volume I.
ter ends with critical thinking challenges that give
students opportunities to practice their critical think- Book Companion Website
ing skills. http://psychology.wadsworth.com/
weiten_themes7e/
Art and Lecture Outline Booklet (by This website features teaching and learning resources,
Brian Malley, University of Michigan) including: chapter learning objectives, online tutor-
Designed for convenient note-taking and review, this ial quizzes with multiple choice, true/false, and fill-
resource features printed Microsoft® PowerPoint® in-the-blank questions, web links, flash cards, Criti-
slides and selected textbook art—including new ana- cal Thinking Lessons, Concept Checks, Internet and
tomical art by Fred Harwin. The slides match those InfoTrac® College Edition activities, and more.
featured in the Multimedia Manager Instructor’s Resource
xiv TO THE INSTRUCTOR

Acknowledgments
Creating an introductory psychology text is a com- Bill Hill, Michael Reiner, Susan Shapiro, and Michael
plicated challenge, and a small army of people have Snyder for their contributions to the Instructor’s Re-
contributed to the evolution of this book. Foremost source Manual; to Susan Shapiro for her work on the
among them are the psychology editors I have worked transparencies; to Randy Smith and David Matsu-
with at Brooks/Cole and Wadsworth—Claire Verduin, moto for contributing ancillary books; to Jim Cal-
C. Deborah Laughton, Phil Curson, Eileen Murphy, houn for providing item analysis data for the test
Edith Beard Brady, and Michele Sordi—and the de- items; to Harry Upshaw, Larry Wrightsman, Shari Di-
velopmental editor for the first edition of this book, amond, Rick Stalling, and Claire Etaugh for their help
John Bergez. They have helped me immeasurably, and and guidance over the years; and to the chapter con-
each has become a treasured friend along the way. I sultants listed on page xix, and the reviewers listed
am especially indebted to Claire, who educated me on pages xx–xxi, who provided insightful and con-
in the intricacies of textbook publishing, and to John, structive critiques of various portions of the manu-
who has left an enduring imprint on my writing. script.
The challenge of meeting a difficult schedule in Many other people have also contributed to this
producing this book was undertaken by a talented project, and I am grateful to all of them for their ef-
team of people coordinated by Tom Dorsaneo, who forts. Bill Roberts, Craig Barth, Nancy Sjoberg, John
did a superb job of pulling it all together. Credit for Odam, Fiorella Ljunggren, Jim Brace-Thompson,
the text design goes to Liz Harasymczuk, who was very Susan Badger, Sean Wakely, Stephen Rapley, Joanne
creative in building on the previous design. Linda Terhaar, Marjorie Sanders, Kathryn Stewart, Lori
Rill handled permissions and photo research with Grebe, and Margaret Parks helped with varied as-
enthusiasm and extraordinary efficiency, and Jackie pects of previous editions. Eve Howard, Vernon Boes,
Estrada did an outstanding job once again in copy- Jennie Redwitz, Kirk Bomont, Dory Schaeffer, and
editing the manuscript. Fred Harwin and Carol Zuber- Jennifer Keever, made valuable contributions to the
Mallison made stellar contributions to the artwork, current edition. At the College of DuPage, where I
and the team at Thompson Type efficiently oversaw taught until 1991, all of my colleagues in psychology
the composition process. provided support and information at one time or an-
A host of psychologists deserve thanks for the con- other, but I am especially indebted to Barb Lemme,
tributions they made to this book. I am grateful to Alan Lanning, Pat Puccio, and Don Green. I also want
Diane Halpern for her work on the Critical Thinking to thank my former colleagues at Santa Clara Univer-
Applications; to Vinny Hevern for contributing the sity (especially Tracey Kahan, Tom Plante, and Jerry
Web Links and Internet essay; to Marky Lloyd for writ- Burger), who were a fertile source of new ideas, and
ing the appendix on careers in psychology; to Frank Mike Beede at UNLV who helped complete the refer-
Landy, Kecia Thomas, and Matthew Harrison for writ- ence entries.
ing the appendix on I/O psychology; to Rick Stalling My greatest debt is to my wife, Beth Traylor, who
and Ron Wasden for their work on the Study Guide; has been a steady source of emotional sustenance
to Bill Addison and Shirley Hensch for their work on while enduring the rigors of her medical career, and
previous editions of the Test Bank; to Lisa Valentino, to my son T. J., for making dad laugh all the time.
Cheryl Hale, Brian Malley, and Martin Bink for their
work on various ancillaries; to Randy Smith, Joseph Wayne Weiten
Lowman, Russ Watson, Dana Dunn, Ginny Zahn,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv
Integrated Coverage of Evolutionary Psychology

Emergence of evolutionary psychology as a major Evolution and classical conditioning of sexual Evolutionary significance of varied attachment
theory, pp. 14–15 arousal, p. 220 patterns, pp. 429–430
Evolutionary basis of gender differences in spatial Evolutionary significance of conditioned taste Evolutionary perspective on innate cognitive
skills, p. 33 aversion, p. 239 abilities, p. 439
Overview of Darwin’s original theory and key Evolution and species-specific learning propensi- Evolutionary approach to explaining gender
concepts, pp. 106–107 ties, p. 240 differences in human abilities, pp. 460–461
Further refinements to evolutionary theory, Language in evolutionary context, pp. 306–307 Evolutionary basis of Big-Five personality traits,
including inclusive fitness, pp. 107–108 Evolutionary analysis of error and bias in decision p. 496
Evolutionary bases of selected animal behaviors, making, pp. 324–325 Problem of hindsight in evolutionary analyses of
pp. 108–110 Evolutionary basis of fast and frugal heuristics in personality, p. 507
Evolutionary significance of sensory adaptation, decision making, pp. 325–326 Evolutionary basis of fight-or-flight response, p. 519
p. 124 Evolutionary approach to motivation, p. 377 Evolution, preparedness, and phobias, p. 560
Evolutionary basis of cortical “face detectors,” Evolutionary explanation of increasing prevalence Evolutionary explanations of bias in person
p. 132 of obesity, pp. 382–383 perception, p. 637
Evolutionary significance of color vision, p. 133 Evolution and mate selection in animals, p. 387 Evolutionary analyses of how aspects of physical
Evolutionary basis for human brain organizing Implications of parental investment theory for appearance influence reproductive fitness,
color experience into four basic categories, human sexual behavior, pp. 387–388 p. 647
p. 135 Evolutionary basis of mate-attraction tactics,
Evolution and gender differences in sexual activity,
Evolution and perception of geographical slant, pp. 388–389 pp. 647–648
pp. 144–146 Evolutionary basis of gender differences in the
Evolutionary basis of mating priorities, pp. 389–391
Evolution and gender differences in taste perception of sexual interest and relationship
Critique of evolutionary analyses of human sexual
sensitivity, p. 156 commitment, p. 648
behavior, p. 391
Evolutionary roots of consciousness, p. 174 Evolutionary analysis of mate poaching,
Evolutionary theories of emotion, pp. 406–407
Evolutionary bases of sleep, p. 183 pp. 648–649
Integrated Coverage of Cultural Factors

Increased interest in cultural diversity, pp. 13–14 Culture and food preferences, p. 381 Cultural variations in existence of eating disorders,
Introduction of theme: Behavior is shaped by Cross-cultural similarity of mating preferences, pp. 587–588
cultural heritage, pp. 23–24 p. 390 Contribution of Western cultural values to eating
Cultural variations in the pace of life, pp. 48–49 Cultural similarities in expressive aspects of disorders, p. 589
Culture and depth perception, pp. 142–143 emotions, pp. 403–404 Western cultural roots of psychotherapy, p. 620
Cultural variations in susceptibility to illusions, Cultural variations in categories of emotions, Barriers to the use of therapy by ethnic minorities,
pp. 148–149 display rules, p. 404 pp. 620–621
Cultural variations in taste preferences, pp. 155–156 Cultural variations in infant mortality, p. 422 Culture, collectivism, and individualism, p. 641
Cultural variations in pain tolerance, p. 159 Culture and motor development, pp. 424–425 Culture and attributional bias, pp. 641–642
Culture and napping and cosleeping, pp. 182–183 Culture and patterns of attachment, p. 429 Cultural variations in romantic relationships,
Cross-cultural validity of Piaget’s theory, p. 436 pp. 646–647
Cultural variance and invariance in patterns of
sleep, p. 182–183 Cross-cultural validity of Kohlberg’s theory, p. 442 Gender differences in mate preferences in relation
to culture and history, p. 648
Cultural variations in the significance of dreams, Culture and the transition to adolescence, p. 442
p. 192 Cultural variations in conformity and obedience,
Culture and modal personality, p. 499 p. 660
Effects of bilingualism, pp. 304–305 Cross-cultural validity of the Big Five trait model, Culture and social loafing, p. 664
Factors influencing second language acquisition, p. 499
p. 305 Ethnic stereotypes and modern racism,
Individualism and collectivism in relation to pp. 668–669
Cultural similarities in the pace of language personality, pp. 499–500
development, p. 308 Contribution of attribution bias to ethnic
Culture and independent versus interdependent stereotypes, pp. 669–670
Linguistic relativity hypothesis, pp. 308–309 views of self, p. 500
Learning of ethnic stereotypes, p. 670
Cultural variations in cognitive style, pp. 316–318 Culture and self-enhancement, pp. 500–501
Outgroup homogeneity and ethnic stereotypes,
IQ testing in non-Western cultures, pp. 347–348 Culture and the concept of normality, pp. 552–553 p. 670
Cultural and ethnic differences in IQ scores, Relativistic versus pancultural view of psychological Realistic group conflict theory as an explanation
pp. 356–360 disorders, pp. 585–586 for racial prejudice, p. 670
Critique of race as a biological construct as Culture-bound disorders, p. 586 Social identity perspective as a model of racial
opposed to a social construct, p. 358 Culture and symptom patterns, p. 586 prejudice, pp. 670–671
Cultural bias in IQ testing, p. 360
xvi TOPICAL INDEXES

Integrated Coverage of Issues Related to Gender

Important women in the history of psychology, Genetic influences on homosexuality in males Gender and the fight-or-flight response, p. 519
p. 5 and females, p. 393 AIDS transmission in males and females, p. 537
Alternative explanations for gender differences Possible link between prenatal exposure to Discussion of how psychiatric views of
in spatial skills, p. 33 hormone (DES) and lesbian sexual orientation, homosexuality have changed over time,
Underrepresentation of females in research pp. 393–394 p. 553
samples, p. 57 Gender and the plasticity of sexual orientation, Gender gap in the prevalence of panic disorder,
Possible neural bases for gender differences p. 394 p. 558
in responsiveness to visual sexual stimuli, Physiology of human sexual response in males Gender gap in the prevalence of somatization
pp. 88–89 and females, pp. 394–396 disorder, p. 562
Association between sex and color blindness, Development of secondary sex characteristics Gender gap in the prevalence of major
p. 134 in males and females, pp. 442–443 depression, pp. 567–568
Gender gap among super-tasters, p. 155 Effects of early and late maturation in males Gender, depression, and genetic vulnerability,
Gender differences in dream content, p. 190 and females, p. 443 p. 569
Frequency of childhood sexual abuse among men Gender gap in marital role expectations, p. 450 Gender, depression, and rumination, p. 570
and women, pp. 280–281 Postpartum stress in women, pp. 450–451 Gender difference in prevalence of personality
Steele’s analysis of stereotype vulnerability in Mothers’ adjustment to the empty nest, p. 451 disorders, p. 580
women, p. 359 Effects of menopause, pp. 451–452 Gender gap in the prevalence of antisocial
Gender and the heritability of weight, p. 383 Nature of gender stereotypes, p. 459 personality disorder, pp. 580–581
Hormonal regulation of sexual desire in males Gender differences in cognitive abilities, p. 459 Gender gap in the prevalence of eating disorders,
and females, p. 385 p. 588
Gender differences in social behavior, pp. 459–460
Gender differences in responsiveness to erotic Eating disorders and cultural pressures on females
Evolutionary explanations for gender differences,
materials, p. 386 to be thin, p. 589
pp. 460–461
Possible link between aggressive pornography Gender and willingness to seek therapy, p. 597
Contribution of hormones to gender differences,
and sexual coercion by males, pp. 386–387 Importance of therapist’s gender in selecting
p. 461
Nature and prevalence of date rape, pp. 386–387 a psychotherapist, p. 626
Brain organization and gender differences,
Sex differences in parental investment, pp. 387–388 pp. 461–462 Gender gap in the importance of physical
Gender differences in number of sexual partners, appearance, p. 643
Environmental processes contributing to gender
uncommitted sex, pp. 388–389 differences, pp. 462–463 Gender disparities in characteristics sought in
Reliance on self-report data may exaggerate partners, pp. 647–648
Sources of gender-role socialization, pp. 462–463
gender differences in sexual motivation, Gender differences in mate preferences may
Possible social ramifications of father absence,
pp. 388–389 transcend culture and history, p. 648
p. 464
Gender differences in mating priorities, Gender disparities in tactics used to attract mates,
Controversy regarding the effects of father
pp. 389–391 p. 648
absence, pp. 464–465
Prevalence of homosexuality among males and Gender disparities in the perception of sexual
Freudian explanation of homophobia among
females, pp. 392–393 interest and relationship commitment, p. 648
men, p. 476
Childhood masculinity and femininity in relation Gender bias in attributions for success,
Concerns about possible sexist bias in Freudian
to development of homosexuality, pp. 392–393 pp. 669–670
theory, p. 480
Integrated Coverage of Neuroscience (in addition to material in Chapter 3)

Emergence of the biological perspective in the Neural bases of circadian rhythms, p. 176 Penfield, ESB, and long-term memory,
1950s and 1960s, pp. 12–13 Brain structures implicated in sleep and arousal, pp. 267–268
Visual pathways to the brain, p. 130 p. 183 Memory and synaptic transmission, p. 285
Possible neural bases for variations in visual ability, Neurochemical factors in sleep and arousal, Localized neural circuits as a basis for memory,
p. 130 p. 183 p. 285
Feature detectors and information processing Activation-synthesis model of dreaming, p. 193 Long-term potentiation and memory, pp. 285–286
in the visual cortex, pp. 131–132 Hypnosis and brain activity, p. 196 Amnesia in relation to hippocampal region
Auditory pathways in the brain, p. 151 Meditation and brain activity, p. 197 damage, p. 286
Olfactory pathways in the brain, p. 157 Recreational drugs’ effects on neurotransmitter Neural bases of consolidation and long-term
Neural bases of pain perception, pp. 159–160 activity, pp. 202–203 memory storage, pp. 286–287
Contribution of glial cells to the experience of Reinforcing effects of drugs and the mesolimbic Amygdala and memory for learned fears, p. 287
pain, p. 160 dopamine pathway, p. 203 Neuroanatomical bases of working memory,
EEG activity and states of consciousness, Drug dependence and alterations in synaptic p. 287
pp. 174–175 transmission, p. 203
TOPICAL INDEXES xvii

Neural correlates of declarative versus Hemispheric specialization as related to percep- Neurochemical bases of mood disorders,
nondeclarative memory, p. 288 tion and expression of emotion, p. 402 pp. 569–570
Biological indexes of intelligence, pp. 361–362 Brain development in adolescence and its Suppressed neurogenesis in the hippocampus
Intelligence and brain size, pp. 361–362 hypothesized relation to adolescent risk-taking, as an explanation for depression, p. 570
pp. 443–444 Neurochemical bases of schizophrenic disorders,
Brain regulation of hunger, pp. 378–379
Aging and loss of neural tissue, p. 452 pp. 576–578
Interaction of hormones and neural centers
in regulation of hunger, p. 380 Neural correlates of Alzheimer’s disease, p. 452 Structural abnormalities in the brain and
Aging and neural speed, pp. 453, 458 schizophrenia, p. 578
Hypotheses linking brain structure to sexual
orientation, pp. 393–394 Hemispheric specialization of the brain in Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia,
relation to gender differences in behavior, pp. 578–579
Limbic system circuits contributing to emotions,
pp. 401–402 pp. 461–462 Neural bases of psychiatric drug therapies,
Brain-body pathways involved in the response to pp. 611–612
Emotion, vigilance, and the amygdala, pp. 401–402
stress, pp. 520–521 Hypothesized neural bases of electroconvulsive
Prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and mesolim-
Neurochemical bases of anxiety disorders, p. 560 therapy, pp. 614–615
bic dopamine pathway in emotion, p. 402
xviii TOPICAL INDEXES

Chapter Consultants
Chapter 1 Lawrence Ward Tom Pusateri Chapter 13
David Baker University of British Columbia Loras College Robin M. DiMatteo
University of Akron Chrislyn E. Randell Stephen K. Reed University of California,
Charles L. Brewer Metropolitan State College San Diego State University Riverside
Furman University of Denver Jess Feist
C. James Goodwin
Chapter 9 McNeese State University
Wheeling Jesuit University
Chapter 5 Charles Davidshofer
Regan A. R. Gurung
Frank Etscorn Colorado State University
David Hothersall University of Wisconsin,
New Mexico Institute of Mining Shalynn Ford
Ohio State University Green Bay
and Technology Teikyo Marycrest University
E. R. Hilgard Chris Kleinke
Tracey L. Kahan Timothy Rogers
Stanford University University of Alaska, Anchorage
Santa Clara University University of Calgary
Michael G. Livingston
Charles F. Levinthal Dennis Saccuzzo Chapter 14
St. John’s University
Hofstra University San Diego State University David A. F. Haaga
Chapter 2 Wilse Webb American University
Larry Christensen University of Florida Chapter 10 Richard Halgin
Robert Franken
Texas A & M University University of Massachusetts,
Francis Durso
Chapter 6 University of Calgary
Amherst
A. Charles Catania Russell G. Geen
University of Oklahoma Chris L. Kleinke
University of Maryland University of Missouri
Donald H. McBurney University of Alaska, Anchorage
Michael Domjan Douglas Mook
University of Pittsburgh Elliot A. Weiner
University of Texas, Austin University of Virginia
Wendy Schweigert Pacific University
William C. Gordon D. Louis Wood
Bradley University
University of New Mexico University of Arkansas, Chapter 15
Chapter 3 Barry Schwartz Little Rock Gerald Corey
Nelson Freedman Swarthmore College California State University,
Queen’s University at Kingston Deborah L. Stote Chapter 11 Fullerton
University of Texas, Austin Ruth L. Ault
Michael W. Levine Herbert Goldenberg
Davidson College
University of Illinois, Chicago California State University,
James M. Murphy
Chapter 7 John C. Cavanaugh
Los Angeles
Tracey L. Kahan University of Delaware
Indiana University–Purdue Jane S. Halonen
Santa Clara University Claire Etaugh
University at Indianapolis Alverno College
Ian Neath Bradley University
Paul Wellman Thomas G. Plante
Purdue University Barbara Hansen Lemme
Texas A & M University Santa Clara University
Tom Pusateri College of DuPage
Chapter 4 Loras College Chapter 16
Nelson Freedman Stephen K. Reed Chapter 12 Jerry M. Burger
San Diego State University Susan Cloninger
Queen’s University at Kingston Santa Clara University
Patricia Tenpenny Russel Sage College
Kevin Jordan Stephen L. Franzoi
Loyola University, Chicago Caroline Collins
San Jose State University Marquette University
University of Victoria
Michael W. Levine Donelson R. Forsyth
University of Illinois, Chicago
Chapter 8 Christopher F. Monte
Virginia Commonwealth
John Best Manhattanville College
John Pittenger University
Eastern Illinois University Ken Olson
University of Arkansas, Cheryl Kaiser
David Carroll Fort Hays State University
Little Rock Michigan State University
University of Wisconsin,
Superior
CHAPTER CONSULTANTS xix

Reviewers
Lyn Y. Abramson James F. Calhoun Donald Fields Bruce Hunsberger
University of Wisconsin University of Georgia University of New Brunswick Wilfrid Laurier University
James R. M. Alexander William Calhoun Thomas P. Fitzpatrick Mir Rabiul Islam
University of Tasmania University of Tennessee Rockland Community College Charles Sturt University
Gordon A. Allen Janet L. Chapman Karen E. Ford Heide Island
Miami University of Ohio U.S. Military Academy Mesa State College University of Montana
Elise L. Amel Kevin Chun Donelson R. Forsyth Robert A. Johnston
University of St. Thomas University of San Francisco Virginia Commonwealth College of William and Mary
Ruth L. Ault Francis B. Colavita University Robert Kaleta
Davidson College University of Pittsburgh Leslie D. Frazier University of Wisconsin,
Jeff D. Baker Thomas B. Collins Florida International University Milwaukee
Southeastern Louisiana Mankato State University William J. Froming Alan R. King
University Stan Coren University of Florida University of North Dakota
Gina J. Bates University of British Columbia Mary Ellen Fromuth Melvyn B. King
Southern Arkansas University Verne C. Cox Middle Tennessee State State University of New York,
Derryl K. Beale University of Texas at Arlington University Cortland
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xx REVIEWERS
Sheryll Mennicke David L. Novak Celia Reaves Marjorie Taylor

University of Minnesota Lansing Community College Monroe Community College University of Oregon
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College
REVIEWERS xxi
About Our New

Illustration Program
This edition marks the debut of a new illustration
program for the book’s depictions of physiology and
neuoranatomy. One of the author’s major goals for
this edition was to enhance the stylistic consistency,
realism, and educational clarity of the text’s draw-
ings of physiological structures and the human
brain. After reviewing many medical illustrators’
work, he decided to search for an artist whose work
had caught his eye a number of years ago. Thanks to
the power of the Internet, he was able to locate
Fredric Harwin in Portland, Oregon, where he soon
met with him and talked him into contributing his
talent and expertise to future editions of Psychology:
Themes & Variations. Step 1. Develop conceptual sketch based on the goals of the
assignment (show four ventricles of human brain).
As you will see in the up-

coming pages, Harwin
brings a unique and strik-
ingly beautiful style to
the challenge of illustrat-
ing neuroanatomy. Air-
brush Digest magaine has
called Harwin “an author,
a teacher, an artist and a
scientist—but above all,
a man of vision; a visual
communicator.” The New
England Journal of Medicine said of his work in the
Manual of Cardiac Surgery, “The book is blessed with
a medical illustrator who is not content with the
watchful passivity of a photographer. He obviously
shares with his surgical co-authors the ‘continuing
ability to create and accommodate.’” Featured in Step 2. Finalize monochromatic drawing based on client’s input.
Communication Arts and on CNN, Harwin’s talent
and attention to detail have been widely recognized
and lauded. He has even been the subject of an award-
winning short documentary entitled “Ocularist,”
which premiered at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival.
Jeanne Koelling, a fellow medical illustrator and as-

sociate of Harwin Studios, assisted in this project in
all areas, especially the electronic generation of the
drawings. The three graphics on this page, which show
how one drawing progressed from conceptual sketch
to finished product, provide a “behind-the-scenes”
look at how these stunning pieces of art were created.
Step 3. Generate color illustration on a double-sided sheet of

frosted mylar.
xxii ABOUT OUR NEW ILLUSTRATION PROGRAM

Brief Contents
Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychology 1 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Analyzing Arguments:

PERSONAL APPLICATION Improving Academic Performance 26 Making Sense out of Controversy 412
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Developing Critical Chapter 11 Human Development Across the
Thinking Skills: An Introduction 32
Life Span 416
Chapter 2 The Research Enterprise in Psychology 36 PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Gender Differences 459
PERSONAL APPLICATION Finding and Reading Journal Articles 64 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Are Fathers Essential
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION The Perils of Anecdotal to Children’s Well-Being? 464
Evidence: “I Have A Friend Who . . .” 68
Chapter 12 Personality: Theory, Research,
Chapter 3 The Biological Bases of Behavior 72 and Assessment 468
PERSONAL APPLICATION Evaluating the Concept of PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Personality
“Two Minds in One” 111 Assessment 502
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Building Better Brains: CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Hindsight in Everyday
The Perils of Extrapolation 114 Analyses of Personality 506
Chapter 4 Sensation and Perception 118 Chapter 13 Stress, Coping, and Health 510
PERSONAL APPLICATION Appreciating Art and Illusion 162 PERSONAL APPLICATION Improving Coping and Stress
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Recognizing Contrast Effects: Management 541
It’s All Relative 168 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Thinking Rationally About
Chapter 5 Variations in Consciousness 172 Health Statistics and Decisions 546
PERSONAL APPLICATION Addressing Practical Questions Chapter 14 Psychological Disorders 550
About Sleep and Dreams 206 PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Eating Disorders 587
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Is Alcoholism a Disease? CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Working with Probabilities
The Power of Definitions 210 in Thinking About Mental Illness 590
Chapter 6 Learning 214 Chapter 15 Treatment of Psychological Disorders 594
PERSONAL APPLICATION Achieving Self-Control Through PERSONAL APPLICATION Looking for a Therapist 625
Behavior Modification 250 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION From Crisis to Wellness—
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Manipulating Emotions: But Was It the Therapy? 628
Pavlov and Persuasion 254
Chapter 16 Social Behavior 632
Chapter 7 Human Memory 258 PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Prejudice 667
PERSONAL APPLICATION Improving Everyday Memory 291 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Whom Can You Trust?
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Understanding the Fallibility Analyzing Credibility and Influence Tactics 672
of Eyewitness Accounts 294 Appendix A Answers to Concept Checks A-1
Chapter 8 Language and Thought 298 Appendix B Statistical Methods A-7
PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning
Appendix C Industrial/Organizational Psychology A-15
About Decisions 327
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION Shaping Thought with Appendix D Careers in Psychology A-30
Language: “Only a Naive Moron Would Believe That” 330 Appendix E Critical Thinking About Internet Research Sources:
Chapter 9 Intelligence and Psychological Testing 334 What Students Need to Know A-35
PERSONAL APPLICATION Understanding Creativity 366 Glossary G-1
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION The Intelligence Debate, References R-1
Appeals to Ignorance, and Reification 370
Name Index I-1
Chapter 10 Motivation and Emotion 374 Subject Index I-13
PERSONAL APPLICATION Exploring the Ingredients
of Happiness 408
B R I E F CG OL ON ST SE A
N RT YS xxiii
C H A P T E R 1
The Evolution
of Psychology 1
From Speculation to Science: © Caroline Schiff/zefa/Corbis

Seven Unifying Themes 21
How Psychology Developed 2 Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study
A New Science Is Born: The Contributions of Wundt and Hall Themes Related to Psychology’s Subject Matter
The Battle of the “Schools” Begins: Structuralism Versus Functionalism
• Improving
PERSONAL APPLICATION
Freud Brings the Unconscious into the Picture
Academic Performance 26
Watson Alters Psychology’s Course as Behaviorism Makes Its Debut
Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviorism Flourishes Developing Sound Study Habits
The Humanists Revolt Improving Your Reading
Psychology Comes of Age as a Profession Getting More Out of Lectures
Psychology Returns to Its Roots: Renewed Interest in Cognition Improving Test-Taking Strategies
and Physiology
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Developing
Psychology Broadens Its Horizons: Increased Interest in
Cultural Diversity
Critical Thinking Skills: An Introduction 32
Psychology Adapts: The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology The Need to Teach Critical Thinking
Psychology Moves in a Positive Direction An Example
Illustrated Overview of Psychology’s History 16 Recap 34
Psychology Today: Vigorous and Diversified 18 Practice Test 35
Research Areas in Psychology
Professional Specialties in Psychology
xxiv CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 2
The Research Enterprise

in Psychology 36
© Josh Westrich/zefa/Corbis
Looking for Laws: The Scientific Approach Looking for Flaws: Evaluating Research 57
to Behavior 37 Sampling Bias
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise Placebo Effects
Steps in a Scientific Investigation Distortions in Self-Report Data
Advantages of the Scientific Approach Experimenter Bias
Looking for Causes: Experimental Research 42 Looking at Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Means? 60
Independent and Dependent Variables The Question of Deception
Experimental and Control Groups The Question of Animal Research
Extraneous Variables Ethical Principles in Research
Variations in Designing Experiments Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 63
FEATURED STUDY • The Emotional Fallout of Expected
and Unexpected Outcomes 46 PERSONAL APPLICATION • Finding and Reading
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research Journal Articles 64
Looking for Links: Descriptive/Correlational Research 48 The Nature of Technical Journals
Naturalistic Observation Finding Journal Articles
Case Studies Reading Journal Articles
Surveys • The Perils of
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION
Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research
Anecdotal Evidence: “I Have a Friend Who . . .” 68
Looking for Conclusions: Statistics and Research 52
Descriptive Statistics Recap 70
Inferential Statistics Practice Test 71
CONTENTS xxv
C H A P T E R 3
The Biological Bases

of Behavior 72
Communication in the Nervous System 73 © Royalty-Free/Corbis

The Endocrine System: Another Way to Communicate 99
Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware
Heredity and Behavior: Is It All in the Genes? 101
The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information
The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet Basic Principles of Genetics
Neurotransmitters and Behavior Investigating Hereditary Influence: Research Methods
The Interplay of Heredity and Environment
Organization of the Nervous System 81
The Evolutionary Bases of Behavior 106
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Central Nervous System Darwin’s Insights
Subsequent Refinements to Evolutionary Theory
Looking Inside the Brain: Research Methods 84 Behaviors as Adaptive Traits
Electrical Recordings
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 110
Lesioning
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain • Evaluating the Concept of
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation “Two Minds in One” 111
Brain-Imaging Procedures
Cerebral Specialization and Cognitive Processes
FEATURED STUDY • Probing the Anatomy of Sexual Arousal 88
Complexities and Qualifications
The Brain and Behavior 89
• Building Better Brains:
The Hindbrain
The Perils of Extrapolation 114
The Midbrain
The Forebrain The Key Findings on Neural Development
The Plasticity of the Brain The Tendency to Overextrapolate
Right Brain/Left Brain: Cerebral Laterality 96 Recap 116
Bisecting the Brain: Split-Brain Research Practice Test 117
Hemispheric Specialization in the Intact Brain
xxvi CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 4
Sensation and
Perception
© Michael Freeman/Digital Vision/Getty Images

118
Psychophysics: Basic Concepts and Issues 120 Our Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell 154
Thresholds: Looking for Limits Taste: The Gustatory System
Weighing the Differences: The JND Smell: The Olfactory System
Signal-Detection Theory
Our Sense of Touch: Sensory Systems in the Skin 157
Perception Without Awareness
Sensory Adaptation Feeling Pressure
Feeling Pain
Our Sense of Sight: The Visual System 124
Our Other Senses 160
The Stimulus: Light
The Eye: A Living Optical Instrument The Kinesthetic System
The Retina: The Brain’s Envoy in the Eye The Vestibular System
Vision and the Brain Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 161
Viewing the World in Color
Perceiving Forms, Patterns, and Objects PERSONAL APPLICATION • Appreciating Art
Perceiving Depth or Distance and Illusion 162
Perceiving Geographical Slant
FEATURED STUDY • Why Hills Look Steeper Than They Are 144 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Recognizing
Perceptual Constancies in Vision Contrast Effects: It’s All Relative 168
The Power of Misleading Cues: Visual Illusions
Recap 170
Our Sense of Hearing: The Auditory System 149
The Stimulus: Sound Practice Test 171
Human Hearing Capacities
Sensory Processing in the Ear
Auditory Perception: Theories of Hearing
Auditory Localization: Perceiving Sources of Sound
CONTENTS xxvii
C H A P T E R 5
Variations in
Consciousness 172
On the Nature of Consciousness 174 © Nevada Wier/Corbis

Meditation: Pure Consciousness or Relaxation? 197
Variations in Levels of Awareness Physiological Correlates
The Evolutionary Roots of Consciousness Long-Term Benefits
Consciousness and Brain Activity
Altering Consciousness with Drugs 199
Biological Rhythms and Sleep 175 Principal Abused Drugs and Their Effects
The Role of Circadian Rhythms Factors Influencing Drug Effects
Ignoring Circadian Rhythms Mechanisms of Drug Action
Realigning Circadian Rhythms Drug Dependence
Drugs and Health
The Sleep and Waking Cycle 178
Cycling Through the Stages of Sleep Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 206
Age Trends in Sleep
• Addressing Practical Questions
Culture and Sleep
The Neural Bases of Sleep
About Sleep and Dreams 206
The Evolutionary Bases of Sleep Common Questions About Sleep
Doing Without: Sleep Deprivation Common Questions About Dreams
FEATURED STUDY • Gauging the Impact of Sleep Deprivation • Is Alcoholism a Disease?
on College Students 184
The Power of Definitions 210
Problems in the Night: Sleep Disorders
The Power to Make Definitions
The World of Dreams 190
Definitions, Labels, and Circular Reasoning
The Contents of Dreams
Links Between Dreams and Waking Life Recap 212
Culture and Dreams
Practice Test 213
Theories of Dreaming
Hypnosis: Altered Consciousness or Role Playing? 194
Hypnotic Induction and Susceptibility
Hypnotic Phenomena
Theories of Hypnosis
xxviii CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 6
Learning 214
© David H. Wells/Corbis
Classical Conditioning 216 Illustrated Overview of Three Types of Learning 248
Pavlov’s Demonstration: “Psychic Reflexes”
Terminology and Procedures
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life PERSONAL APPLICATION• Achieving Self-Control Through
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning Behavior Modification 250
Operant Conditioning 224 Specifying Your Target Behavior
Thorndike’s Law of Effect Gathering Baseline Data
Skinner’s Demonstration: It’s All a Matter of Consequences Designing Your Program
Terminology and Procedures Executing and Evaluating Your Program
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Ending Your Program
Reinforcement: Consequences That Strengthen Responses
Schedules of Reinforcement
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Manipulating Emotions:
Positive Reinforcement Versus Negative Reinforcement Pavlov and Persuasion 254
Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses Classical Conditioning in Advertising
Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning 238 Classical Conditioning in Business Negotiations
Classical Conditioning in the World of Politics
Recognizing Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Becoming More Aware of Classical Conditioning Processes
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning
Recap 256
Observational Learning 243
Basic Processes Practice Test 257
Acquisition Versus Performance
Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy
FEATURED STUDY • The Power of Modeling: What They See
Is What You Get 245
CONTENTS xxix
C H A P T E R 7
Human Memory 258
Encoding: Getting Information into Memory 260 © C. Lyttle/zefa/Corbis

Systems and Types of Memory 288
The Role of Attention Declarative Versus Procedural Memory
Levels of Processing Semantic Versus Episodic Memory
Enriching Encoding Prospective Versus Retrospective Memory
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory 263 Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 290
Sensory Memory
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Improving Everyday
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
Memory 291
FEATURED STUDY • How Accurate Are Flashbulb Memories? 268 Engage in Adequate Rehearsal
Are Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Separate? Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize Interference
How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory? Engage in Deep Processing and Organize Information
Enrich Encoding with Verbal Mnemonics
Retrieval: Getting Information out of Memory 273 Enrich Encoding with Visual Mnemonics
Using Cues to Aid Retrieval
Reinstating the Context of an Event CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION • Understanding the
Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect Fallibility of Eyewitness Accounts 294
Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring The Contribution of Hindsight Bias
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses 276 The Contribution of Overconfidence
How Quickly We Forget: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Strategies to Reduce Overconfidence
Measures of Forgetting Recap 296
Why We Forget
The Recovered Memories Controversy Practice Test 297
In Search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology
of Memory 285
The Biochemistry of Memory
The Neural Circuitry of Memory
The Anatomy of Memory
xxx CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 8
Language and
© Jeff Spielman/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images

Thought 298
Language: Turning Thoughts into Words 300 FEATURED STUDY • Even Objective Probabilities
What Is Language? Are Subjective 323
The Structure of Language Evolutionary Analyses of Flaws in Human Decision Making
Milestones in Language Development Fast and Frugal Heuristics
Learning More Than One Language: Bilingualism Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 326
Can Animals Develop Language?
Language in Evolutionary Context • Understanding Pitfalls in
Theories of Language Acquisition Reasoning About Decisions 327
Culture, Language, and Thought The Gambler’s Fallacy
Problem Solving: In Search of Solutions 310 Overestimating the Improbable
Types of Problems Confirmation Bias
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving The Overconfidence Effect
Approaches to Problem Solving The Effects of Framing
Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving • Shaping
Decision Making: Choices and Chances 318 Thought with Language: “Only a Naive Moron
Making Choices: Selecting an Alternative Would Believe That” 330
Taking Chances: Factors Weighed in Risky Decisions Semantic Slanting
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities Name Calling
The Tendency to Ignore Base Rates
The Conjunction Fallacy Recap 332
The Alternative Outcomes Effect Practice Test 333
CONTENTS xxxi
C H A P T E R 9
Intelligence
and Psychological
© Andersen Ross/Blend Images/Alamy

Testing 334
Key Concepts in Psychological Testing 336 FEATURED STUDY • Racial Stereotypes and
Principal Types of Tests Test Performance 359
Standardization and Norms New Directions in the Assessment and Study
Reliability of Intelligence 361
Validity
Exploring Biological Indexes and Correlates of Intelligence
The Evolution of Intelligence Testing 341 Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior
Galton’s Studies of Hereditary Genius Expanding the Concept of Intelligence
Binet’s Breakthrough Measuring Emotional Intelligence
Terman and the Stanford-Binet Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 365
Wechsler’s Innovations
Intelligence Testing Today PERSONAL APPLICATION • Understanding Creativity 366
Basic Questions About Intelligence Testing 343 The Nature of Creativity
What Kinds of Questions Are on Intelligence Tests? Measuring Creativity
What Do Modern IQ Scores Mean? Correlates of Creativity
Do Intelligence Tests Measure Potential or Knowledge? • The Intelligence Debate,
Do Intelligence Tests Have Adequate Reliability? Appeals to Ignorance, and Reification 370
Do Intelligence Tests Have Adequate Validity?
Do Intelligence Tests Predict Vocational Success? Appeal to Ignorance
Are IQ Tests Widely Used in Other Cultures? Reification
Extremes of Intelligence 349 Recap 372

Mental Retardation Practice Test 373
Giftedness
Heredity and Environment as Determinants
of Intelligence 352
Evidence for Hereditary Influence
Evidence for Environmental Influence
The Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Cultural Differences in IQ Scores
xxxii CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 10
Motivation and
Emotion 374
© ER Productions/Corbis
Motivational Theories and Concepts 376 Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 407
Drive Theories
PERSONAL APPLICATION • Exploring the Ingredients
Incentive Theories
Evolutionary Theories
of Happiness 408
The Range and Diversity of Human Motives How Happy Are People?
Factors That Do Not Predict Happiness
The Motivation of Hunger and Eating 378
Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Strong Predictors of Happiness
Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Conclusions About Subjective Well-Being
Eating and Weight: The Roots of Obesity
• Analyzing Arguments:
Sexual Motivation and Behavior 385
Making Sense out of Controversy 412
Determinants of Sexual Desire
Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Behavior The Anatomy of an Argument
FEATURED STUDY • Evolution, Culture, and Mating Priorities 390 Common Fallacies
The Mystery of Sexual Orientation Evaluating the Strength of Arguments
The Human Sexual Response Recap 414
Achievement: In Search of Excellence 396 Practice Test 415
Individual Differences in the Need for Achievement
Situational Determinants of Achievement Behavior
The Elements of Emotional Experience 398
The Cognitive Component: Subjective Feelings
The Physiological Component: Diffuse and Multifaceted
The Behavioral Component: Nonverbal Expressiveness
Culture and the Elements of Emotion
Theories of Emotion 405
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory
Evolutionary Theories of Emotion
CONTENTS xxxiii
C H A P T E R 11
Human Development
Across the Life Span 416
Progress Before Birth: Prenatal Development 418 © Reza/Webistan/Corbis

Illustrated Overview of Human Development 454
The Course of Prenatal Development
Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development
The Wondrous Years of Childhood 423 • Understanding
Exploring the World: Motor Development

Gender Differences 459
Easy and Difficult Babies: Differences in Temperament How Do the Sexes Differ in Behavior?
Early Emotional Development: Attachment Biological Origins of Gender Differences
Becoming Unique: Personality Development Environmental Origins of Gender Differences
The Growth of Thought: Cognitive Development Conclusion
FEATURED STUDY • Can Infants Do Arithmetic? 438 • Are Fathers Essential
The Development of Moral Reasoning
to Children’s Well-Being? 464
The Transition of Adolescence 442 The Basic Argument
Physiological and Neural Changes Evaluating the Argument
Time of Turmoil?
The Search for Identity Recap 466
The Expanse of Adulthood 447 Practice Test 467
Personality Development
Transitions in Family Life
Aging and Physical Changes
Aging and Cognitive Changes
xxxiv CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 12
Personality: Theory,
Research, and
© Bryan F. Peterson/Corbis
Assessment 468
The Nature of Personality 470 Illustrated Overview of Major Theories

Defining Personality: Consistency and Distinctiveness of Personality 494
Personality Traits: Dispositions and Dimensions Evaluating Biological Perspectives
The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits
A Contemporary Empirical Approach:
Psychodynamic Perspectives 472 Terror Management Theory 497
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Essentials of Terror Management Theory
Jung’s Analytical Psychology Applications of Terror Management Theory
Adler’s Individual Psychology
Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives Culture and Personality 499
Behavioral Perspectives 481 Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 501
Skinner’s Ideas Applied to Personality PERSONAL APPLICATION • Understanding Personality
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Assessment 502
FEATURED STUDY • Can Rooms Really Have Personality? 483
Mischel and the Person-Situation Controversy Self-Report Inventories
Evaluating Behavioral Perspectives Projective Tests
Humanistic Perspectives 487 • Hindsight in Everyday

Rogers’s Person-Centered Theory Analyses of Personality 506

Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization The Prevalence of Hindsight Bias
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives Hindsight and Personality
Biological Perspectives 491 Other Implications of “20/20 Hindsight”
Eysenck’s Theory Recap 508
Behavioral Genetics and Personality
The Evolutionary Approach to Personality
Practice Test 509
CONTENTS xxxv
C H A P T E R 13
Stress, Coping,
and Health 510
The Nature of Stress 512 © Alan Schein Photography/Corbis

Reactions to Illness 538
Stress as an Everyday Event Deciding to Seek Treatment
Appraisal: Stress Lies in the Eye of the Beholder Communicating with Health Providers
Major Types of Stress Adhering to Medical Advice
Responding to Stress 517 Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 540
Emotional Responses
• Improving Coping and
Physiological Responses
Behavioral Responses
Stress Management 541
Reappraisal: Ellis’s Rational Thinking
The Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning 525
Using Humor as a Stress Reducer
Impaired Task Performance
Releasing Pent-Up Emotions
Burnout
Managing Hostility and Forgiving Others
Psychological Problems and Disorders
Learning to Relax
Positive Effects
Minimizing Physiological Vulnerability
The Effects of Stress on Physical Health 527 • Thinking Rationally
Personality, Hostility, and Heart Disease About Health Statistics and Decisions 546
Emotional Reactions, Depression, and Heart Disease
FEATURED STUDY • Is Depression a Risk Factor for Evaluating Statistics on Health Risks
Heart Disease? 530 Thinking Systematically About Health Decisions
Stress, Other Diseases, and Immune Functioning Recap 548
Sizing Up the Link Between Stress and Illness
Practice Test 549
Factors Moderating the Impact of Stress 533
Social Support
Optimism and Conscientiousness
Health-Impairing Behavior 534
Smoking
Poor Nutritional Habits
Lack of Exercise
Alcohol and Drug Use
Behavior and AIDS
How Does Health-Impairing Behavior Develop?
xxxvi CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 14
Psychological
Disorders 550
© K. Hackenberg/zefa/Corbis
Abnormal Behavior: Myths, Realities, Schizophrenic Disorders 573
and Controversies 551 General Symptoms
The Medical Model Applied to Abnormal Behavior Subtypes, Course, and Outcome
Criteria of Abnormal Behavior Etiology of Schizophrenia
Stereotypes of Psychological Disorders Personality Disorders 580
Psychodiagnosis: The Classification of Disorders
Diagnostic Problems
The Prevalence of Psychological Disorders
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Anxiety Disorders 557
Illustrated Overview of Three Categories of
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Psychological Disorders 582
Phobic Disorder
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Psychological Disorders and the Law 584
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Insanity
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Involuntary Commitment
Etiology of Anxiety Disorders
Culture and Pathology 585
Somatoform Disorders 562 Are Equivalent Disorders Found Around the World?
Somatization Disorder Are Symptom Patterns Culturally Invariant?
Conversion Disorder
Hypochondriasis Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 586
Etiology of Somatoform Disorders
• Understanding
Dissociative Disorders 564 Eating Disorders 587
Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue Description
Dissociative Identity Disorder History and Prevalence
Etiology of Dissociative Disorders Etiology of Eating Disorders
Mood Disorders 566 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION• Working with
Major Depressive Disorder Probabilities in Thinking About Mental Illness 590
Bipolar Disorder
Etiology of Mood Disorders Recap 592
FEATURED STUDY • Does Negative Thinking
Cause Depression? 571 Practice Test 593
CONTENTS xxxvii
C H A P T E R 15
Treatment of
Psychological
© Dennis Cooper/zefa/Corbis
Disorders 594
The Elements of the Treatment Process 596 FEATURED STUDY • Combining Insight Therapy
Treatments: How Many Types Are There? and Medication 619
Clients: Who Seeks Therapy? Increasing Multicultural Sensitivity in Treatment
Therapists: Who Provides Professional Treatment? Institutional Treatment in Transition 621
Insight Therapies 599 Disenchantment with Mental Hospitals
Psychoanalysis Deinstitutionalization
Client-Centered Therapy Mental Illness, the Revolving Door, and Homelessness
Group Therapy Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 624
How Effective Are Insight Therapies?
How Do Insight Therapies Work? PERSONAL APPLICATION • Looking for a Therapist 625
Behavior Therapies 606 Where Do You Find Therapeutic Services?
Systematic Desensitization Is the Therapist’s Profession or Sex Important?
Aversion Therapy Is Treatment Always Expensive?
Social Skills Training Is the Therapist’s Theoretical Approach Important?
Cognitive-Behavioral Treatments What Should You Look for in a Prospective Therapist?
How Effective Are Behavior Therapies? What Is Therapy Like?
Biomedical Therapies 610 • From Crisis to Wellness—

Treatment with Drugs

But Was It the Therapy? 628
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Recap 630
Current Trends and Issues in Treatment 615
Practice Test 631
Grappling with the Constraints of Managed Care
Illustrated Overview of Five Major Approaches
to Treatment 616
Blending Approaches to Treatment
xxxviii CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 16
Social Behavior 632
© Dennis Stock/Magnum Photos

Person Perception: Forming Impressions of Others 634 FEATURED STUDY • “I Was Just Following Orders” 658
Effects of Physical Appearance Cultural Variations in Conformity and Obedience
Cognitive Schemas The Power of the Situation: The Stanford Prison Simulation
Stereotypes Behavior in Groups: Joining with Others 662
Subjectivity in Person Perception Behavior Alone and in Groups: The Case of the Bystander Effect
An Evolutionary Perspective on Bias in Person Perception Group Productivity and Social Loafing
Attribution Processes: Explaining Behavior 637 Decision Making in Groups
Internal Versus External Attributions Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes 667
Attributions for Success and Failure
Bias in Attribution PERSONAL APPLICATION • Understanding Prejudice 667
Culture and Attributional Tendencies Stereotyping and Subjectivity in Person Perception
Close Relationships: Liking and Loving 642 Biases in Attribution
Key Factors in Attraction Forming and Preserving Prejudicial Attitudes
Perspectives on the Mystery of Love Competition Between Groups
Culture and Close Relationships Dividing the World into Ingroups and Outgroups
An Evolutionary Perspective on Attraction Threats to Social Identity
Attitudes: Making Social Judgments 649 CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION• Whom Can You Trust?
Components and Dimensions of Attitudes Analyzing Credibility and Influence Tactics 672
Attitudes and Behavior Evaluating Credibility
Trying to Change Attitudes: Factors in Persuasion Recognizing Social Influence Strategies
Theories of Attitude Formation and Change
Recap 674
Conformity and Obedience: Yielding to Others 656
Conformity
Practice Test 675
Obedience
CONTENTS xxxix
Appendix A Answers to Concept Checks A-1

Appendix B Statistical Methods A-7
Appendix C Industrial/Organizational Psychology A-15
Appendix D Careers in Psychology A-30
Appendix E Critical Thinking About Internet Research
Sources: What Students Need to Know A-35
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-17
Credits C-1
xl CONTENTS
To the Student
Welcome to your introductory psychology textbook. Critical Thinking Applications

In most college courses, students spend more time Each Personal Application is followed by a two-page
with their textbooks than with their professors, so it Critical Thinking Application that teaches and mod-
helps if students like their textbooks. Making text- els basic critical thinking skills. I think you will find
books likable, however, is a tricky proposition. By its these sections refreshing and interesting. Like the
very nature, a textbook must introduce students to Personal Applications, they are part of the text’s ba-
many complicated concepts, ideas, and theories. If it sic content and should be read unless you are told
doesn’t, it isn’t much of a textbook, and instructors otherwise by your instructor. Although the “facts” of
won’t choose to use it. Nevertheless, in writing this psychology will gradually change after you take this
book I’ve tried to make it as likable as possible with- course (thanks to scientific progress), the critical think-
out compromising the academic content that your ing skills modeled in these sections should prove
instructor demands. I’ve especially tried to keep in valuable for many years to come.
mind your need for a clear, well-organized presenta-
tion that makes the important material stand out Web Links and Internet Essay
and yet is interesting to read. Above all else, I hope To help make this book a rich resource guide, we have
you find this book challenging to think about and included dozens of Web Links, which are recom-
easy to learn from. Before you plunge into your first mended websites that can provide you with additional
chapter, let me introduce you to the book’s key fea- information on many topics. The recommended sites
tures. Becoming familiar with how the book works were selected by Professor Vincent Hevern, a web ex-
will help you to get more out of it. pert who sought out resources that are interesting and
that provide accurate, empirically sound information.
Key Features The Web Links are dispersed throughout the chap-
ters, adjacent to related topical coverage. Because
You’re about to embark on a journey into a new do- web addresses change frequently, we have not placed
main of ideas. Your text includes some important the URLs for our Web Links in the book. If you are
features that are intended to highlight certain as- interested in visiting these sites, we recommend that
pects of psychology’s landscape. you do so through the Psychology: Themes & Varia-
tions home page at the Wadsworth website (http://
Unifying Themes psychology.wadsworth.com/weiten_themes7e). Links
To help you make sense of a complex and diverse to all the recommended websites are maintained there
field of study, I introduce seven themes in Chapter 1 and the Wadsworth Webmaster periodically updates
that reappear in a number of variations as we move the URLs. Of course, you can also track down the rec-
from chapter to chapter. These unifying themes are ommended sites by using a search engine, such as
meant to provoke thought about important issues Google. The inclusion of the Web Links in this text il-
and to highlight the connections between chapters. lustrates that the Internet has become an enormously
They are discussed near the end of the main body of important source of information on psychology (and
each chapter in a section called “Reflecting on the most topics). Cognizant of this reality, I asked Pro-
Chapter’s Themes.” fessor Hevern to write a brief essay on how to evalu-
ate the quality and credibility of web-based resources.
Personal Applications I urge you to read his essay in Appendix E.
Toward the end of each chapter you’ll find a Personal
Application section that shows how psychology is Appendix on Careers in Psychology
relevant to everyday life. Some of these sections pro- Many students who take the introductory psychol-
vide concrete, practical advice that could be helpful ogy course are intrigued by the possibility of pursu-
to you in your educational endeavors, such as those ing a career in psychology. If you think you might be
on improving academic performance, improving interested in a psychology-related career, you should
everyday memory, and achieving self-control. So, consider reading Appendix D, which provides a suc-
you may want to jump ahead and read some of these cinct overview of career options in the field, written
Personal Applications early. by Professor Marky Lloyd.
TO THE STUDENT xli

Learning Aids Terms, and a list of Key People (important theorists

and researchers). It’s wise to read over these review
This text contains a great deal of information. A num- materials to make sure you’ve digested the informa-
ber of learning aids have been incorporated into the tion in the chapter. To aid your study efforts, the lists
book to help you digest it all. of key terms and key people show the page numbers
An outline at the beginning of each chapter pro- where the terms or individuals were first introduced.
vides you with an overview of the topics covered in Each chapter ends with a 15-item Practice Test that
that chapter. Think of the outlines as road maps, and should give you a realistic assessment of your mas-
bear in mind that it’s easier to reach a destination if tery of that chapter and valuable practice in taking
you know where you’re going. multiple-choice tests.
Headings serve as road signs in your journey An alphabetical glossary is provided in the back of
through each chapter. Four levels of headings are the book. Most key terms are formally defined in the
used to make it easy to see the organization of each integrated running glossary only when they are first
chapter. introduced. So if you run into a technical term in a
Preview Questions, found at the beginning of major later chapter and can’t remember its meaning, it may
sections, can help you focus on the key issues in the be easier to look it up in the alphabetical glossary than
material you are about to read. to try to find the location where the term was origi-
Reviews of Key Points, found at the end of major nally introduced.
sections, are interim summaries that permit you to
check your understanding of a section’s main ideas A Few Footnotes
immediately after finishing the section.
Italics (without boldface) are used liberally through- Psychology textbooks customarily identify the stud-
out the text to emphasize crucial points. ies, theoretical treatises, books, and articles that in-
Key terms are identified with italicized blue bold- formation comes from. These citations occur (1) when
face type to alert you that these are important vo- names are followed by a date in parentheses, as in
cabulary items that are part of psychology’s techni- “Smith (1993) found that . . .” or (2) when names
cal language. The key terms are also listed at the end and dates are provided together within parentheses,
of the chapter. as in “In one study (Smith, Miller, & Jones, 2001), the
An integrated running glossary provides an on-the- researchers attempted to . . .” All of the cited publi-
spot definition of each key term as it’s introduced in cations are listed by author in the alphabetized Ref-
the text. These formal definitions are printed in blue erences section in the back of the book. The citations
boldface type. Becoming familiar with psychology’s and references are a necessary part of a book’s schol-
terminology is an essential part of learning about the arly and scientific foundation. Practically speaking,
field. The integrated running glossary should make however, you’ll probably want to glide right over them
this learning process easier. as you read. You definitely don’t need to memorize
Concept Checks are sprinkled throughout the chap- the names and dates. The only names you may need
ters to let you test your mastery of important ideas. to know are the handful listed under Key People in
Generally, they ask you to integrate or organize a each Chapter Recap (unless your instructor mentions
number of key ideas, or to apply ideas to real-world a personal favorite that you should know).
situations. Although they’re meant to be engaging
and fun, they do check conceptual understanding, Concept Charts for
and some are challenging. But if you get stuck, don’t Study and Review
worry; the answers (and explanations, where they’re
needed) are in the back of the book in Appendix A. Your text will likely be accompanied by a booklet of
Illustrations in the text are important elements in Concept Charts that are designed to help you orga-
your complete learning package. Some illustrations nize and master the main ideas contained in each
provide enlightening diagrams of complicated con- chapter. Each Concept Chart provides a detailed vi-
cepts; others furnish examples that help flesh out sual map of the key ideas found in the main body of
ideas or provide concise overviews of research re- that chapter. Seeing how it all fits together should
sults. Careful attention to the tables and figures in help you to better understand each chapter. You can
the book will help you understand the material dis- use these charts to preview chapters, to get a handle
cussed in the text. on how key ideas fit together, to double-check your
A Chapter Recap at the end of each chapter provides mastery of the chapters, and to memorize the crucial
a summary of the chapter’s Key Ideas, a list of Key principles in chapters.
xlii TO THE STUDENT

PsykTrek: A Multimedia A Word About the Study Guide

Introduction to Psychology
A Study Guide is available to accompany this text. It is
PsykTrek is a multimedia resource developed to ac- written by two of my former professors, who intro-
company this textbook. It is an enormously power- duced me to psychology years ago. They have done
ful learning tool that can enhance your understand- a great job of organizing review materials to help you
ing of many complex processes and theories, provide master the information in the book. I suggest that
you with an alternative way to assimilate many cru- you seriously consider using it to help you study.
cial concepts, and add a little more fun to your jour-
ney through introductory psychology. PsykTrek has A Final Word
been designed to supplement and complement your
textbook. I strongly encourage you to use it. The CD I’m pleased to be a part of your first journey into the
icons that you will see in many of the headings in the world of psychology, and I sincerely hope that you’ll
upcoming chapters refer to the content of PsykTrek. find the book as thought provoking and as easy to
An icon indicates that the textbook topic referred to learn from as I’ve tried to make it. If you have any
in the heading is covered in the Interactive Learning comments or advice on the book, please write to me
Modules or Simulations found on PsykTrek. The rele- in care of the publisher (Wadsworth Publishing Com-
vant simulations (Sim1, Sim2, and so forth) and the pany, 10 Davis Drive, Belmont, CA 94002). You can
relevant Interactive Learning Modules (1a, 1b, 1c, and be sure I’ll pay careful attention to your feedback. Fi-
so forth) are listed to the right of the icons. nally, let me wish you good luck. I hope you enjoy
your course and learn a great deal.
Wayne Weiten
TO THE STUDENT xliii

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2005 Marisa Acocello Marchetto from quences, 2/e, p. 215. Copyright © 2001 Copyright © 1955 by Scientific Ameri- Adapted from Sharon S. Brehm and
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635: Cartoon DILBERT reprinted by sion of Dr. Geert Hofstede. 643: Car- Adapted from Asch, Solomon (1955) Second Edition. Copyright © 1993 by
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Savitsky, K. (2000). “The Spotlight BIZARRO © by Dan Piraro. Reprinted Copyright © 1955 by Scientific Ameri- Appendix A-32: Figure D-4 from
Effect in Social Judgment: An Egocen- by special permission of King Features can, Inc. All rights reserved. 664: Figure Halonen, J. S., Appleby, D. C., Brewer,
tric Bias in Estimates of the Salience of Syndicate. 648: Figure 16.8: Adapted 16.18 Adapted from Latane, B., C. L., Buskist, W., Gillem, A. R. Hal-
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16.3: Based on “Perceiving the Causes Adapted by permission of the publisher logical Association. Adapted by permis- but does NOT represent APA policy.
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Friese, A. Kukla, L. Reed & R. M. Rosen- Lippa, R. A. (1994) Introduction to Adapted with permission of The Free
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Appendix A Answers to Concept Checks
Chapter 1 3. b. Naturalistic observation. To answer this question

properly, you would want to observe baboons in
Concept Check 1.1 their natural environment, without interference.
1. c. Sigmund Freud (1905, pp. 77–78), arguing that it 4. a. Experiment. To demonstrate a causal relationship,
is possible to probe into the unconscious depths of you would have to conduct an experiment. You
the mind. would manipulate the presence or absence of food-
2. a. Wilhelm Wundt (1874/1904, p. v), campaigning related cues in controlled circumstances where
for a new, independent science of psychology. subjects had an opportunity to eat some food, and
monitor the amount eaten.
3. b. William James (1890), commenting negatively
on the structuralists’ efforts to break consciousness Concept Check 2.3
into its elements and his view of consciousness as 1. b and e. The other three conclusions all equate
a continuously flowing stream. correlation with causation.
Concept Check 1.2 2. a. Negative. As age increases, more people tend to

1. b. B. F. Skinner (1971, p. 17), explaining why he have visual problems and acuity tends to decrease.
believes that freedom is an illusion. b. Positive. Studies show that highly educated people
2. c. Carl Rogers (1961, p. 27), commenting on others’ tend to earn higher incomes and that people with
assertion that he had an overly optimistic (Polly- less education tend to earn lower incomes.
annaish) view of human potential and discussing c. Negative. As shyness increases, the size of one’s
humans’ basic drive toward personal growth. friendship network should decrease. However, re-
3. a. John B. Watson (1930, p. 103), dismissing the search suggests that this inverse association may be
importance of genetic inheritance while arguing weaker than widely believed.
that traits are shaped entirely by experience.
Concept Check 2.4
Concept Check 1.3 Methodological flaw Study 1 Study 2
a. 2. Psychology is theoretically diverse. Sampling bias ✓ ✓
b. 6. Heredity and environment jointly influence Placebo effects ✓
behavior.
Confounding of variables ✓
c. 4. Behavior is determined by multiple causes.
Distortions in self-report data ✓
d. 7. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.
Experimenter bias ✓
Chapter 2 Explanations for Study 1. Sensory deprivation is an un-

usual kind of experience that may intrigue certain poten-
Concept Check 2.1 tial subjects, who may be more adventurous or more
1. IV: Film violence (present versus absent) willing to take risks than the population at large. Using
the first 80 students who sign up for this study may not
DV: Heart rate and blood pressure (there are two DVs) yield a sample that is representative of the population.
2. IV: Courtesy training (training versus no training) Assigning the first 40 subjects who sign up to the exper-
imental group may confound these extraneous variables
DV: Number of customer complaints with the treatment (students who sign up most quickly
3. IV: Stimulus complexity (high versus low) and stim- may be the most adventurous). In announcing that he
ulus contrast (high versus low) (there are two IVs) will be examining the detrimental effects of sensory depri-
vation, the experimenter has created expectations in
DV: Length of time spent staring at the stimuli the subjects. These expectations could lead to placebo
4. IV: Group size (large versus small) effects. The experimenter has also revealed that he has
a bias about the outcome of the study. Since he super-
DV: Conformity vises the treatments, he knows which subjects are in the
experimental and control groups, thus aggravating poten-
Concept Check 2.2 tial problems with experimenter bias. For example, he
1. d. Survey. You would distribute a survey to obtain might unintentionally give the control group subjects
information on subjects’ social class, education, and better instructions on how to do the pursuit-rotor task
attitudes about nuclear disarmament. and thereby slant the study in favor of finding support
2. c. Case study. Using a case study approach, you for his hypothesis.
could interview people with anxiety disorders, inter- Explanations for Study 2. Sampling bias is a problem
view their parents, and examine their school records because the researcher has sampled only subjects from a
to look for similarities in childhood experiences. As low-income, inner-city neighborhood. A sample obtained
a second choice, you might have people with anxi- in this way is not likely to be representative of the popu-
ety disorders fill out a survey about their childhood lation at large. People are sensitive about the issue of
experiences. racial prejudice, so distortions in self-report data are also
Answers to Concept Checks A-1

likely. Many subjects may be swayed by social desirabil- Concept Check 4.2
ity bias and rate themselves as less prejudiced than they ✓ 1. Interposition. The arches in front cut off part
really are. of the corridor behind them.
✓ 2. Height in plane. The back of the corridor is
Chapter 3 higher on the horizontal plane than the front
of the corridor is.
Concept Check 3.1
1. d. Dendrite ✓ 3. Texture gradient. The more distant portions of
the hallway are painted in less detail than the
2. f. Myelin closer portions are.
3. b. Neuron ✓ 4. Relative size. The arches in the distance are
4. e. Axon smaller than those in the foreground.
5. a. Glia ✓ 5. Light and shadow. Light shining in from the

crossing corridor (it’s coming from the left)
6. g. Terminal button contrasts with shadow elsewhere.
7. h. Synapse ✓ 6. Linear perspective. The lines of the corridor
converge in the distance.
Concept Check 3.2
1. d. Serotonin Concept Check 4.3
2. b. and d. Serotonin and norepinephrine Dimension Vision Hearing
3. e. Endorphins 1. Stimulus Light waves Sound waves
4. c. Dopamine 2. Elements of Wavelength/hue Frequency/pitch

stimulus Amplitude/ Amplitude/
5. a. Acetylcholine and related brightness loudness
perceptions Purity/saturation Purity/timbre
Concept Check 3.3
1. Left hemisphere damage, probably to Wernicke’s area 3. Receptors Rods and cones Hair cells
2. Deficit in dopamine synthesis in an area of the 4. Location of Retina Basilar

midbrain receptors membrane
3. Degeneration of myelin sheaths surrounding axons 5. Main location Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe,
of processing visual cortex auditory cortex
4. Disturbance in dopamine activity, possibly associated in brain
with enlarged ventricles in the brain
6. Spatial Depth Auditory
Please note that neuropsychological assessment is not aspect of perception localization
as simple as this introductory exercise may suggest. perception
There are many possible causes of most disorders, and
we discussed only a handful of leading causes for each. Concept Check 4.4
Dimension Taste Smell Touch
Concept Check 3.4
1. Closer relatives; more distant relatives 1. Stimulus Soluble Volatile Mechanical,
chemicals chemicals thermal,
2. Identical twins; fraternal twins in saliva in air and
3. Biological parents; adoptive parents chemical
energy due
4. Genetic overlap or closeness; trait similarity to external
contact
Chapter 4 2. Receptors Clusters Olfactory Many
of taste cilia (at least 6)
Concept Check 4.1
cells (hairlike types
Dimension Rods Cones structures)
Physical shape Elongated Stubby 3. Location Taste Upper area Skin
Number in the retina 125 million 5–6.4 million of receptors buds on of nasal
tongue passages
Area of the retina in Periphery Center/
which they are fovea 4. Basic Sweet, No satis- Pressure,
dominant receptor elements sour, salty, factory hot, cold,
of bitter classifi- pain
Critical to color vision No Yes perception cation
Critical to peripheral Yes No scheme
vision
Sensitivity to dim light Strong Weak
Speed of dark Slow Rapid
adaptation
A-2 APPENDIX A
Chapter 5 4. CR. The designated response (reading a book) is

reinforced (with a gold star) every time.
Concept Check 5.1 5. FI. A fixed time interval (three years) has to elapse
Characteristic REM sleep NREM sleep before Skip can earn a salary increase (the reinforcer).
1. Type of EEG “Wide awake” Varied, lots
Concept Check 6.3
activity brain waves, of delta waves
mostly beta 1. Punishment.
2. Eye movements Rapid, lateral Slow or absent 2. Positive reinforcement.
3. Dreaming Frequent, vivid Less frequent 3. Punishment.
4. Depth (difficulty Varied, gener- Varied, gener- 4. Negative reinforcement (for Audrey); the dog is
in awakening) ally difficult ally easier to positively reinforced for its whining.
to awaken awaken 5. Negative reinforcement.
5. Percentage of About 20% About 80% 6. Extinction. When Sharma’s co-workers start to ignore
total sleep (in her complaints, they are trying to extinguish the
adults) behavior (which had been positively reinforced when
6. Increases or Percent Percent it won sympathy).
decreases (as decreases increases
Concept Check 6.4
percentage of
sleep) during 1. Classical conditioning. Midori’s blue windbreaker is
childhood a CS eliciting excitement in her dog.
7. Timing in sleep Dominates Dominates 2. Operant conditioning. Playing new songs leads to
(dominates late early negative consequences (punishment), which weaken
early or late) in cycle in cycle the tendency to play new songs. Playing old songs
leads to positive reinforcement, which gradually
Concept Check 5.2 strengthens the tendency to play old songs.
1. Beta. Video games require alert information process- 3. Classical conditioning. The song was paired with
ing, which is associated with beta waves. the passion of new love so that it became a CS elicit-
2. Alpha. Meditation involves relaxation, which is ing emotional, romantic feelings.
associated with alpha waves, and studies show in- 4. Both. Ralph’s workplace is paired with criticism so
creased alpha in meditators. that his workplace becomes a CS eliciting anxiety.
3. Theta. In stage 1 sleep, theta waves tend to be Calling in sick is operant behavior that is strength-
prevalent. ened through negative reinforcement (because it
reduces anxiety).
4. Delta. Sleepwalking usually occurs in deep NREM
sleep, which is dominated by delta activity.
Chapter 7
5. Beta. Nightmares are dreams, so you’re probably in
REM sleep, which paradoxically produces “wide Concept Check 7.1
awake” beta waves. Sensory Short-term Long-term
Feature memory memory memory
Chapter 6 Encoding Copy of Largely Largely
format input phonemic semantic
Concept Check 6.1
1. CS: Fire in fireplace Storage Limited Small (7±2 No known
capacity chunks) limit
UCS: Pain from burn CR/UCR: Fear
Storage About 1⁄4 Up to 20 Minutes to
2. CS: Brake lights in rain duration second seconds years
UCS: Car accident CR/UCR: Tensing up
Concept Check 7.2
3. CS: Sight of cat 1. Ineffective encoding due to lack of attention
UCS: Cat dander CR/UCR: Wheezing 2. Retrieval failure due to motivated forgetting
Concept Check 6.2 3. Proactive interference (previous learning of Joe

1. FR. Each sale is a response and every third response Cocker’s name interferes with new learning)
earns reinforcement. 4. Retroactive interference (new learning of sociology
2. VI. A varied amount of time elapses before the interferes with older learning of history)
response of doing yardwork can earn reinforcement.
Concept Check 7.3
3. VR. Reinforcement occurs after a varied number 1. a. Declarative memory
of unreinforced casts (time is irrelevant; the more
casts Martha makes, the more reinforcers she will 2. c. Long-term memory
receive). 3. a. Sensory memory
4. f. Episodic memory

5. e. Nondeclarative memory in families. Since families share both genes and envi-
ronment, either or both could be responsible for the
6. g. Semantic memory
observed correlation.
7. i. Prospective memory
5. B. The similarity of adopted children to their biolog-
8. b. Short-term memory ical parents can only be due to shared genes, and the
similarity of adopted children to their foster parents
can only be due to shared environment, so these
Chapter 8
correlations show the influence of both heredity and
Concept Check 8.1 environment.
1. 1. One-word utterance in which the word is over- Concept Check 9.3
extended to refer to a similar object.
1. b. Gardner
2. 4. Words are combined into a sentence, but the rule
2. a. Galton
for past tense is overregularized.
3. c. Jensen
3. 3. Telegraphic sentence.
4. d. Scarr
4. 5. Words are combined into a sentence, and past
tense is used correctly. 5. e. Sternberg
5. 2. One-word utterance without overextension.
Chapter 10
6. 6. “Longer” sentence with metaphor.
Concept Check 10.1
Concept Check 8.2
1. I. Early studies indicated that lesioning the ventro-
1. Functional fixedness
medial nucleus of the hypothalamus leads to over-
2. Forming subgoals eating (although it is an oversimplification to char-
acterize the VMH as the brain’s “stop eating” center).
3. Insight
2. I. According to Mayer, hunger increases when the
4. Searching for analogies
amount of glucose in the blood decreases.
5. Arrangement problem
3. I or ?. Food cues generally trigger hunger and eating,
Concept Check 8.3 but reactions vary among individuals.
1. Elimination by aspects 4. D. Food preferences are mostly learned, and we tend
to like what we are accustomed to eating. Most peo-
2. Availability heuristic
ple will not be eager to eat a strange-looking food.
3. Shift to additive strategy
5. I. People tend to eat more when a variety of foods
are available.
Chapter 9
6. I. Reactions vary, but stress generally tends to in-
Concept Check 9.1 crease eating.
1. Test-retest reliability 7. I. Research on dietary restraint suggests that when
people feel that they have cheated on their diet,
2. Criterion-related validity
they tend to become disinhibited and eat to excess.
3. Content validity
Concept Check 10.2
Concept Check 9.2 1. d. Fear of failure
1. H. Given that the identical twins were reared apart,
2. c. Incentive value of success
their greater similarity in comparison to fraternals
reared together can only be due to heredity. This 3. b. Perceived probability of success
comparison is probably the most important piece of
4. a. Need for achievement
evidence supporting the genetic determination of IQ.
2. E. We tend to associate identical twins with evidence Concept Check 10.3
supporting heredity, but in this comparison genetic 2. James-Lange theory
similarity is held constant since both sets of twins
3. Schachter’s two-factor theory
are identical. The only logical explanation for the
greater similarity in identicals reared together is the 4. Evolutionary theories
effect of their being reared together (environment).
3. E. This comparison is similar to the previous one. Chapter 11
Genetic similarity is held constant and a shared
environment produces greater similarity than being Concept Check 11.1
reared apart. Time
Event Stage Organism span
4. B. This is nothing more than a quantification of
Galton’s original observation that intelligence runs 1. Uterine Germinal Zygote 0–2
implantation weeks
A-4 APPENDIX A
2. Muscle and Fetal Fetus 2 Concept Check 13.2

bone begin months 1. a. Frustration due to delay
to form to birth
2. d. Pressure to perform
3. Vital organs Embryonic Embryo 2 weeks
and body to 2 3. c. Change associated with leaving school and taking
systems begin months a new job
to form 4. a. Frustration due to loss of job
Concept Check 11.2 c. Change in life circumstances
1. b. Animism is characteristic of the preoperational d. Pressure to perform (in quickly obtaining new job)
period.
2. c. Mastery of hierarchical classification occurs dur-
Concept Check 13.3
ing the concrete operational period. 1. Denial of reality
3. a. Lack of object permanence is characteristic of the 2. Undoing

sensorimotor period. 3. Fantasy
Concept Check 11.3 4. Overcompensation
1. c. Commitment to personal ethics is characteristic 5. Intellectualization
of postconventional reasoning.
2. b. Concern about approval of others is characteristic Chapter 14
of conventional reasoning.
3. a. Emphasis on positive or negative consequences
Concept Check 14.1
is characteristic of preconventional reasoning. Deviance Maladaptive Personal
behavior distress
Chapter 12 1. Alan ✓
2. Monica ✓
Concept Check 12.1
3. Boris ✓
1. Regression
4. Natasha ✓ ✓ ✓
2. Projection
3. Reaction formation Concept Check 14.2
4. Repression 1. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (key symptoms:
frequent rituals, ruminations about school)
5. Rationalization
2. Somatization disorder (key symptoms: history of
Concept Check 12.2 physical complaints involving many different organ
1. Bandura’s observational learning. Sarah imitates systems)
a role model from television. 3. Conversion disorder (key symptoms: loss of func-
2. Maslow’s need for self-actualization. Yolanda is tion in single organ system)
striving to realize her fullest potential.
Concept Check 14.3
3. Freud’s Oedipal complex. Vladimir shows preference 1. Bipolar disorder, manic episode (key symptoms:
for his opposite-sex parent and emotional distance extravagant plans, hyperactivity, reckless spending)
from his same-sex parent.
2. Paranoid schizophrenia (key symptoms: delusions of
Concept Check 12.3 persecution and grandeur, along with deterioration
1. Maslow (1971, p. 36), commenting on the need for of adaptive behavior)
self-actualization. 3. Major depression (key symptoms: feelings of despair,
2. Eysenck (1977, pp. 407–408), commenting on the low self-esteem, lack of energy)
biological roots of personality.
3. Freud (in Malcolm, 1980), commenting on the repres- Chapter 15
sion of sexuality.
Concept Check 15.1
1. c 2. a 3. b
Chapter 13
Concept Check 15.2
Concept Check 13.1
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. c
1. b. A choice between two unattractive options
2. c. Weighing the positive and negative aspects of
Concept Check 15.3
a single goal 1. c 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. b
3. a. A choice between two attractive options

Chapter 16 Concept Check 16.3

1. Target: Cognitive component of attitudes (beliefs
Concept Check 16.1 about program for regulating nursing homes)
Unstable Stable
Persuasion: Message factor (advice to use one-sided
Internal d b instead of two-sided arguments)
External a c 2. Target: Affective component of attitudes (feelings
about candidate)
Concept Check 16.2
Persuasion: Source factor (advice on appearing lik-
1. c. Fundamental attribution error (assuming that
able, sincere, and compassionate)
arriving late reflects personal qualities)
3. Target: Behavioral component of attitudes (making
2. a. Illusory correlation effect (overestimating how
contributions)
often one has seen confirmations of the assertion
that young, female professors get pregnant soon Persuasion: Receiver factor (considering audience’s
after being hired) initial position regarding the candidate)
3. b. Stereotyping (assuming that all lawyers have Concept Check 16.4
certain traits)
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False
4. d. Defensive attribution (derogating the victims
of misfortune to minimize the apparent likelihood
of a similar mishap)
A-6 APPENDIX A
Appendix B Statistical Methods
Empiricism depends on observation; precise obser- class, and when they estimate how many hours they
vation depends on measurement; and measurement spend per day watching TV, the results are as follows:
requires numbers. Thus, scientists routinely analyze
3 2 0 3 1
numerical data to arrive at their conclusions. Over
3 4 0 5 1
3000 empirical studies are cited in this text, and all
2 3 4 5 2
but a few of the simplest ones required a statistical
4 5 3 4 6
analysis. Statistics is the use of mathematics to or-
ganize, summarize, and interpret numerical data. One of the simpler things that we can do to or-
We discussed statistics briefly in Chapter 2, but in this ganize data is to create a frequency distribution—
Appendix we take a closer look. an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the
To illustrate statistics in action, let’s assume that frequency of each score or group of scores. Fig-
we want to test a hypothesis that has generated quite ure B.1(a) shows a frequency distribution for our
an argument in your psychology class. The hypothe- data on TV viewing. The column on the left lists the
sis is that college students who watch a great deal of possible scores (estimated hours of TV viewing) in
television aren’t as bright as those who watch TV in- order, and the column on the right lists the number
frequently. For the fun of it, your class decides to of subjects with each score. Graphs can provide an
conduct a correlational study of itself, collecting sur- even better overview of the data. One approach is to
vey and psychological test data. Your classmates all portray the data in a histogram, which is a bar graph
agree to respond to a short survey on their TV view- that presents data from a frequency distribution.
ing habits. Because everyone at your school has had Such a histogram, summarizing our TV viewing data,
to take the SAT, the class decides to use scores on the is presented in Figure B.1(b).
SAT verbal subtest as an index of how bright students Another widely used method of portraying data
are. All of them agree to allow the records office at graphically is the frequency polygon—a line figure
the college to furnish their SAT scores to the pro- used to present data from a frequency distribution.
fessor, who replaces each student’s name with a sub- Figures B.1(c) and B.1(d) show how our TV viewing
ject number (to protect students’ right to privacy). data can be converted from a histogram to a frequency
Let’s see how we could use statistics to analyze the polygon. In both the bar graph and the line figure,
data collected in our pilot study (a small, preliminary the horizontal axis lists the possible scores and the Figure B.1
investigation). vertical axis is used to indicate the frequency of each Graphing data. (a) Our
k Tr e k raw data are tallied into a fre-
sy score. This use of the axes is nearly universal for fre-
quency distribution. (b) The
P
Graphing Data 1c quency polygons, although sometimes it is reversed same data are portrayed in a
in histograms (the vertical axis lists possible scores, so bar graph called a histogram.
(c) A frequency polygon is
After collecting our data, our next step is to organize the bars become horizontal).
plotted over the histogram.
the data to get a quick overview of our numerical re- Our graphs improve on the jumbled collection of (d) The resultant frequency
sults. Let’s assume that there are 20 students in your scores that we started with, but descriptive statistics, polygon is shown by itself.
Score Tallies Frequency

6 6 6
6 1
5 5 5
5 3
Frequency of score
4 4 4
4 4
3 3 3
3 5
2 2 2
2 3
1 1 1
1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 Scores (estimated hours of Scores (estimated hours of Scores (estimated hours of
TV viewing per day) TV viewing per day) TV viewing per day)
(a) Frequency distribution (b) Histogram (c) Conversion of histogram into (d) Frequency polygon
frequency polygon
Statistical Methods A-7

Figure B.2 scores, and the mode is the score that occurs most
0
Measures of central frequently.
0
tendency. Although the All three measures of central tendency are calcu-
mean, median, and mode
1
1 lated for our TV viewing data in Figure B.2. As you
sometimes yield different
2 can see, in this set of data, the mean, median, and
results, they usually converge,
as in the case of our TV
2
2 mode all turn out to be the same score, which is 3.
viewing data.
3 Mode (most frequent score) Although our example in Chapter 2 emphasized that
3 the mean, median, and mode can yield different
3
Median (middle of score distribution) estimates of central tendency, the correspondence
3
3 among them seen in our TV viewing data is quite
4 common. Lack of agreement usually occurs when a
4
4 few extreme scores pull the mean away from the cen-
4 ter of the distribution, as shown in Figure B.3. The
5 curves plotted in Figure B.3 are simply “smoothed
5
5
out” frequency polygons based on data from many
6 subjects. They show that when a distribution is sym-
60 ÷ 20 = 3.00 Mean (arithmetic average of metric, the measures of central tendency fall to-
summed scores) gether, but this is not true in skewed or unbalanced
distributions.
Figure B.3(b) shows a negatively skewed distribu-
which are used to organize and summarize data, tion, in which most scores pile up at the high end
provide some additional advantages. Let’s see what of the scale (the negative skew refers to the direc-
the three measures of central tendency tell us about tion in which the curve’s “tail” points). A positively
our data. skewed distribution, in which scores pile up at the
low end of the scale, is shown in Figure B.3(c). In
Measuring Central sy
k Tr
ek
both types of skewed distributions, a few extreme
P
Tendency 1c scores at one end pull the mean, and to a lesser de-
Figure B.3 gree the median, away from the mode. In these situ-
Measures of central ten- In examining a set of data, it’s routine to ask “What ations, the mean may be misleading and the median
dency in skewed distri- is a typical score in the distribution?” For instance, usually provides the best index of central tendency.
butions. In a symmetrical
in this case we might compare the average amount In any case, the measures of central tendency for
distribution (a), the three
measures of central tendency of TV watching in our sample to national estimates, our TV viewing data are reassuring, since they all
converge. However, in a neg- to determine whether our subjects appear to be rep- agree and they fall reasonably close to national esti-
atively skewed distribution
resentative of the population. The three measures of mates regarding how much young adults watch TV
(b) or in a positively skewed
distribution (c), the mean, central tendency—the median, the mean, and the (Nielsen Media Research, 1998). Given the small size
median, and mode are pulled mode—give us indications regarding the typical score of our group, this agreement with national norms
apart as shown here. Typi-
in a data set. As explained in Chapter 2, the median doesn’t prove that our sample is representative of the
cally, in these situations the
median provides the best is the score that falls in the center of a distribu- population, but at least there’s no obvious reason to
index of central tendency. tion, the mean is the arithmetic average of the believe that it is unrepresentative.
Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
Mean
Low Mode High Low Mean Mode High Low Mode Mean High
Median Median Median
Scores Scores Scores
(a) Symmetrical distribution (b) Negatively skewed distribution (c) Positively skewed distribution
A-8 APPENDIX B
ek
k Tr
sy
P
Measuring Variability 1c higher standard deviation than the distribution in
Figure B.4(a).
Of course, the subjects in our sample did not report The formula for calculating the standard devia-
identical TV viewing habits. Virtually all data sets tion is shown in Figure B.5, where d stands for each
are characterized by some variability. Variability re- score’s deviation from the mean and stands for
fers to how much the scores tend to vary or depart summation. A step-by-step application of this for-
from the mean score. For example, the distribution mula to our TV viewing data, shown in Figure B.5,
of golf scores for a mediocre, erratic golfer would be reveals that the standard deviation for our TV view-
characterized by high variability, while scores for an ing data is 1.64. The standard deviation has a variety
equally mediocre but consistent golfer would show of uses. One of these uses will surface in the next sec-
less variability. tion, where we discuss the normal distribution.
The standard deviation is an index of the k Tr
ek
sy
amount of variability in a set of data. It reflects the
P
The Normal Distribution 7c
dispersion of scores in a distribution. This principle
is portrayed graphically in Figure B.4, where the two
The hypothesis in our study is that brighter students
distributions of golf scores have the same mean but
watch less TV than relatively dull students. To test this
the upper one has less variability because the scores
hypothesis, we’re going to correlate TV viewing with
are “bunched up” in the center (for the consistent
SAT scores. But to make effective use of the SAT data,
golfer). The distribution in Figure B.4(b) is character-
we need to understand what SAT scores mean, which
ized by more variability, as the erratic golfer’s scores
brings us to the normal distribution.
are more spread out. This distribution will yield a
The normal distribution is a symmetric, bell-
shaped curve that represents the pattern in which
many human characteristics are dispersed in the
Figure B.4 population. A great many physical qualities (for ex-
The standard deviation and dispersion of data. Al- ample, height, nose length, and running speed) and
though both these distributions of golf scores have the same
mean, their standard deviations will be different. In (a) the scores
are bunched together and there is less variability than in (b), Figure B.5
yielding a lower standard deviation for the data in distribution (a). TV viewing Deviation Deviation
Steps in calculating
score from mean squared
the standard deviation.
Mean (X ) (d ) (d 2 )
(1) Add the scores (X) and
(a) divide by the number of
0 –3 9 scores (N) to calculate the
0 –3 9 mean (which comes out to
1 –2 4 3.0 in this case). (2) Calculate
1 –2 4 each score’s deviation from
Frequency
2 –1 1 the mean by subtracting the

2 –1 1 mean from each score (the
2 –1 1 results are shown in the sec-
3 0 0 ond column). (3) Square
3 0 0 these deviations from the
3 0 0 mean and total the results to
3 0 0 obtain (d 2 ) as shown in the
3 0 0 third column. (4) Insert the
70 80 90 100 110 4 +1 1 numbers for N and d 2 into
Golf scores 4 +1 1 the formula for the standard
4 +1 1 deviation and compute the
Mean results.
4 +1 1
(b)
5 +2 4
5 +2 4
5 +2 4
N = 20 6 +3 9
Frequency
Σ X = 60 Σd 2 = 54
Σ X 60 3.0
Mean = = =
N 20
√ Σd 2 =
√
Standard 54
=
deviation N 20
70 80 90 100 110 = √ 2.70 = 1.64

Golf scores

psychological traits (intelligence, spatial reasoning Although you may not have realized it, you prob-
ability, introversion) are distributed in a manner that ably have taken many tests in which the scoring sys-
closely resembles this bell-shaped curve. When a trait tem is based on the normal distribution. On the SAT,
is normally distributed, most scores fall near the cen- for instance, raw scores (the number of items correct
ter of the distribution (the mean), and the number on each subtest) are converted into standard scores
of scores gradually declines as one moves away from that indicate where you fall in the normal distribu-
the center in either direction. The normal distribution for the trait measured. In this conversion, the
tion is not a law of nature. It’s a mathematical func- mean is set arbitrarily at 500 and the standard devia-
tion, or theoretical curve, that approximates the way tion at 100, as shown in Figure B.7. Therefore, a score
nature seems to operate. of 400 on the SAT verbal subtest means that you
The normal distribution is the bedrock of the scored 1 standard deviation below the mean, while
scoring system for most psychological tests, includ- an SAT score of 600 indicates that you scored 1 stan-
ing the SAT. As we discuss in Chapter 9, psychologi- dard deviation above the mean. Thus, SAT scores tell
cal tests are relative measures; they assess how people you how many standard deviations above or below
score on a trait in comparison to other people. The the mean your score was. This system also provides
normal distribution gives us a precise way to measure the metric for IQ scales and many other types of psy-
how people stack up in comparison to each other. chological tests (see Chapter 9).
The scores under the normal curve are dispersed in a Test scores that place examinees in the normal
fixed pattern, with the standard deviation serving distribution can always be converted to percen-
as the unit of measurement, as shown in Figure B.6. tile scores, which are a little easier to interpret. A
About 68% of the scores in the distribution fall within percentile score indicates the percentage of people
plus or minus 1 standard deviation of the mean, while who score at or below the score you obtained. For
95% of the scores fall within plus or minus 2 stan- example, if you score at the 60th percentile, 60% of
dard deviations of the mean. Given this fixed pat- the people who take the test score the same or below
tern, if you know the mean and standard deviation you, while the remaining 40% score above you. There
of a normally distributed trait, you can tell where any are tables available that permit us to convert any
score falls in the distribution for the trait. standard deviation placement in a normal distribu-
Figure B.6
The normal distribu-
tion. Many characteristics 99.72%
are distributed in a pattern 95.44%
represented by this bell-
shaped curve (each dot rep- 68.26%
resents a case). The horizon-
tal axis shows how far above
or below the mean a score is
Frequency
(measured in plus or minus

standard deviations). The
vertical axis shows the num-
ber of cases obtaining each
score. In a normal distribu-
tion, most cases fall near the
center of the distribution, so
that 68.26% of the cases fall 1 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99
within plus or minus 1 stan-
dard deviation of the mean.
The number of cases gradu-
ally declines as one moves
away from the mean in either –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3
direction, so that only 13.59%
Standard
of the cases fall between
deviations
1 and 2 standard deviations
above or below the mean, 1 22 136 341 341 136 22 1
and even fewer cases (2.14%) Number of scores in interval if total number = 1000
fall between 2 and 3 stan-
0.13 2.14 13.59 34.13 34.13 13.59 2.14 0.13
dard deviations above or
Scores in interval (%)
below the mean.
1 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99
Percentiles
A-10 APPENDIX B
tion into a precise percentile score. Figure B.6 gives 34.13% Figure B.7
some percentile conversions for the normal curve. 34.13% The normal distribution
Of course, not all distributions are normal. As we and SAT scores. The nor-
13.59% 13.59% mal distribution is the basis
saw in Figure B.3, some distributions are skewed in for the scoring system on
one direction or the other. As an example, consider many standardized tests. For
2.14% 2.14% example, on the SAT, the
what would happen if a classroom exam were much
mean is set at 500 and the
too easy or much too hard. If the test were too easy, standard deviation at 100.
.13% .13%
scores would be bunched up at the high end of the Hence, an SAT score tells you
scale, as in Figure B.3(b). If the test were too hard, how many standard devia-
tions above or below the
scores would be bunched up at the low end, as in Fig- –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 mean you scored. For exam-
ure B.3(c). ple, a score of 700 means
ek Standard deviations
k Tr you scored 2 standard devia-
sy
P
tions above the mean.
Measuring Correlation 1d 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
SAT scores
To determine whether TV viewing is related to SAT
scores, we have to compute a correlation coefficient— tells us that there is no relationship between two
a numerical index of the degree of relationship variables. A coefficient of 1.00 or 1.00 indicates
between two variables. As discussed in Chapter 2, that there is a perfect, one-to-one correspondence
a positive correlation means that two variables—say between two variables. A perfect correlation is found
X and Y—co-vary in the same direction. This means only rarely when working with real data. The closer
that high scores on variable X are associated with the coefficient is to either 1.00 or 1.00, the
high scores on variable Y and that low scores on X stronger the relationship is.
are associated with low scores on Y. A negative corre- The direction and strength of correlations can be
lation indicates that two variables co-vary in the op- illustrated graphically in scatter diagrams (see Fig-
Figure B.8
posite direction. This means that people who score ure B.8). A scatter diagram is a graph in which
Scatter diagrams of
high on variable X tend to score low on variable Y, paired X and Y scores for each subject are plotted positive and negative
whereas those who score low on X tend to score high as single points. Figure B.8 shows scatter diagrams correlations. Scatter dia-
grams plot paired X and Y
on Y. In our study, we hypothesized that as TV view- for positive correlations in the upper half and for neg-
scores as single points. Score
ing increases, SAT scores will decrease, so we should ative correlations in the bottom half. A perfect posi- plots slanted in the opposite
expect a negative correlation between TV viewing tive correlation and a perfect negative correlation are direction result from positive
(top row) as opposed to neg-
and SAT scores. shown on the far left. When a correlation is perfect,
ative (bottom row) correla-
The magnitude of a correlation coefficient indi- the data points in the scatter diagram fall exactly in tions. Moving across both
cates the strength of the association between two a straight line. However, positive and negative corre- rows (to the right), you can
variables. This coefficient can vary between 0 and lations yield lines slanted in the opposite direction see that progressively weaker
correlations result in more
1.00. The coefficient is usually represented by the because the lines map out opposite types of associa- and more scattered plots of
letter r (for example, r .45). A coefficient near 0 tions. Moving to the right in Figure B.8, you can see data points.
Direct relationship
40 40 40 40
Y 30 Y 30 Y 30 Y 30
X Y
20 20 20 20
10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30
Positive correlation X X X X
r = 1.00 r = .80 r = .60 r = .20
Inverse relationship
40 40 40 40
Y 30 Y 30 Y 30 Y 30
X Y
20 20 20 20
10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30
Negative correlation X X X X
r = –1.00 r = –.80 r = –.60 r = –.20

Figure B.9 700 tion between TV viewing and SAT scores. The scatter
Scatter diagram of the diagram of our data looks a lot like the one seen in
correlation between TV the bottom right corner of Figure B.8, suggesting that
viewing and SAT scores.
Our hypothetical data relat- 600 the correlation will be in the vicinity of .20.
SAT score
ing TV viewing to SAT scores The formula for computing the most widely used
are plotted in this scatter measure of correlation—the Pearson product-moment
diagram. Compare it to the
scatter diagrams seen in Fig- 500 correlation—is shown in Figure B.10, along with the
ure B.8 and see whether you calculations for our data on TV viewing and SAT
can estimate the correlation scores. The data yield a correlation of r .24. This
between TV viewing and SAT
scores in our data (see the 400 coefficient of correlation reveals that we have found
text for the answer). a weak inverse association between TV viewing and
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 performance on the SAT. Among our participants, as
Estimated hours of TV viewing per day TV viewing increases, SAT scores decrease, but the
trend isn’t very strong. We can get a better idea of how
what happens when the magnitude of a correlation strong this correlation is by examining its predictive
decreases. The data points scatter farther and farther power.
ek
from the straight line that would represent a perfect k Tr
sy
P
relationship. Correlation and Prediction 1d
What about our data relating TV viewing to SAT
scores? Figure B.9 shows a scatter diagram of these As the magnitude of a correlation increases (gets
data. Having just learned about scatter diagrams, per- closer to either 1.00 or 1.00), our ability to pre-
haps you can estimate the magnitude of the correla- dict one variable based on knowledge of the other
Figure B.10 TV viewing SAT

Computing a corre- Subject score score
lation coefficient. The number (X ) X2 (Y ) Y2 XY
calculations required to
compute the Pearson 1 0 0 500 250,000 0
product-moment coeffi- 2 0 0 515 265,225 0
cient of correlation are 3 1 1 450 202,500 450
shown here. The formula 4 1 1 650 422,500 650
looks intimidating, but 5 2 4 400 160,000 800
it’s just a matter of filling 6 2 4 675 455,625 1350
in the figures taken from 7 2 4 425 180,625 850
the sums of the columns 8 3 9 400 160,000 1200
shown above the formula. 9 3 9 450 202,500 1350
10 3 9 500 250,000 1500
11 3 9 550 302,500 1650
12 3 9 600 360,000 1800
13 4 16 400 160,000 1600
14 4 16 425 180,625 1700
15 4 16 475 225,625 1900
16 4 16 525 275,625 2100
17 5 25 400 160,000 2000
18 5 25 450 202,500 2250
19 5 25 475 225,625 2375
20 6 36 550 302,500 3300
N = 20 Σ X = 60 Σ X 2 = 234 ΣY = 9815 Σ Y 2 = 4,943,975 ΣXY = 28,825
Formula for (N ) Σ XY – ( Σ X ) ( ΣY )
Pearson r=
product-moment √[(N ) ΣX 2 – (Σ X )2 ] [(N ) ΣY 2 – (ΣY ) 2]
correlation
(20) (28,825) – (60) (9815)
coefficient =
√[ (20) (234) – (60) 2] [(20) (4,943,975) – (9815) 2 ]
–12,400
=
√[1080][2,545,275]
= – .237
A-12 APPENDIX B
variable steadily increases. This relationship between the same process can be applied to correlational data.
the magnitude of a correlation and predictability can In our study of TV viewing we hypothesized that we
be quantified precisely. All we have to do is square would find an inverse relationship between amount
the correlation coefficient (multiply it by itself) and of TV watched and SAT scores. Sure enough, that’s
this gives us the coefficient of determination, the what we found. However, we have to ask ourselves a
percentage of variation in one variable that can be critical question: Is this observed correlation large
predicted based on the other variable. Thus, a cor- enough to support our hypothesis, or might a corre-
relation of .70 yields a coefficient of determination lation of this size have occurred by chance?
of .49 (.70 .70 .49), indicating that variable X can We have to ask a similar question nearly every time
account for 49% of the variation in variable Y. Fig- we conduct a study. Why? Because we are working
ure B.11 shows how the coefficient of determination only with a sample. In research, we observe a limited
goes up as the magnitude of a correlation increases. sample (in this case, 20 participants) to draw conclu-
Unfortunately, a correlation of .24 doesn’t give us sions about a much larger population (college students
much predictive power. We can account only for a in general). There’s always a possibility that if we drew
little over 6% of the variation in variable Y. So, if we a different sample from the population, the results
tried to predict individuals’ SAT scores based on how might be different. Perhaps our results are unique to
much TV they watched, our predictions wouldn’t be our sample and not generalizable to the larger popu-
very accurate. Although a low correlation doesn’t lation. If we were able to collect data on the entire
have much practical, predictive utility, it may still population, we would not have to wrestle with this
have theoretical value. Just knowing that there is a problem, but our dependence on a sample necessi-
relationship between two variables can be theoreti- tates the use of inferential statistics to precisely eval-
cally interesting. However, we haven’t yet addressed uate the likelihood that our results are due to chance
the question of whether our observed correlation is factors in sampling. Thus, inferential statistics are
strong enough to support our hypothesis that there the key to making the inferential leap from the sam-
is a relationship between TV viewing and SAT scores. ple to the population (see Figure B.12 on the next
To make this judgment, we have to turn to inferential page).
statistics and the process of hypothesis testing. Although it may seem backward, in hypothesis
testing we formally test the null hypothesis. As ap-
Hypothesis Testing plied to correlational data, the null hypothesis is the
assumption that there is no true relationship be-
Inferential statistics go beyond the mere description tween the variables observed. In our study, the null
of data. Inferential statistics are used to interpret hypothesis is that there is no genuine association be-
data and draw conclusions. They permit researchers tween TV viewing and SAT scores. We want to deter-
to decide whether their data support their hypotheses. mine whether our results will permit us to reject the
In Chapter 2, we showed how inferential statistics null hypothesis and thus conclude that our research
can be used to evaluate the results of an experiment; hypothesis (that there is a relationship between the
Negative correlation Positive correlation Figure B.11

1.00 Correlation and the
coefficient of determi-
High High
nation. The coefficient of
determination is an index
Coefficient of determination
.75 of a correlation’s predic-

tive power. As you can see,
whether positive or negative,
stronger correlations yield
.50 greater predictive power.
Moderate Moderate
.25 Low Low

Negligible
predictive power
–1.00 –.90 –.80 –.70 –.60 –.50 –.40 –.30 –.20 –.10 0 .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00
Correlation
Increasing Increasing

Figure B.12 When this requirement is met, we say the results are
The relationship be- significant at the .05 level. If researchers calculate
tween the population that there is less than 1 chance in 100 that their results
and the sample. In re-
search, we are usually inter- are due to chance factors in sampling, the results are
ested in a broad population, significant at the .01 level. If there is less than a 1 in
but we can observe only a
Population:
The complete set 1000 chance that findings are attributable to sampling
small sample from the popu-
Inference error, the results are significant at the .001 level. Thus,
lation. After making observa-
tions of our sample, we draw there are several levels of significance that you may
inferences about the popula- see cited in scientific articles.
tion, based on the sample.
This inferential process works
Because we are only dealing in matters of proba-
well as long as the sample is bility, there is always the possibility that our decision
reasonably representative of to accept or reject the null hypothesis is wrong. The
the population.
various significance levels indicate the probability of
Sampling Sample: erroneously rejecting the null hypothesis (and inac-
A subset of the curately accepting the research hypothesis). At the
population
.05 level of significance, there are 5 chances in 100
that we have made a mistake when we conclude that
our results support our hypothesis, and at the .01
level of significance the chance of an erroneous con-
variables) has been supported. Why do we directly clusion is 1 in 100. Although researchers hold the
test the null hypothesis instead of the research hy- probability of this type of error quite low, the proba-
pothesis? Because our probability calculations de- bility is never zero. This is one of the reasons that
pend on assumptions tied to the null hypothesis. competently executed studies of the same question
Specifically, we compute the probability of obtain- can yield contradictory findings. The differences may
ing the results that we have observed if the null hy- be due to chance variations in sampling that can’t be
pothesis is indeed true. The calculation of this prob- prevented.
ability hinges on a number of factors. A key factor is What do we find when we evaluate our data link-
the amount of variability in the data, which is why ing TV viewing to students’ SAT scores? The calcula-
the standard deviation is an important statistic. tions indicate that, given our sample size and the
variability in our data, the probability of obtaining a
Statistical Significance correlation of .24 by chance is greater than 20%.
That’s not a high probability, but it’s not low enough
When we reject the null hypothesis, we conclude to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, our findings are
that we have found statistically significant results. Sta- not strong enough to allow us to conclude that we
tistical significance is said to exist when the probabil- have supported our hypothesis.
ity that the observed findings are due to chance is
very low, usually less than 5 chances in 100. This Statistics and Empiricism
means that if the null hypothesis is correct and we
conduct our study 100 times, drawing a new sample In summary, conclusions based on empirical research
from the population each time, we will get results are a matter of probability, and there’s always a pos-
such as those observed only 5 times out of 100. If our sibility that the conclusions are wrong. However,
calculations allow us to reject the null hypothesis, two major strengths of the empirical approach are
we conclude that our results support our research hy- its precision and its intolerance of error. Scientists
pothesis. Thus, statistically significant results typically can give you precise estimates of the likelihood that
are findings that support a research hypothesis. their conclusions are wrong, and because they’re in-
The requirement that there be less than 5 chances tolerant of error, they hold this probability extremely
in 100 that research results are due to chance is the low. It’s their reliance on statistics that allows them
minimum requirement for statistical significance. to accomplish these goals.
A-14 APPENDIX B
Appendix C Industrial/Organizational Psychology
by Frank Landy (Saville Holdsworth Limited), Kecia M. Thomas,

and Matthew S. Harrison (University of Georgia)
Throughout this book we have seen many examples of attitude formation help in understanding the job
of how psychology has been applied to practical prob- satisfaction of workers and organizational culture,
lems in a wide variety of settings. But we have yet to the social psychology of groups helps us understand
discuss in earnest one setting that has received a great team performance and leadership dynamics, aspects
deal of attention from the earliest beginnings of psy- of psychophysiology are relevant to a consideration
chology—the work setting. Industrial and organiza- of job stress, clinical theories of adjustment are ap-
tional (I/O) psychology is the branch of psychology plicable to the emotional consequences of job loss,
concerned with the application of psychological and theories of intelligence are used to develop tests
principles in the workplace. The Society for Indus- that might assist in hiring decisions. In fact, a good
trial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), the pri- deal of the work of the I/O psychologist involves
mary professional organization for I/O psycholo- adapting or extending the basic principles of other
gists, encompasses approximately 6,000 members, specialty areas of psychology to the work setting.
which includes representation from all 50 states and With respect to how I/O psychologists practice their
42 countries. The membership of the society has more profession, they use most of the same techniques as
than doubled in recent years, and this growth trend their colleagues in other areas, such as developmen-
is expected to continue. As the economy in Western tal or social psychology. Like other psychologists, the
nations changes to emphasize service and informa- I/O psychologist may do research in a laboratory or
tion, the influence and importance of I/O psychol- in a field setting (at the work site, for instance). I/O
ogy is likely to increase. As an area of specialization psychologists use the same basic experimental de-
in psychology, I/O psychology is second only to clin- signs and statistical tests as other behavioral research-
ical psychology in the number of practitioners. I/O ers, depend just as heavily on prior research for the-
psychologists are mostly found in four sectors of the oretical guidance, and publish the results of their
economy: industry, universities, government, and research in scholarly journals. In other words, like
consulting firms (see Figure C.1). In this appen- their colleagues in other areas of psychology, I/O
dix, we will briefly describe the history of I/O psy- psychologists are scientists who depend on the sci-
chology and then delve into its three main areas. But entific method to guide their work.
first we need a clearer picture of what I/O psychology
encompasses. Content
More than anything else, the content of I/O psychol-
Overview of I/O Psychology ogy helps define it as a branch of psychology. As Fig-
ure C.2 (on the next page) shows, the I/O psycholo-
Industrial and organizational psychology differs from gist has three primary areas of interest: (1) person-
other psychology subfields in the settings where it is nel psychology, (2) organizational psychology, and
practiced, in its content, and in its approach. It does (3) human factors (or human engineering) psychol-
not differ, however, in its reliance on the scientific
method for its theories and research. Figure C.1
Employment of indus-
Industry trial/organizational
Settings psychologists. I/O psy-
18%
In one sense, I/O psychology is defined more clearly Consulting chologists are employed
firms Government 7% mainly in the settings identi-
by where it happens than by what I/O psychologists
38% fied here. As the pie chart
actually do. I/O psychology is practiced in work set- shows, about three-quarters
tings, just as school psychology is practiced in educa- Universities
of I/O psychologists work in
tional settings. But even though the context in which either universities or consult-
37%
ing firms. (Based on Society
research and application are carried out may be for Industrial and Organiza-
unique, I/O psychology makes use of the findings of tional Psychology member
many other branches of psychology. For instance, database)
Source: Muchinsky, P. M. (2003). Psy-
principles of human motivation are relevant to the
chology applied to work. Belmont, CA:
study of productivity and safety behavior, theories Wadsworth. Reprinted by permission.
Industrial/Organizational Psychology A-15

perspective, the human being is the constant and the

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology job or work environment is the variable in the be-
havior equation. The concept of the work environ-
ment is used broadly and includes the actual physi-
Human factors cal setting in which the work takes place, the tools
Personnel Organizational (human engineering) and resources used in conducting the work (such as
psychology psychology psychology
printing presses, cash registers, laptop computers,
Concerned with whether Concerned with how Concerned with how
and other equipment), and the arrangement or de-
people have the skills people adapt socially and work environments can sign of the work tasks (including such things as the
and abilities to perform emotionally to working in be designed to fit human scheduling of work hours). Thus, the challenge to
various jobs effectively complex human workers’ capabilities and
organizations limitations the human factors psychologist is to design or re-
design a work environment so that it best fits the
capabilities and allows for the limitations of the hu-
mans who will inhabit it. Unlike personnel psychol-
Figure C.2 ogy. Although we will consider each of these areas in ogy, in which the individual is being tested or se-
Subfields of industrial/ detail shortly, it might be helpful to briefly describe lected to fit the job, human factors psychologists fit
organizational psychol- them here. the work technology or environment to human ca-
ogy. The domain of I/O
psychology can be divided Personnel psychology deals with determining pabilities in order to promote efficiency, effective-
into three specialized areas whether people have the knowledge, skills, abili- ness, and safety.
of interest: personnel psy- ties, and personality necessary to perform various
chology, organizational
psychology, and human types of work effectively. This subarea of I/O psy- A Systems Approach
factors psychology. chology is concerned with the broad topic of em- The division of I/O psychology into three facets is
ployment testing and with such related topics as job somewhat misleading because it implies that these
training, test validation, interviewing, and employ- areas operate independently. In practice, that is sel-
ment discrimination. Personnel psychologists see dom the case. In fact, the actual work, the people who
the job or work environment as the “given” and the do the work, and the work environment define a
population of individuals who might be workers as larger entity that might be labeled the “sociotechni-
the variable factor. Their goal is to find the workers cal system.” Changes made in one part of the system
who have the right attributes to fit the demands of usually affect other parts of the system.
the job. Changing the design of a task so that it is more
Organizational psychology is concerned with complex (a human factors activity) may have a sub-
how people adapt emotionally and socially to stantial impact on the satisfaction that a worker de-
working in complex human organizations. It fo- rives from that task (an organizational topic) and
cuses on work motivation, job satisfaction, leader- who might do best at that task (a personnel psychol-
ship, organizational culture, teamwork, and related ogy topic). As an example, consider the simple act of
Web Link C.1 topics. From this perspective, the concern of the I/O computerizing what had previously been a manual
Society for Industrial psychologist is to understand the factors that con- task. On the surface, this might be seen as a “human
and Organizational tribute to the right emotional “fit” between people factor” change, since it is a modification of the tools
Psychology (SIOP) and their work. Eighty years ago, managers believed of the job. But the new technology also changes other
The Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psy- that money was the only work motivator. The mod- aspects of the work. A clerk may no longer need to
chology (SIOP) is the lead- ern I/O psychologist concentrates on making the job go to the filing cabinet to insert or retrieve docu-
ing professional organiza- itself more interesting (in the jargon of the field, “en- ments, as files can now be accessed electronically
tion for I/O psychologists.
Although primarily in-
riching” the job), rather than getting workers to for- without moving from a desk. As a result, the clerk
tended for society mem- get how boring the work actually is by paying them may become more isolated and lose opportunities
bers, its website provides more. Other topics pursued by organizational psy- for social interaction with other workers. In addi-
a variety of resources for
chologists are the relationships between work and tion, the introduction of the computer changes the
students and teachers in-
terested in this growing nonwork (such as family life), the creation of cohe- skill and ability mix necessary for success on the job.
specialty area. Included sive workgroups within increasingly ethnically di- Unless the worker is capable of interacting effectively
among the resources are
verse workplaces, and the complexities of leadership with the hardware and software of the computer sys-
excellent discussions of
employment testing, the in a dynamic workplace. tem, he or she is likely to experience performance
effects of coaching on Human factors (human engineering) psychology problems (and accompanying feelings of frustration).
employment testing, and
examines the way in which work environments In addition to these changes, the performance of the
ways I/O psychologists can
contribute to organiza- can be designed or modified to match the capa- worker might be more closely monitored. Keystrokes
tional excellence. bilities and limitations of human beings. From this can be counted and an average per minute calcu-
A-16 APPENDIX C
lated, errors can be detected, and other measures of demonstration involved the first efforts at psycho-
performance can be collected and used to reward or logical testing, including measurements of psycho-
punish the worker. Finally, supervisors might inter- logical abilities, such as memory and reaction time.
act with employees by sending messages via e-mail Mental tests were subsequently adopted by edu-
rather than by talking directly with them, losing a cational institutions to identify those children and
personal element. In short, computerizing a function young adults most likely to benefit from various forms
is much more complex and dynamic than it seems of education. Alfred Binet developed his intelligence
on the surface. test to separate educable from uneducable children
The fact that the three areas of I/O psychology are in the French primary school system. And Hugo Mun-
not mutually exclusive is both a burden and an op- sterberg developed tests for the selection of ships’
portunity for I/O psychologists. The burden lies in captains, telephone operators, and trolley drivers. All
being sensitive to the impact that making a change of these instances of testing occurred before 1909,
in one part of this sociotechnical system has on other the year that Freud first visited America.
parts of the system. The opportunity lies in having When the United States entered World War I,
several options for dealing with real-world problems. intelligence testing was introduced as a method of
For example, if an organization is having a problem identifying those recruits with the greatest likeli-
with accidents or productivity, an I/O psychologist hood of becoming successful officers as well as steer-
might suggest redesigning the work environment to ing nonofficers into specialties for which they were
be safer or more efficient. Alternatively, the psychol- best suited (Yerkes, 1921). The respectability acquired
ogist might design a motivational program to en- by psychological testing from this wartime applica-
courage workers to engage in safer or more production carried over into industry following the war,
tive work. Finally, the psychologist might suggest and modern personnel psychology emerged. By 1932
changing the methods used to select or train work- there were dozens of texts describing the goals and
ers. Any or all of these methods might be effective in methods of personnel psychology (such as Burtt,
reducing accidents or improving productivity. In all 1929; Viteles, 1932). Similar pressures for mass test-
likelihood, the most effective intervention would ing exerted by World War II further enhanced the
combine elements of all three approaches. In a per- importance of personnel testing, which retains a
sonal sense, the practice of I/O psychology is excit-
ing because there are so many different ways to ap- The simple act of replacing
proach the same work-related issue. a typewriter with a personal
computer can have ramifi-
cations in many aspects of
A Brief History an employee’s work besides
interaction with the physi-
cal equipment. A systems
Although psychology as a science was born in the late
approach helps explain the
l9th century, various specialty areas, including I/O various repercussions of such
psychology, came along somewhat later. Hugo Mun- changes.
sterberg, one of the earliest practitioners of I/O psy-

chology, was an original founder of the American
Psychological Association in 1892. By 1910, Munster-
berg had written the first text in I/O psychology. The
first Ph.D. granted in I/O psychology was in 1915. It
was presented to Lilian Gilbreth by Brown University.
In this section, we will examine the development of
I/O psychology from a historical perspective.
Personnel Psychology
Personnel psychology was the first of the three I/O
subfields to appear. The emergence of this subfield
was the result of several forces, the foremost being
© Ingram Publishing/Alamy
psychology’s increased interest in measuring and

recording individual differences. As we saw in Chap-
ter 9, Sir Francis Galton attempted to provide sup-
port for his cousin Charles Darwin’s theory of evolu-
tion by showing that traits are inherited. Part of this

prominent role in I/O psychology today. Following tudes have direct effects on behavior. Previously, man-
World War II, there was a growing interest in per- agers had believed that only physical or “real” stim-
sonality and interest testing, and these new types of uli, such as heat, light, and pay, affect behavior. The
tests were added to the typical test battery given to job accuracy of Mayo’s conclusions have been called into
applicants. question over the years (Landsberger, 1958; Landy,
1988). Nevertheless, at the time the results appeared,
Organizational Psychology they caused an earthquake in the world of business
The prevailing belief in the early part of the 20th management. A new paradigm was introduced to re-
century was that money was the only motivator in place scientific management, and the human rela-
business and industry. This belief was formalized by tions movement was launched. This movement pro-
the theory of Frederick W. Taylor (1911), variously posed that many factors beyond pay level contribute
known as “scientific management” or “Taylorism.” to the satisfaction and productivity of workers and
Taylor believed that one need only identify the most that these factors can be identified in the attitudes
efficient way to physically carry out a piece of work that workers hold toward various aspects of their
(lay a brick, shovel coal), pick a worker capable of the work. The implication was that supervisors should
work and willing to follow orders without question, be more sensitive to the feelings of workers as a way
and pay that worker in proportion to production of improving productivity. The human relations
rate. At that time, the term “job satisfaction” was of movement gave birth to 60 years of interest in job
little interest to employers. And “intelligence” among satisfaction, work motivation, and leadership, areas
workers was to be avoided at all costs. Taylor preferred of study that remain important today.
to apply his principles to workers “slightly dumber
than an ox” (Taylor, 1911). Human Factors Psychology
The Taylorists’ views were eventually undermined Research and application of modern human factors
by some influential experiments conducted at a West- psychology began with World War II. Airplanes, ships,
ern Electric facility near Chicago in 1930. This work submarines, and weapons had undergone a radical
was described by Elton Mayo, an Australian psychol- transformation since World War I, resulting in greater
ogist working in the management school of Harvard attention to developing technical systems that could
University (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). The re- be used effectively by humans. Of particular concern
search team discovered that employees’ attitudes to- was the fact that far more accidents involving air-
ward their supervisors and their company had sub- craft occurred than had ever been experienced in
stantial effects on productivity—effects that seemed World War I. This situation was due, in large part, to
to be independent of pay level or other working con- the fact that the military aircraft had become much
ditions, such as lighting or rest breaks. This was a more complex. In World War I, plane cockpits had a
revolutionary discovery because it implied that atti- few primitive instruments indicating speed, altitude,
and engine characteristics. Bombs were dropped by
leaning out of the open cockpit and dropping a mis-
sile onto the target. In the two decades separating
the wars, technology had advanced rapidly. The cock-
pit had become a dazzling array of gauges, controls,
lights, and arrows. Worse yet, each type of airplane
had a different configuration of controls and gauges.
Bomber pilots were reaching for flap controls where
they had been on the last plane they flew but acciden-
tally activating landing gear and vice versa, resulting
Image not available due to copyright restrictions in fatal crashes. Human error, rather than equipment
failure, seemed to play the major role in most such
accidents. The simple standardization of the cock-
pits of the various airplanes drastically reduced these
accidents. Gauges and controls were placed in the
same spot in every aircraft, and unique knobs were
assigned to various controls. Modern human factors
psychology was born out of this sort of need to de-
sign the best and safest combination of human and
machine. Much of the complex equipment used to-
day, particularly in high-technology arenas such as
A-18 APPENDIX C
aviation, nuclear power, and computers, shows the Human factors psychology
plays an important role in
influence of the human factors specialist.
the design of complex high-
In the next three sections of this appendix, we tech equipment, such as
will consider each of the facets of I/O psychology in airplane control panels,
to help reduce the risk of
greater detail. Because of the breadth and complex- accidents.
ity of I/O psychology, we will consider a representa-
tive sample of I/O issues rather than a comprehen-
sive listing of those issues. In the final section, we
© Jeff Sherman/Taxi/Getty Images

will reconsider how the three facets of I/O psychol-
ogy are bound tightly together in a sociotechnical
system.
Personnel Psychology
Every three or four years, the New York City Police
Department (NYPD) announces that it would like to to lost motorists and pedestrians, fill in their log
hire new police officers. Over 50,000 people usually books on a regular basis, and put fuel in their patrol
apply for the positions. About 2000 applicants will cars during their work shifts. But these are not the
eventually be appointed to the Police Academy. How central or defining responsibilities of the police offi-
does the city decide which 2000 to appoint? By ad- cer. The central responsibilities include enforcing
ministering a series of tests that determine the men- traffic safety regulations, responding to calls for help
tal and physical ability and emotional stability of the from citizens and fellow officers, and apprehending
applicants. This is an example of personnel selection individuals suspected of breaking laws.
on its broadest scale. A job analysis is a way of separating the less im-
Consider another example. A new mountain bike portant aspects of a job (such as telling tourists how
manufacturer decides to hire someone to design and to find the Statue of Liberty) from the central aspects
maintain a website. The company has never had a (such as intervening in a mugging). Once the task of
website before. The company asks applicants to cre- identifying the truly important aspects of the job has
ate a sample website, with the intent of hiring the been accomplished, the next step is to determine the
person who develops the most attractive and effec- knowledge, skills, abilities, or other personal charac-
tive site. This is an example of personnel selection teristics necessary for successful completion of those
on its narrowest scale. tasks. When these key attributes have been identi-
An I/O psychologist working for either the NYPD fied, an appropriate test can be selected or developed.
or the mountain bike company would go about the For the police officer, these attributes include mem-
development of the selection processes in the same ory and reasoning, communication skills, conflict res-
general way. The first step is determining the most olutions skills, empathy, and physical abilities such
important duties of the job in question. The second as coordination and strength, to mention just a few.
step is to list the human attributes (skills, abilities,
knowledge, experience, and personality characteris- Test Administration and Interviewing
tics) that will be necessary for successful completion The next step in personnel selection is assessing
of those important duties. The third step is to develop whether job candidates have the attributes required
a way of assessing or measuring those attributes in for the job. Standardized tests are used extensively
applicants. The final task is to decide who will get in this phase. Employers can purchase tests from com-
job offers based on the results of those assessments. mercial test publishers or can develop special tests to
Let’s look at this process in closer detail. meet their own needs. For example, the NYPD has
its own 100-item multiple-choice test of mental abil-
Job Analysis ities and uses a commercially published test of per-
The first step of determining the most important du- sonality in its selection of new police officers.
ties of the job is accomplished through what is known Once a suitable test has been found or developed,
as a job analysis. Job analysis is a method for break- the next step is to administer it to candidates and de-
ing a job into its constituent parts. It is a way to cide which of them has the greatest probability of
identify the most important parts of the job descrip- being successful on the job. To continue with the po-
tion—the requirements that are of primary interest lice example, on a particular Saturday, NYPD will use
to the employer. To use the job of police officer as an several hundred public high schools and several thou-
example, it is true that police officers give directions sand test administrators and monitors to assess tens

to enhance the hiring process. In part, this trend is

the result of the popularity of the five-factor model
of personality (see Chapter 12) as well as the appear-
ance of standardized tests to measure the Big Five per-
sonality traits, such as the NEO Personality Inventory
(Costa & McCrae, 1992).
Many organizations are beginning to consider the
use of credit checks and integrity tests as part of the
selection process. Integrity tests are standardized mea-
sures intended to predict respondents’ honesty. From
the perspective of employers, these sources of data
may help them understand who among their appli-
cants is most reliable and trustworthy. However, as
© 2005 AP/Wide World Photos

with any assessment used for personnel decisions,
the data from these tests must be evaluated in regard
to the extent to which they provide valid job-related
performance information. Unfortunately, studies have
raised many doubts about how well integrity tests pre-
dict employee theft, rule breaking, and other forms
of dishonest behavior (Brown & Cothern, 2002; Horn,
Many jobs, such as those of thousands of candidates. In most instances of em- Nelson, & Brannick, 2004). Moreover, many prospec-
of police officers, involve a
ployee selection, the prediction is that the higher the tive employees perceive credit checks and integrity
diverse array of activities and
responsibilities. Personnel test score, the greater the likelihood of job success. tests to be intrusive, since they can reveal private in-
psychologists engage in job Of course, this approach is based on the assumption formation about the applicant. The role of an I/O
analysis to determine which
responsibilities are crucial that the employment test has acceptable reliability psychologist in such situations is to weigh the needs
to a specific job. These job and validity (see Chapter 9). That is, the test must be of the organization against those of the applicant.
analyses then influence the
a reasonably consistent measuring device, and there Every effort must be made to collect data that are di-
employee selection procedures
that are developed. must be evidence that it really measures what it was rectly relevant to the job for which applicants are ap-
designed to measure. As you might guess, employers plying (Turner et al., 2001).
are always looking for ways to improve their em- At some point, it is important for the personnel
ployee selection procedures. In recent years, person- psychologist to verify that the tests developed to iden-
ality testing has attracted increased interest as a means tify the best job candidates are successful in doing
so. Using a psychological test to hire people is analo-
gous to testing a hypothesis in research (see Chap-
Figure C.3 100
ter 2). In this case, the hypothesis is that people who
A hypothetical exam-
ple of the relationship 90 score better on the test will perform better on the
between tests and job job than those who score poorly on the test (see Fig-
performance. When a 80 ure C.3). If reliable performance measures are avail-
standardized test is used to
select the most promising able, a statistical analysis can be used to test this
70
job candidates, the implicit hypothesis precisely. Such an analysis involves com-
hypothesis is that higher puting the correlation between test scores and per-
scores on the test will be as- 60
formance scores (such as supervisory ratings). If the
Test score
sociated with better perfor-

mance on the job. The rela- 50 result is a strong positive correlation (see Appendix B),
tionship won’t be perfect, this finding supports the “hypothesis” that underlies
but when employers collect 40
data on the link between test
using the test. This process of demonstrating that a
scores and job performance, test is a reasonably accurate predictor of job perfor-
the findings should resemble
30
mance is known as validation. Many other approaches
the hypothetical data shown
20 can be used to demonstrate the validity of a test be-
here. These data would yield
a strong positive correlation sides this correlational method, but all have the same
between test performance 10 goal—demonstrating that those who score better on
and job performance, which
the test will perform better on the job. To return to
is what employers always
0 our police officer example, a validity study might
hope for. (Based on Jewell, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1998) Percentage of employees consist of correlating test scores on the entrance ex-
with “very good” performance ratings amination with subsequent measures of police offi-
A-20 APPENDIX C
cer performance, including evaluations of supervi- or disability. This rather simple goal has led to a com-
sors as well as more objective indicators of success, plex tangle of legal, administrative, and philosophi-
such as arrest-to-conviction ratios and response times cal disputes—a tangle that has resulted not just from
to calls for assistance. the need to demonstrate that a test is “fair” to all ap-
Although standardized mental ability and person- plicants but also from an attempt to correct inequities
ality tests are commonly used in personnel selection, in past hiring practices. In the past, this correction
the most widely used device remains the interview. often involved a requirement that hiring decisions
There are two types of interviews: unstructured and conform to a certain numerical goal until an imbal-
structured. Unstructured interviews consist of nonstan- ance (such as too few women in a workforce) has
dardized questions with no clear right or wrong an- been eliminated. Thus, the notion of “hiring quotas”
swers and no method for assigning a score to an appli- was introduced. Although strict hiring quotas were
cant. Although many employers rely heavily on this made illegal by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, many
type of interview, research suggests that it is highly companies still strive to increase the diversity of their
subjective and far from optimal. Structured interviews workforce.
are more like standardized tests. The same questions This situation has created a good deal of debate
or question types are asked of all candidates and are among representatives of the federal government,
based on attributes or experiences necessary for suc- employers, and personnel psychologists. Much of
cess on the job in question; there are clear guidelines this debate has centered on the validity of the tests
for judging the adequacy of answers, and the scores used in hiring decisions. The debate often occurs in
assigned to an applicant have known relationships the context of legal suits brought against employers
to the attribute being measured. Structured inter- by unsuccessful applicants, who typically claim that
views can be constructed to be reliable and valid the tests disproportionately favor majority applicants
(McDaniel et al., 1994). In addition, they hold the and work to the disadvantage of minority or female
promise of supplying useful information not sup- applicants (often referred to in legal jargon as “ad-
plied by other forms of testing (about characteris- verse impact”). As a result, the federal courts have
tics such as oral comprehension, listening skills, and become heavily involved in the evaluation of the
motivation). technical merits of tests and have issued rulings re-
garding what can and cannot be done in making hir-
Equal Employment ing decisions. It is unlikely that the basic debate will
Opportunity and Testing change in the next decade. Many unsuccessful job
The final step in personnel selection is to decide which applicants will continue to believe that the tests used
candidates will get job offers. It will come as no sur- are unfair. Many employers and personnel psycholo-
prise to you that employment tests and hiring proce- gists will continue to believe that the tests are valid
dures are often the subject of debate and controversy. and that their use is warranted. In addition, many
Mental ability tests have been variously portrayed as politicians will continue to use the issue to their ad-
instruments of discrimination or as fair and objec- vantage. The modern personnel psychologist needs
tive ways to reduce discriminatory practices. The ar- to cut through the ideological and political smoke
guments often center on the differential test perfor- and continue to develop and administer good tests.
mance of white and minority applicants, whether By applying what they know, they can help applicants,
the applications are for college, graduate school, po- employers, and society as a whole.
lice departments, or mountain bike companies. It is As an example, consider the way police entry test-
not uncommon for minority applicants, on average, ing used to be done and how it is practiced today. In
to score more poorly on standardized tests than white the 1980s, applicants were selected solely on the basis
applicants, on average (see Chapter 9). The same type of general intelligence. Although intelligence is valu-
of controversy has appeared with respect to differen- able in police work, other attributes are also highly
tial test performance of men and women on physi- desirable, including physical abilities, communica-
cal ability tests, of older and younger individuals on tion skills, and personality characteristics. Today, ap-
mental ability and physical ability tests, and of applicants are given a battery of tests in which high
plicants with and without disabilities on both men- scores on one attribute (such as communication
tal and physical ability tests. skills) can compensate for less than stellar scores on
In the United States, the Equal Employment Op- another attribute (such as physical abilities). When
portunity Commission and the Department of Jus- hiring decisions are based on several important at-
tice are responsible for assuring that tests are fair to tributes, it is likely that ethnic minority applicants
all applicants, regardless of race, religion, gender, age, will fare considerably better. I/O psychologists have

been at the forefront of attempts to create selection Like other I/O psychologists, these individuals en-
systems that are fair to all applicants. gage in personnel psychology research that is applied
to the selection, development, and assessment of
New Trends and Challenges workers who need to be effective in their jobs. The
Other areas often addressed by the personnel psy- federalization of airport screeners in 429 airports in
chologist include training and education and perfor- the U.S. gave I/O psychologists working in the DHS
mance assessment of current employees. In recent only a few months to assess, select, and hire over
years, the emphasis has shifted from the act of “train- 55,000 federal airport screeners. These psychologists
ing” someone to the development of a “learning” accomplished this monumental task while execut-
environment in which the employee seeks out job ing their other responsibilities, which include engag-
and career information and the employer provides ing in ongoing evaluation and quality assurance,
user-friendly resources and environments to ensure training development and deployment, organiza-
effective learning. The challenge in performance as- tional assessment surveys, and leadership develop-
sessment is to construct a system (usually a series of ment. An emerging responsibility for these psychol-
rating scales) that is easy to use, fair and unbiased, and ogists is studying the DHS workforce’s response to
capable of providing information to the employee the increasingly advanced technology that is used
for skill development. within the agency and ensuring that their selection
Under normal conditions the process of conduct- systems, training programs, and work environments
ing a job analysis and developing valid and fair se- are revised to keep pace with these advances (McFar-
lection instruments is a complicated and lengthy en- land, 2005). The mission-critical work of DHS psy-
deavor. However, at times demanding circumstances chologists provides another example of how each of
can create increased pressure to engage in this work the three branches of I/O psychology are intimately
in a rapid, expeditious manner. In fact, at times it is interrelated.
even a matter of national security. After the terrorist
attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Organizational Psychology
The task of improving airport the importance of personnel psychology took on
screening of passengers and
their baggage illustrates how new meaning. In response to these attacks, the De- Most people do not work alone. They work with col-
problems in the workplace partment of Homeland Security (DHS) was created leagues, subordinates, and supervisors, often on proj-
are often multifaceted. The
and I/O psychologists who had previously worked in ect teams. As we saw earlier, organizational psychology
federalization of airport
screeners was a massive, many separate agencies became part of a new team. is concerned with the human relations aspects of
complicated personnel psy- A recent interview of I/O psychologists working in work. Organizational psychologists are interested in
chology project that had to be
accomplished with remark- the DHS provided many details about their urgent, how organizational factors influence workers’ social
able swiftness. challenging, and crucial work (McFarland, 2005). and emotional functioning. In this section, we’ll dis-
cuss several topics that have been of special interest
to organizational psychologists: work motivation,
job satisfaction, teams, leadership, and organizational
culture.
Work Motivation
Why do some people spend their free time in athletic
activities while others choose to read books or go to
concerts? Why do some people approach tasks enthu-
siastically while others are more passive or uninter-
ested? Over the years, many theories have been pro-
posed to account for these differences in motivation.
As you might expect, employers and I/O psychol-
ogists have a particular interest in motivational prin-
ciples as they apply in the work setting. Why do some
employees accept the goals of the organization and
their supervisor while others reject those goals? Why
do some employees work hard while others appear

lazy and uncooperative? The answers to these ques-
tions might make the difference between survival
and failure for a business. There is no one “correct”
theory of motivation. Instead, several valuable theo-
A-22 APPENDIX C
ries contribute to our understanding. Let’s look at gradually develop confidence (or lack of confidence)
some theories that have been used by I/O psycholo- about their ability to overcome obstacles and suc-
gists over the last few decades to understand work cessfully complete difficult tasks. This confidence
behavior. can be diminished or enhanced by their actual work
The two most popular theories of work motiva- experiences.
tion in the 1960s were Frederick Herzberg’s (1966) Today, the concept of self-efficacy is often consid-
job enrichment theory and the application of B. F. Skin- ered within broader models of self-regulation, which
ner’s (1969) reinforcement theory to work settings. refers to people’s capacity to direct, control, and alter
Herzberg proposed that the nature of the work is mo- their behavior. Self-regulation includes making and ex-
tivating in and of itself, aside from any rewards. His ecuting plans, initiating and inhibiting behaviors, tak-
prescription for increasing the motivation of a worker ing responsibility, and exhibiting self-discipline. Self-
is to enrich the job by increasing the worker’s re- regulation is important to many aspects of employee
sponsibilities and the job’s challenges. He conceded behavior, including “fitting in” with co-workers. Win-
that external rewards such as money and praise are ning acceptance from colleagues requires good social
also necessary to attract and keep a worker, but ulti- skills, as one must have the ability to form relation-
mately, he proposed that motivation depends on ships, build a positive reputation, and behave in ways
whether the job is interesting. The implications of that are deemed acceptable. To succeed in these tasks,
Skinner’s reinforcement theory are just the opposite. individuals must often be able to modify their behav-
Reinforcement theory postulates that jobs acquire ior to conform to the ideals regarded as acceptable
interest only through their association with extrinsic in their groups (Baumeister et al., 2005).
or external rewards. Attempts to motivate workers Expectancy, self-efficacy, and self-regulation the-
are based on ensuring that desired work behavior is ory are all highly regarded models that have been ap- Web Link C.2
followed by meaningful rewards. plied with some success in work settings. Expectancy Careers in Industrial/
Both of these theories have a value. Consider re- theory is implemented by making sure that workers Organizational
inforcement theory. There can be no doubt that as- have a clear understanding of the likelihood that Psychology
This site, maintained at
sociating certain rewards with work behavior can re- successful performance will be followed by a desired West Chester University,
sult in an increased probability that this behavior reward. Self-efficacy theory has been applied in the provides a thorough over-
will occur again. If you get $20 each time you take a workplace by selecting workers with high self-efficacy view of career options and
opportunities in I/O psy-
phone order for a telemarketing firm, you will prob- and then creating conditions that maintain and en- chology. It also includes
ably stay on the phone for many hours a day. The hance workers’ feelings of competence. Self-regulation links to many other sites
problem is that not all work behaviors are as simple theory is important as it suggests why some individ- relevant to I/O psychology.
and discrete as taking a phone order. How would one uals are self-starters or why some are better able than
apply contingent rewards to a police officer, a teacher, others to work in the teams that modern companies
or a nuclear power plant control operator? Would often rely on today.
everyone be equally motivated by money? Problems Another motivational theory that has received
arise with Herzberg’s job enrichment theory as well. considerable attention is goal-setting theory (Locke,
It seems that some people don’t want enriched jobs 1968, 1970). This theory is potent in its simplicity. It
and that some jobs can’t be enriched without mas- proposes that the best way to increase effort is to set
sive, expensive, and time-consuming work redesign. specific, challenging goals for a worker. You will rec-
Each theory has its strengths, but neither approach ognize the same principle at work in athletic train-
works in all situations. ing. For example, if you want to run a sub-40 minute
Two additional theories of work motivation that 10K, you need to set challenging training goals (such
have attracted interest are expectancy theory and self- as running at least one 6-minute mile in every 5-mile
efficacy theory. Expectancy theory (Porter & Lawler, run, and so forth). According to goal-setting theory,
1968; Vroom, 1964) has a cognitive slant. It is based even if you do not reach your goal, you will perform
on the premise that people operate based on a pre- better and work harder than if you had not set spe-
diction of what rewards they will receive for certain cific goals.
work behaviors. Unlike reinforcement theory, which
assumes that associations are stamped in automati- Job Satisfaction
cally, expectancy theory asserts that individuals make Closely associated with work motivation is job satis-
mental calculations about what is being asked of faction. Recently, the term “quality of working life”
them and the probability of their receiving some- has been used as a synonym for job satisfaction. Pre-
thing they desire for specified performance, then sumably, people want to gain satisfaction from their
take action based on these estimates. Albert Bandura’s work and to avoid dissatisfaction. What factors lead
(1995) self-efficacy theory proposes that individuals to job satisfaction and what are its consequences?

More research has been done on these topics than dissatisfaction with key job factors (pay, opportuni-
almost any subject in I/O psychology. Thousands of ties for advancement, and so on). The concerned em-
studies have led to the basic finding that the primary ployer can make necessary adjustments based on the
sources of job satisfaction are interesting and chal- analysis of work-related attitude questionnaires dis-
lenging work, pleasant co-workers, adequate pay and tributed on a regular basis. In addition, an employer
other financial benefits, opportunities for advance- that wants high productivity and happy employees
ment, effective and supportive supervisors, and ac- should ensure that they have the necessary resources
ceptable company policies. In contrast, job dissatisfac- (equipment and technical support) and should solve
tion results from the absence of these characteristics. any problems that arise on the job. In short, the em-
Many of us have had what we called “boring” jobs. ployer’s job is to remove obstacles to success.
This is the other side of the satisfaction coin. For a There are, of course, other reasons for fostering
fascinating glimpse at the most unsatisfying jobs job satisfaction beyond boosting productivity and
that one might have, read the entertaining and illu- reducing absenteeism. There is no reason that peo-
minating books of Barbara Garson (1988, 1994), which ple should not derive happiness from their work, just
describe boring jobs and how people cope with them. as there is no reason that they should not derive hap-
Most organizations take the emotional tempera- piness from other activities. Conversely, evidence
ture of their employees by periodically administer- suggests that dissatisfying and stressful work environ-
ing questionnaires. These questionnaires typically ments can lead to physical and psychological dam-
ask workers to rate their levels of satisfaction on the age (Karasek & Theorell, 1990; Landy, Quick, & Kasl,
basic factors we’ve listed. Organizations go to the 1994). Any environment in which people spend half
trouble of gathering this information because they or more of their waking hours is bound to have the
believe that job satisfaction is related to employee potential for affecting psychological well-being. Orga-
absenteeism, turnover, and productivity. For instance, nizational psychologists look for ways to make these
most managers believe that dissatisfied employees effects more positive.
are likely to take excessive sick leave or to seek em- Up to this point, we have been considering the
ployment elsewhere. Because absenteeism and turn- individual as a social-emotional island in the larger
over are costly, employers try to reduce them by in- organization in which he or she works. Let’s expand
creasing job satisfaction. Most managers also believe that picture a bit. Workers go about their business in
that job satisfaction leads to increased productivity. a number of social contexts. For example, in most
That assumption is more questionable. Several decades jobs the individual works most closely with a group
of research have failed to demonstrate that satisfac- of others, often called a team. Furthermore, the team
tion causes productivity. Some research, however, does works within a psychological environment created
indicate that productivity causes satisfaction (Locke, by the person supervising it, commonly referred to
1976). In other words, it appears that workers who as the leader. Finally we have the “personality” of the
are able to accomplish work goals and overcome organization itself, which is often referred to as the
work-related challenges are happier than those who culture of the organization. Each of these variables—
do not have such experiences. the team, the leader, and the organizational culture—
What are the implications of the research findings can influence workers’ motivation and satisfaction.
on job satisfaction? First, if a company wants a sta- Let’s briefly consider each of these variables.
ble workforce, it should try to minimize employee
Work Teams
Until 20 years ago, the concept of a work team was
Work teams play an increas- an unusual one for companies in the United States.
ingly important role in con-
temporary business and Although work teams were used extensively by Euro-
industry. Cognizant of this pean companies (such as Volvo in Sweden), they were
© Yellow Dog Productions/The Image Bank/Getty Images
reality, organizational psy- the exception in North America. The downsizing epi-
chologists have conducted
hundreds of studies on how demic of the 1980s changed that. American compa-
to enhance the efficiency nies decided to radically reduce their workforces. This
of work teams, including
"virtual" work teams. move usually meant eliminating many mid-level
management positions. Fewer people were expected
to do more work with less supervision. As a result,
teams began to emerge as the new paradigm for ef-
fective organizations. Other forces were at work as
well. Using loosely managed teams had the effect of
increasing accountability and ownership at increas-
A-24 APPENDIX C
ingly lower levels of the organization. This change followers to suspend disbelief and to accept chal-
improved both work motivation and job satisfaction lenges that they would ordinarily reject.
(through participative goal setting and job enrich- A more recent topic in this area is the concept of
ment). Since the shift toward team work, I/O psychol- emancipatory leadership described by Corson (2000).
ogists have devoted a good deal of effort to under- Emancipatory leadership’s guiding principle is that
standing team formation processes, the advantages leadership should reflect the constituency it serves.
of teams, and the optimal conditions for team func- Emancipatory leaders make sure that those affected
tioning (Guzzo & Dickson, 1996). by leadership’s decision making play a role in those
Additionally, with the emergence of the Internet, decisions and are responsible for their implementa-
I/O psychologists are asked more and more frequently tion. The power and presence of leaders are mini-
to help facilitate the effective operation of virtual mized while democracy and inclusion are maximized.
teams. Virtual teams are very much like traditional Emancipatory leaders understand their own bound-
work teams in that all members work on the same aries and biases. They strive to empower their em-
project. The main difference is that these members ployees rather than to rule them. Moreover, they re-
are working from various locations. In some cases they sist stereotypes and limits that impede the progress of
may be separated by thousands of miles and many members of minority groups. This leadership model
time zones. Because of the globalization of com- has been proposed to be ideal in situations where an
merce, the use of virtual teams is increasing. While organization is undergoing change related to increas-
technological advances have made virtual teams a ing diversity.
valuable and convenient option, several possible dis- Another emerging line of research suggests that
advantages must also be considered. Virtual teams leaders’ emotional intelligence (see Chapter 9) has a
can experience problems resulting from time differ- considerable impact on their leadership effectiveness.
ences, local/cultural differences, and inadequate face- According to Jennifer George (2000), emotional in-
to-face interactions. Moreover, they may lead to ex- telligence—the ability to understand and manage
cessive reliance on technology, which can be a risk moods in oneself and others—contributes to effec-
factor in striving to complete a project (Gibson & tive leadership in organizations. For example, Zhou
Cohen, 2003). Thus, I/O psychologists who work this and George (2003) review research suggesting that
arena must study the most effective ways virtual teams the emotional intelligence of leaders plays a critical
can be implemented and managed. role in fostering creativity in workers. Emotionally
intelligent leaders may help team members who have
Leadership recently experienced a work-related disappointment
A more traditional area of interest for organizational to productively use their emotions to analyze the sit-
psychologists has been the study of leadership. Are uation and make necessary changes. George believes
leaders born or made? Based on decades of research, that emotional intelligence is a talent that anyone
the answer appears to be a little of both. In recent can develop through self-reflection, reading, men-
years, I/O psychologists have been particularly inter- toring, and coaching. In any event, as organizations
ested in transformational and charismatic leadership. continue to evolve and change, leadership will re-
The term “transformational” is used because change main a critical area of interest for organizational psy-
and adaptation to change are emerging as the hallmarks chologists as well as for society overall (Hogan &
of the successful modern company. The transforma- Kaiser, 2005).
tional leader is one who has a compelling vision of
what he or she wants to accomplish and transforms Organizational Culture and Climate
followers’ beliefs, values, and needs (Bass, 1990, 1995). Every organization, no matter how small or large, has
Transformational leaders seek to realize their goals a “personality.” In simple terms, it is this personality
by making workers or followers more aware of the and the value system of the organization that is re-
importance of what they are doing, persuading them ferred to as culture in organizational psychology jar-
to put the good of the organization or team ahead of gon (Denison, 1996). The culture of the organization
their own self-interest, and appealing to their achieve- is manifested in its rituals, language, traditions, sym-
ment and mastery needs (Hughes, Ginnett, & Cur- bols, and unwritten rules. I/O psychologists are pri-
phy, 1996). Charismatic leadership depends more on marily interested in how employees (as opposed to
the sheer force of a leader’s personality, as opposed clients or customers) experience organizational cul-
to the appeal of the leader’s vision. Charismatic lead- ture. Employees’ perceptions of their organizational
ers elicit trust in others, are willing to take personal culture can create variations in workplace climate.
risks, and are sensitive to others’ needs (Conger & Climate consists of shared perceptions among work-
Kanungo, 1994). Charismatic leaders are able to get ers about specific aspects of the workplace environ-

ment that can affect workers’ behavior and social in- should be assessed regularly at various levels within
teractions. For example, I/O psychologists might be organizations.
interested in an organization’s “climate for diver-
sity,” its “climate for service,” its “climate for inno- Balancing Work and
vation and creativity,” or its “climate for safety.” An Other Spheres of Life
organization’s culture and climate can have a dra- Another emerging trend in organizational psychol-
matic impact on its effectiveness and productivity. ogy is increased interest in how employees balance
Different companies cultivate different organiza- work obligations and their personal lives. Research
tional cultures. For example, the culture of a Silicon in this area often focuses on the design and evalua-
Valley Internet company might hinge on innovation. tion of programs intended to reduce stress at work.
The culture of a fast food delivery service like Dom- Ultimately, the goal is to develop programs that en-
ino’s Pizza tends to be dominated by—what else— hance employees’ work life and their family life.
time urgency. In regard to organizational culture, the A recent review of the work-family literature (Eby
chief issue for I/O psychologists is to understand how et al., 2005) revealed that this research has focused
this culture is developed, maintained, and changed on nine topics: (1) work-family conflict, (2) work role
and the resulting climate for employees. For example, stress, (3) work-family assistance, (4) work schedules,
in the late 1970s and early 1980s, a number of nu- (5) job-related relocation, (6) career and job-related
clear power plant mishaps occurred, including those outcomes, (7) gender and the relationship between
at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. Controversies work and family domains, (8) the challenges of dual-
swirled regarding the safety of the entire global nu- earner couples, and (9) relationships among life do-
clear power industry. From those debates, a new cul- mains. Although the work-family interface has tradi-
ture emerged that placed a much greater emphasis tionally fallen within the realm of organizational
on safety. Virtually every organization that produces psychology, it is also relevant to other branches of
goods and services that could affect public safety at I/O psychology. For example, personnel psychologists
the broadest level (such as power plants, aircraft may be interested in how family obligations tend to
manufacturers, and companies that produce toxic affect workers’ performance, while human factors
waste byproducts) now attempts to impress on work- psychologists may be interested in how different
ers the need to commit to a culture that values safety. work schedules correlate with workers’ productivity
The challenge for the I/O psychologist is how to fa- and their quality of life outside work. For instance,
cilitate the development of this culture through the Fritz and Sonnentag (2005) examined the impact of
implementation of human resource systems (such weekend downtime on health and job performance.
as selection, performance appraisal, and promotion They found that time off from work, the extent of
programs). The frequent monitoring of employees’ work-related hassles, and the level of nonwork stress
attitudes regarding safety through annual surveys are significant correlates of subsequent work-week
helps employers learn the extent to which the im- performance, as well as of employee health.
portance of safety has been assimilated by employees.
Zohar and Luria’s (2005) research on almost 4,000 Human Factors Psychology
production workers in 401 different work groups in
manufacturing plants suggests that safety climates Whenever you get into an unfamiliar rental car and
begin to search for the controls for the lights and the
windshield wipers, you are dealing with a human
factors issue. When you turn the right handle on a
The organizational culture
of a company can have an faucet in a hotel room and get a glass of hot water
enormous impact on employee instead of a glass of cold water, you are dealing with
productivity and satisfaction.
The importance of organiza-
a human factors issue. In fact, human factors psychol-
tional culture often surfaces ogy has been referred to facetiously as “knobs and
when corporate mergers dials” psychology (Carter, 1978) because early in its
occur (such as the recent
merger between US Airways development the field concentrated on devising the
and America West Airlines, most effective ways of displaying information (the
which generated the protest
best designs for dials and gauges) and of taking ac-
pictured here).
tions (the best designs for knobs and faucet handles).
This research dealt with the best placement of knobs
and dials, the arrangement associated with the fewest
performance errors, and so forth. Human factors spe-
cialists were also referred to as human engineering psy-
A-26 APPENDIX C
chologists, because they designed environments and

equipment to match the capabilities and limitations Internet
File Edit View Bookmarks History Wind
of human operators. They took both human attrib-
Interpretation Site 1
utes and engineering principles into account. Site 2

Site 3
Site 4
Human factors specialists seek to understand the File Edit View Bookmarks
Internet
History Wind
Site 5
Information
human-machine relationship in various environ-
Site 1
Site 2 indicator
Site 3
Site 4 (output)
ments. Although such psychologists might be involved Site 5
in designing home environments, health care envi-

ronments, educational environments, and consumer
Information File Edit View Bookmarks
Internet
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products, we will concentrate on the application of Operator reception

(input)
human factors principles to the work environment.
The basic challenge in human engineering efforts is
depicted in Figure C.4. Machine
As you can see, the human-machine system has Control
mechanism
several components. An important component is in- (input)
formation in the environment. That information is dis-
played to the human being through devices such as
Control action
dials, meters, computer screens, and printouts. In your (output)
car, the gas gauge is a display that provides important
information, as are the speedometer, the odometer,
and the oil and temperature lights. The fact that you
must interpret and possibly use this information cre- presses the gas pedal down until the desired speed Figure C.4
ates a design challenge. How can this information be registers on the speedometer, presses the “set” but- The challenge of
best displayed? Systems specialists refer to this “con- ton on the cruise control, and watches to see whether human engineering.
The communication between
frontation” of the individual and the information as the speedometer settles in at the desired speed. The people and machines can
an “interface” problem and strive to make the inter- speed of the car may be slightly faster or slower than be viewed as an information
face as effective as possible. As Figure C.4 illustrates, the driver desired, so another round of actions may flow loop that connects their
respective inputs and outputs.
the individual must interpret the information in the dis- be needed to achieve the final desired speed. This is an Human factors psychologists
play and choose a course of action (or inaction) based excellent example of the interface between a machine attempt to make person-
on that information. Doing so creates a second in- and an operator, complete with a feedback loop. machine interfaces as effec-
tive as possible.
terface, between the individual and the device that Most of the early human factors research was
modifies or has an influence on the system. geared toward achieving satisfactory interfaces be-
Let’s take the simple example of a machine oper- tween human and display and human and control.
ator adjusting the speed of a machine. The actual For example, it was discovered that many of the air-
speed of the machine is presented in a digital read- plane accidents that occurred in World War II were
out on the face of the machine. This is the display part caused by either faulty displays or faulty controls.
of the system. If the speed is too fast or too slow, it Faulty displays included dials that were placed out-
can be adjusted with a series of keyboard buttons on side of the pilot’s line of vision or that presented in-
the machine console. This is the control part of the formation in a way that was difficult to interpret.
system. Thus, the operator looks at the digital dis- Many of the control problems came from confusion
play for information, keys in a series of commands of one control with another. For example, the knobs
that speed up or slow down the machine, and then that activated the flaps were identical in shape to those
reexamines the display to make sure that the target that activated the landing gear. As a result, many pi-
speed has been achieved. If the speed is still too fast or lots who meant to retract the landing gear shortly after
too slow, or if the adjustment has been too extreme, takeoff actually engaged the flaps, causing a crash.
the operator keys in new and more refined informa- The solution to this problem turned out to be rela-
tion and keeps checking the digital display until the tively simple. Each knob was given a distinctive shape
desired speed has been achieved. This is a descrip- that conveyed its particular function. Thus, the knob
tion of a simple combination of human, display, and that controlled the landing gear was shaped like a
control. A less elegant but equally relevant example wheel, whereas the knob that controlled flaps was
is the system that includes the driver of an automo- actually shaped like a flap. Meanwhile, dials were
bile, the speedometer, the cruise control system, and arranged more centrally so that they were easier to
the gas pedal. The driver wants to maintain a con- see and were given a standard location in all planes.
stant speed compatible with the speed limit posted Similar principles of human engineering are ap-
for that highway. The driver activates the cruise, plied today in many areas of technology. As an ex-

ample, the design of control rooms for nuclear power mation on a large electronic billboard at the ramp
plants has been influenced greatly by human factors for each terminal. So if you planned to take an Amer-
psychology. Consider the control panel shown in the ican Airlines flight to Denver, you needed to scan
photos below. Just drawing lines and borders and that billboard while steering your car through dense
providing labels for clusters of controls and displays traffic, at speeds often exceeding 40 miles per hour.
helps make the information-processing task easier. To make matters worse, there could be several flights
Visual displays can often be The simple act of grouping similar information sources on American to Denver, each leaving at a different
enhanced to help workers can reduce the probability of errors. time from a different terminal. So you would need
find information more quickly.
The top photo shows a sec- Consider the consequences of a situation in which to look not only for the Denver flight but for the cor-
tion of a display panel from a information was not presented efficiently. At the rect Denver flight. As you might expect, a serious ac-
nuclear power plant control
Dallas–Fort Worth Airport, American Airlines flies cident was caused by a motorist looking for the cor-
room before it was redesigned.
The bottom picture shows out of several terminals. This means that you cannot rect American Airlines flight while trying to navigate
how this display panel was simply pick the correct terminal for your departing through a maze of similarly confused drivers. As a re-
modified to make it easier for
operators to locate needed flight by knowing you will fly American. The Airport sult of a successful lawsuit filed by the injured driver,
information quickly. Authority decided to display individual flight infor- the information about flights has now been moved
to the entrance to the airport where drivers must stop
at a toll booth to obtain a parking ticket. To learn
more about the importance of human factors to the
design of both simple and complex equipment that
people use daily, look for Don Norman’s The Psychol-
ogy of Everyday Things (1988) and The Design of Every-
day Things (2002) and visit www.baddesigns.com.
Human factors specialists follow a number of prin-
ciples in designing equipment and environments.
One central principle is response stereotype, which is
people’s tendency to expect that a control will work
in a particular way. Most people believe that when
they want to open a door, they should turn the knob
clockwise or push the handle down. When they have
Courtesy of General Public Utility
to turn the doorknob counterclockwise or pull the

handle up, they become confused and act less effi-
ciently. Therefore, one of the basic design principles
is to see how people will carry out an action when
left to themselves. If they show a clear preference
(or response stereotype), the operator actions should
be designed to take advantage of that preference. If
people show no clear preference, other principles of
design can be used.
Human factors specialists face many other chal-
lenges in today’s work environment. One such chal-
lenge is robotics at the work site. Specialists must de-
sign controls for robots to be compatible with the
response tendencies of those who will command or
operate them. Similarly, engineers need to determine
the best interface for remote computer-controlled
devices used by operators in nuclear power plants,
chemical plants, and similar facilities who cannot
“see” what they are doing.
Another challenge for human factors specialists is
Courtesy of General Public Utility
finding ways to reduce work-related stress. Some work

designs can lead to greater stress than others. Research
suggests that workers’ stress level depends on three
key factors: how demanding the job is, how much
decision control one has, and how much social sup-
port one has in the work setting (Karasek & Theorell,
A-28 APPENDIX C
1990). To illustrate how changes in the workplace

may or may not be stressful, consider how the intro- REDUCING WORK STRESS
duction of a computer can turn out to be a blessing

or a curse. If the computer is fast and failure-free, it Workload and work pace Work schedule Job future
can be a real enhancement. But if it is slow in re-
sponding or difficult to control through software, it Physical and mental job Demands and responsibilities Employees should be made
demands should be in the off the job should be aware of avenues for growth
can create frustrations. Similarly, a system in which range of individual resources considered in setting and promotion opportunities
either too much or too little information is presented and capabilities. individual work schedules. within the organization.
Allow time to recover from Rotating shift schedules should Employees should be informed
to the operator can create stress, leading to both
demanding tasks. be stable, predictable, and in in a timely manner of
health-related problems and performance errors. No Increase individual control over a forward (day-to-night) impending changes that may
one wants to be a passenger in a plane flown by a work pace. direction. affect their employment.
pilot under stress or to live in the vicinity of a nu-
Participation
clear power plant where the control room operators Work roles Social environment Job content
and control
feel overwhelmed. The guiding principle in work de-
sign is to prevent the demands of a job from exceed- Job duties should be Job design should not Meaning, stimulation, Employees should be
clearly defined and isolate employees and opportunity to able to provide
ing the resources or capacities of the person who holds explained. from opportunities use skills on the job input on decisions
that job. Figure C.5 summarizes some guidelines de- Conflicts as to job for support and/or are desirable. or actions affecting
rived from research in all three domains of I/O psy- expectations should assistance from their jobs or the
be avoided. others. performance of their
chology that can help reduce stress in the workplace tasks.
(Sauter, Murphy, & Hurrell, 1990).
Advancing technology will continue to make hu-
man factors research important in many sectors of
the economy. For example, human factors issues are accident rate. We know, for example, that younger Figure C.5
at the forefront of the growing use of distance edu- drivers and older drivers tend to have more accidents Guidelines for reducing
cation in colleges and universities. How do distance than middle-aged drivers. We also know that pizza stress in the workplace.
Work stress is an important
learning programs compare to traditional classrooms delivery drivers tend to be young (and newly licensed) matter that has been the sub-
in terms of learning outcomes? Are some distance drivers. Thus, it would be important to provide a care- ject of a great deal of re-
learning formats, such as those that allow for inter- ful training and monitoring program to make sure search. The guidelines shown
here are based on a review
action between the teacher and audience, more ef- that the drivers know and obey the rules of the road. article by Sauter, Murphy,
fective than others in promoting learning? The bio- An organizational psychologist might approach and Hurrell (1990), as sum-
medical fields also are presenting all sorts of new the problem by assuming that the drivers are being marized by Jewell (1998).
The guidelines draw on re-
challenges for human factors experts. Have you seen strongly influenced by a speed culture. As an exam- search from all three domains
the commercial in which a doctor in one part of the ple, the founder of Domino’s Pizza, Tom Monaghan, of I/O psychology (person-
world is guiding the surgery that another doctor is wrote a book and gave motivational speeches preach- nel, organizational, and
human factors psychology),
performing elsewhere? Human factors psychologists ing that on-time delivery was a matter of life and
showing once again that
may ask, are there ways to enhance the technology death for the Domino’s manager (Monaghan & An- the three areas are highly
used by the medical profession to convey informa- derson, 1986). Similarly, drivers were expected to call interdependent.
tion more accurately and efficiently, with minimal out times when they left the store and returned to
mistakes? the store so that fellow workers would know whether
they had made an on-time delivery. This approach
A Systems Approach to Work could be seen as the antithesis of the safety culture
Safety: Putting It All Together described earlier. Web Link C.3
Alternatively, it might be just as effective to work
Stress at Work
Workplace safety can serve as an example of the in- from a human factors perspective and prevent a driver This site was developed
terrelation among personnel psychology, organiza- from delivering more than one pizza every 30 min- under the auspices of the
tional psychology, and human factors psychology. utes. Thus, speeding to and from the store would be National Institute for Occu-
pational Safety and Health
Consider the problem of pizza delivery drivers who largely useless. Changing the nature of the task would
(NIOSH), a federal agency
have excessive accidents when trying to deliver piz- enhance safe deliveries. A “new” and safer job would that is part of the U.S. De-
zas in under 30 minutes. How could accidents be re- have been designed. The safest system would proba- partment of Health and
Human Services. Visitors
duced? Working from a personnel psychology perspec- bly be achieved by using all three approaches rather
will find useful summaries
tive, one approach would be to determine whether than just one. In the pizza delivery example, this ap- of the most common causes
particular individuals seem to have more accidents proach would include a careful selection and training of job stress, typical symp-
toms of job stress, and
than others. If that is the case, experts could exam- program, a work environment that did not glorify
methods for reducing or
ine the basic abilities of these people and institute speed and time urgency, and a set of tasks optimally preventing excessive work
either a training or a selection program to reduce the arranged for safe and efficient deliveries. stress.

Appendix D Careers in Psychology
by Margaret A. Lloyd (Georgia Southern University)

Perhaps you have already heard the disheartening have search engines that allow you to locate specific
Web Link D.1 claim, “You can’t get a job with a bachelor’s degree occupations and learn about the relevant skills, edu-
Marky Lloyd’s Careers in psychology.” Is there any truth to this assertion? cational requirements, salaries, and other useful
in Psychology Page If by “job,” you mean working as a professional psy- points (see Web Links D.2, D.3, and D.4).
Professor Marky Lloyd, the chologist, then the saying is true. Psychologists must Because most psychology majors would like jobs
author of this appendix,
has put together a wide
have a doctoral degree in psychology because the na- in which they can help other people, counseling is a
variety of helpful resources ture of their work requires more extensive education popular career option. If you think about it, though,
for those who want to learn and training than can be gained at the undergradu- there are many other ways to help people. For exam-
about entry-level jobs for
ate level. But it simply is not true that you can’t get a ple, managers help employees to do their best, child
psychology majors as well
as those requiring a mas- good entry-level job with a psychology degree. welfare agents help children in trouble, and proba-
ter’s or doctoral degree. In the following pages, we will briefly explore the tion officers help juvenile offenders stay on the right
The information and tips
kinds of entry-level jobs that are available to psy- track. Also, in doing your detective work, you should
on getting into graduate
school are especially chology majors as well as some occupations that re- be aware that occupations requiring essentially the
helpful. quire graduate degrees. I will also share some point- same skills are often listed under a variety of titles.
ers to help you compete effectively in the job market Don’t overlook a viable option because the title is
and enhance your chances of getting into graduate unfamiliar. Figure D.1 will give you an idea of the
school. wide range of job options open to psychology majors.
Once you have identified some occupations of in-
Entry-Level Career Options terest, compare them on the critical factors of cur-
for Psychology Majors rent job openings, salary, and future employment out-
look. An excellent resource for this information is
It would be easy to spot entry-level jobs if you could the Occupational Outlook Handbook (see Web Link D.2).
look in the want ads under the heading “psycholo- This step is essential if you want to make informed
gist,” but as already noted, that tactic won’t work. Be- occupational choices.
cause the connection between the psychology major The average starting salary of psychology (and
(and other liberal arts majors) and relevant entry- other liberal arts) majors tends to be lower than that
level jobs is not as obvious as it is in applied majors of most applied majors. In 2004–2005, it was around
(nursing and accounting, for example), identifying $30,000. Jobs in business and research command
relevant entry-level jobs requires some detective work. higher salaries than those in human services (coun-
Thanks to the Internet, it has become easier to seling and social work, for example). Keep this fact
identify job titles of interest. A number of websites in mind. If you are like most students, however, your
Figure D.1 Potential Jobs for Psychology Majors with a Bachelor’s Degree
Entry-level positions Business area Health and human services areas
open to psychology
majors. A bachelor’s customer relations behavioral analyst
degree in psychology can employment interviewer case worker
prepare students for a human resources recruiter child welfare agent
diverse array of entry-level insurance agent director of volunteer services
jobs in a variety of occupa- loan officer drug counselor
tional areas. The jobs listed management trainee family services worker
here are merely a handful marketing representative hospital patient service representative
of examples of the entry- realtor nursing home administrator
level positions for which sales representative rehabilitation advisor
psychology majors qualify. store manager residential youth counselor
Law and corrections areas Other areas
case manager affirmative action officer

corrections officer college admissions representative
court officer newspaper reporter
EPA investigator research assistant
probation/parole officer technical writer
A-30 APPENDIX D
job decision will not be based on money alone. A re- Developing Valuable Skills
cent survey regarding what college graduates seek Web Link D.2
To help you acquire these highly rated work skills,
when choosing an employer found that “a high start- you have three excellent skill-building vehicles avail- Occupational Outlook
ing salary” was ranked surprisingly low, whereas “enable: college courses, relevant work experience, and Handbook (OOH) Online
joying what I do” earned the top ranking (National Every two years the Bureau
extracurricular activities. Obviously, the earlier in of Labor Statistics publishes
Association of College Employers, 2005). Thus, salary your college career you start your “skills develop- the OOH, now available via
is just one of many factors that you should consider ment project,” the more time you have to hone your the Internet. This essential
in pursuing a job. occupational guide pro-
skills.
vides information about
every occupation in the
• College courses. Within the constraints of cur-
United States, including
Keys to Success in the riculum requirements, choose courses to help you descriptions of the nature
Entry-Level Job Market develop occupationally relevant knowledge and skills. of each job and its working
conditions, educational
Make thoughtful choices across all areas of the curricu-
requirements, future em-
There are three keys to a successful job search. First, lum: general education courses, psychology courses, ployment and earnings
you need to have accurate information about the and general electives. The content of courses is an prospects, and places to
knowledge, skills, and values required for occupa- obvious and important aspect of education. Your find further information.
tions that interest you. You may be surprised to learn coursework also provides learning opportunities that
that these skills and values are not as job-specific as are less obvious. In addition to teaching course con-
most people assume. Surveys of employers reveal that tent, college courses provide numerous opportuni-
a relatively small set of skills and values are consid- ties to learn a remarkable variety of skills that can
ered essential for success in a wide variety of occupa- give you a competitive edge in the job market. For
tions (see Figure D.2). You don’t have to be a genius example, your courses can help you improve your
to figure out the second key to success: You need to critical thinking skills, acquire insights into your be-
acquire those skills that are prized by employers. The havior and that of others, enhance your interper-
third key to a successful job search is to assemble con- sonal skills, clarify your values, acquaint you with
vincing documentation for prospective employers ethical principles, improve your communication abil-
that you possess these skills and values. ities, increase your computer sophistication and in-
General Work Skills and Personal Values Employers Seek Figure D.2
Work skills Qualities employers
value in employees.
• Communication skills. Almost always rated first, communication skills include being able to Employers widely agree on
write and speak effectively. A third, often overlooked, communication skill is effective listening, the general work skills and
including being sensitive enough to hear and relate to the emotions behind another’s words. values they desire in their
employees. To be compe-
• Adaptability/flexibility. Employers value workers who can adapt to changing conditions titive in the job market,
and work assignments (learn new skills), deal with ambiguity, and appreciate that there are workers must possess the
usually several legitimate perspectives on an issue. qualities listed here and
• Analytical/research skills. These important skills involve critical thinking; extracting key document them in cover
ideas from written material, graphs, and tables; and solving problems and answering questions. letters, résumés, and inter-
views. (Based on Appleby,
• Computer skills. Employers want workers who are competent in using word-processing, 2000; Hansen & Hansen,
spread-sheet, and database management programs, as well as the Internet and e-mail. 2003; Landrum & Harrold,
2003)
• Social and teamwork skills. Today’s workers need to interact effectively in one-on-one set-
tings and on teams. They must also be able to work well with co-workers from diverse cultures
and backgrounds.
• Self-management skills. These critical skills include having self-confidence, being able to
work with little supervision, being able to set manageable goals and complete them on time,
and being able to manage time effectively. Emotional maturity is also important, especially the
ability to cope with undesirable behavior in others and to refrain from petty behavior.
Personal values
• Integrity/honesty. Employers greatly value ethical behavior in their employees.
• Dependability and loyalty. Workers who come to the workplace prepared to work, who
arrive on time, and who show up every day are prized. Employers also value personal and
company loyalty in their employees.
• Positive attitude and motivation/energy. Valued employees are those who have a “can-
do” attitude, bring energy to their work, and are willing to learn new skills and information.
Careers in Psychology A-31

Learning Goals for the Psychology Major • Extracurricular activities. Involvement in cam-
Knowledge, skills, and values consistent with the science and application pus clubs and student activities can also help you de-
of psychology velop work-related abilities—especially leadership
Goal 1. Theory and content of psychology. Students should show familiarity with the major and interpersonal skills. Be careful not to overload
concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology. yourself with work, volunteering, and extracurricu-
Goal 2. Research methods in psychology. Students should understand and apply basic lar activities to the detriment of your grades. Good
research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation. grades are important in obtaining your first job and
Goal 3. Critical thinking skills in psychology. Students should respect and use critical and getting good recommendations from faculty mem-
creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems bers, and they are essential to qualify for graduate
related to behavior and mental processes. school.
Goal 4. Application of psychology. Students should understand and apply psychological
principles to personal, social, and organizational issues.
Documenting Your Skills
Goal 5. Values in psychology. Students should be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity,
act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline. Once you acquire the skills and values employers
want, you must be able to document this fact to pro-
Knowledge, skills, and values consistent with liberal arts education that are
further developed in psychology spective employers. You do so by preparing résumés
and cover letters that showcase your skills. The job
Goal 6. Information and technological literacy. Students should demonstrate information
competence and the ability to use computers and other technology for many purposes. interview is another key aspect of this process. Even
if you have a bundle of talents, you can easily falter
Goal 7. Communication skills. Students should be able to communicate effectively in a variety
of formats. at these critical points. There is a lot to know in de-
veloping a competitive résumé, a compelling cover
Goal 8. Sociocultural and international awareness. Students should recognize, under-
stand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity. letter, and good interviewing skills. You can learn the
essentials at your Career Services office.
Goal 9. Personal development. Students should develop insight into their own and others’
behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-
improvement.
Next Steps
Goal 10. Career planning and development. Students should emerge from the major with It is critical that you start the job search process early—
realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occu-
pational pursuits in a variety of settings. the spring term of your senior year is too late. Attend
career fairs, where job recruiters come to your col-
Figure D.3 lege campus, to learn about job options and what
Knowledge, skills, and values supported by the psychology major. Ten learning goals recruiters are looking for. When you are clear about
for the undergraduate psychology major have been outlined by a national task force (Halonen et al.,
the various occupational titles you want to pursue,
2002). The first five goals include knowledge, skills, and values developed specifically in the psy-
chology major. The remaining goals consist of knowledge, skills, and values that are developed in visit your Career Services office. The staff can get you
the liberal arts (general education) curriculum and that psychology further advances. started off right on your job search.
Source: Halonen, J. S., Appleby, D. C., Brewer, C. L., Buskist, W., Gillem, A. R., Halpern, D., et al. (2002). Undergraduate psychology
major learning goals and outcomes: A report. Retrieved August 10, 2005, from www.apa.org/ed/pcue/taskforcereport2.pdf. The
document has been endorsed by the APA Board of Educational Affairs, but does NOT represent APA policy.
Career Options at
the Master’s Level
formation literacy, and bolster your self-management
skills (setting and completing goals, managing your After working several years in an entry-level position,
time, coping with stress). The psychology major can you may want more challenges, a higher salary, or
definitely help you develop the general skills and greater independence. One way to move up the ca-
values that employers seek. Figure D.3 lists 10 learn- reer ladder is to return to school. Alternatively, you
Web Link D.3 ing goals that a psychology major should support, may want to attend graduate school directly upon
based on the consensus of a national task force. If graduation. If you want to extend your knowledge
JobWeb you compare this list with the list of employers’ pre- and skills but do not want to invest the time, effort,
The National Association
ferred skills and values in Figure D.2, you will see and money required for a doctoral degree, a master’s
of Colleges and Employers
has assembled a compre- that there is a close match. degree may be just the ticket for you. Because coun-
hensive set of resources for • Relevant work experience (paid work and volunteer seling is a popular career option among psychol-
both students and career
activities). If you must work while attending school, ogy majors, we will discuss three master’s-level ca-
guidance professionals.
The site includes infor- look for a job that will help you develop useful skills. reer options in the mental health area. There are also
mation on job searching, For example, if you want to be a probation officer, master’s-level careers in other areas of psychology,
employment listings, edu-
seek out volunteer opportunities to work with adoles- such as industrial/organizational psychology. An un-
cational updating, and
college- and university- cents. Many colleges have Volunteer Services offices dergraduate major in psychology is excellent prepa-
based resources. that match students’ interests with community needs. ration for all of these career paths.
A-32 APPENDIX D
Clinical Psychology gree in education requires one to work in a school

setting. Agency counseling (sometimes called “com- Web Link D.4
Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat people with
psychological problems and administer psychologi- munity counseling”) is an important exception. If The Riley Guide: Employ-
cal tests. Although most programs in clinical psy- you want to counsel but do not want to work in a ment Opportunities
school setting, consider this option. Graduates typi- and Job Resources on
chology are offered at the doctoral level, there are the Internet
some terminal master’s degree programs in clinical cally work in community mental health centers. They This site, developed by the
psychology and some other subfields. Clinical mas- may have a private practice if they obtain a license well-regarded career expert
(typically as a “professional counselor” or “marriage Margaret F. Dikel, comple-
ter’s programs typically teach students how to admin-
ments her excellent book,
ister selected psychological tests along with the ba- and family therapist”).
the Guide to Internet Job
sics of psychological diagnosis and psychotherapy. Searching. Her website con-
tains literally hundreds of
Students in these programs receive either an M.A. Career Options at annotated links regarding
(Master of Arts) or an M.S. (Master of Science) degree.
the Doctoral Level almost any topic related to
employment and careers.
Upon graduation, they either seek employment or
apply to doctoral programs.
Doctoral-level education and training will give you
Some states license individuals with master’s de-
access to occupations that offer more options and in-
grees in clinical psychology, but many do not. A li-
dependence as well as higher salaries, compared to
cense is a quality-control credential that gives indi-
those at the master’s level. Given space constraints,
viduals legal authority to work independently—that
I will touch just very generally on these career op-
is, without the supervision of a doctoral-level profes-
tions. For more information, including descriptions
sional. Individuals with a master’s degree in clinical
of the many subfields of psychology, see Web Links
psychology may qualify for licenses such as “psycho-
D.1 and D.6.
logical associate,” “professional counselor,” or “mar-
Web Link D.5
riage and family therapist.” Note that they are not li-
censed as “psychologists”—this title is reserved for Teaching and Research National Association
If you want to teach in a university setting, you will of Social Workers
those with doctoral degrees. Whether licensed or not,
probably also be required to conduct research. If you This website of the National
these individuals are qualified to work in supervised Association of Social Work-
settings such as community mental health centers. want to focus solely on teaching, consider a job at a ers contains a Student
For more information, see Web Links D.1 and D.2. two-year college, as research is usually emphasized Center subpage (listed
less in these institutions. If you want to focus solely under “Resources”) that
describes what social
on research, consider working for government agen- workers do, provides
Clinical Social Work
cies (for example, the Centers for Disease Control) salary information, and
Unlike social workers or case workers, clinical social answers questions about
or private research organizations. To work in a uni-
workers diagnose and treat psychological problems. education, licensing, and
versity psychology department, you will need a Ph.D. credentialing.
Clinical social workers are educated in departments
in psychology—not a degree in another field such as
or colleges of social work (not psychology depart-
education or social work.
ments). The degree that they earn is the M.S.W. (Mas-
ter of Social Work). They do not do psychological
testing, so you should consider majoring in psychol- Applied Work
ogy or education if you want to do assessment. They In selected subfields, psychologists are qualified to
work in community mental health centers, counsel- apply their knowledge by offering professional ser-
ing centers, hospitals, and schools. All 50 states li- vices to the public. These professional areas of spe-
cense clinical social workers at the master’s level. This cialization include clinical psychology, counseling
Web Link D.6
fact makes clinical social work an attractive career psychology, forensic psychology, health psychology,
option. For more information, see Web Link D.5. industrial/organizational psychology, and sports psy- APA Online
chology. The required degree for most of these areas The American Psychologi-
cal Association website has
is typically the Ph.D. The Psy.D. is also appropriate two especially useful links
Agency Counseling
in the area of clinical psychology, and the Ed.D. is for students. The “divi-
Agency counselors provide various types of counsel- sions” link will enable you
acceptable in counseling psychology.
ing assistance to clients and may administer a lim- access the individual web-
pages of the many sub-
ited number of psychological tests (occupational in-
fields of psychology. The
terest tests, for example). Thus, the work is somewhat Gaining Admission link to the “students” page
like that done by those with a master’s degree in clin- to Graduate School will help you find informa-
ical psychology. Counselors are educated in depart- tion about undergraduate
psychology honoraries,
ments of education; they receive the M.Ed. (Master The most important requirements for admission to getting into graduate
of Education) degree. Most people assume that a de- graduate school are high scores on the Graduate Rec- school, and related topics.
Careers in Psychology A-33

ord Exam (GRE), excellent grades, glowing faculty schools place much less emphasis on extracurricular
Web Link D.7 recommendations, and research experience. For the activities than employers do.
Salary.com record, it is much harder to gain admission to a doc- 2. Keep your grades up. Performing well in all of
This helpful site allows you toral program than a master’s program. Common min- your classes will help you to learn the information
to determine salary ranges imum scores required on the GRE verbal and quanti- and develop the thinking skills that will permit you
for numerous occupations
at different experience
tative sections for doctoral programs are around 550 to score high on the GRE. It is especially important
levels and in different geo- to 600 (on each test); for master’s programs, they to do well in your research methods and statistics
graphical areas and to com- hover around 500. The minimum cumulative grade- courses. Good grades will also make you eligible for
pare these to national
point average for admission to doctoral programs membership in Psi Chi, the national honor society
averages. You can proba-
bly get all the information is typically around 3.2; for a master’s program, it is in psychology.
you need for free, but you around 3.0. On average, admitted students tend to 3. Position yourself to obtain strong letters of recom-
can also pay (a lot) for a
have GPAs that are quite a bit higher than these min- mendation from three faculty members. Graduate schools
customized report.
imum figures. Gaining admission to Ph.D. programs want recommendations only from faculty members.
in clinical psychology is roughly as competitive and (For employers, recommendations from supervisors
challenging as gaining admission to medical school. and clergy are also acceptable.) Try to take some
Of course, requirements vary among programs within smaller courses that may enable your professors to
the two levels. Departments with excellent reputa- get to know you and to become familiar with your
tions usually have more stringent requirements. work. Otherwise, it will be difficult for them to write
good letters of recommendation for you.
Early Preparation
Early in your college career you may not know Next Steps
whether you will want to try to gain admission to You need to prepare your applications for graduate
graduate school. To keep this educational door open school during the fall term of your senior year. Thus,
until you are sure that you want to close it, keep the in your junior year, you should begin identifying the
following points in mind: subfield (clinical, social, developmental, etc.) in which
you want to specialize, as well as schools that inter-
1. Begin early to develop the knowledge and skills
est you. The graduate school application process is
graduate programs seek. As with the job search, you
complicated and involves dealing with information
need to begin early to develop the qualities listed in
and issues that are unfamiliar to virtually all students.
Figure D.2, as these are also important to success in
Thus, it is essential to identify a knowledgeable fac-
graduate school. In addition, you must hone your
ulty member in the psychology department at your
verbal, quantitative, and critical thinking skills to a
school to advise you about the admissions process.
high degree and be able to demonstrate that you pos-
Although Careers Services’ staff members are experts
sess these skills through your GRE scores, grades, and
on career issues, they are far less knowledgeable about
letters of recommendation. Demonstrating that you
graduate school admissions. For details about the
have research experience is also important. An excel-
process of applying to graduate programs in psychol-
lent way to start is to volunteer to help faculty mem-
ogy see Web Link D.1.
bers with their research. Also note that graduate
A-34 APPENDIX D
Appendix E Critical Thinking About Internet Research Sources:

What Students Need to Know
by Vincent W. Hevern (LeMoyne College)

Is the earth a globe or flat as a pancake? Was Coper- vinced that they can and should do all of their li-
nicus right that the sun stands at the center of the brary work in their pajamas and slippers from the
solar system or does it circle the earth? Did Neil Arm- relative comfort of their dorm rooms or apartments”
strong really set foot on the lunar surface in 1969 or (p. 111). If that’s your belief, frankly you will not be-
did NASA stage all those moon landings at a secret come a better researcher whether online or off. Col-
movie lot somewhere in the American desert? Proba- leges continue to spend hundreds of thousands to
bly 99.9999% of people know that the earth is round, millions of dollars every year on their libraries be-
Copernicus was right, and Armstrong really walked cause libraries remain the principal repositories of
on the moon. But, type these four words—“flat earth sound, scholarly information. That money also pays
Charles Johnson”—into Google, Yahoo, or another for librarians who have special skills and knowledge
Internet search engine and you’ll discover what the that permit them to help students and faculty with
other 0.0001% believe. The late Mr. Johnson claimed their research. So, the most basic rule of informa-
that he could prove the earth was flat, Copernicus tional literacy states that you need to know what is in
lied, and NASA has tricked us all for decades. So, who’s your school’s library. And, to do so, you should con-
right? After all, information supporting the “Flat sult the professional reference librarians there to help
Earth” hypothesis can be found on the Internet. Isn’t you. Because the best materials for research in cyber-
that enough to justify you becoming a “Flat Earther” space are often rooted in print-based library resources,
yourself? you should learn the basics of the library to enhance
I am starting out with this silly example to high- your sophistication online.
light a serious problem that students and teachers The second fundamental fact can be summed up
face in the 21st century: it is easy to find a lot of terri- by the phrase, “No pain, no gain.” It takes time and
ble as well as excellent information online. And, when real effort to develop the skills necessary to be effec-
students (and some teachers, too) don’t critically tive in seeking scholarly information. Just as you
judge their information sources, the overall quality wouldn’t think of playing a varsity sport unless you
of their research slips (Brown, Freeman, & William- had trained for it over many months or years, your
son, 2000). We live at a time when the amount and ability to conduct research requires regular practice. In
availability of information is growing exponentially. fact, studies usually find that hard work and prac-
But our use of all that data is often handicapped, as tice—more so than talent or genius—are what distin-
it seems harder and harder to figure out where to find, guishes experts from other people (van Gelder, 2005).
and how to evaluate, research sources. So, whether A corollary to the need for practice is the notion that
you are exploring psychology as your major or just good research itself takes time. Very few students can
because it is an interesting subject, you need to learn gather the sources needed for a important report in
how to think critically about Internet-based sources just a few hours or overnight. Assembling the data,
of information in psychology (and every other sub- weighing the arguments, synthesizing the best ma-
ject). When you finish school, you may find yourself terials, and preparing a report in your own words re-
working in business or for a governmental agency or quires dedicated time and attention. That said, the
even in another academic setting. Wherever your fu- process of research does get easier with experience.
ture takes you, your skills at finding and evaluating
information online will be important and valued. I Criteria for Quality on the Net
hope that some of the suggestions in this essay will
help you learn to be a better researcher online. So, what are the standards or criteria by which you
can judge the quality of a webpage or resource? What
Two Fundamental can you do to increase the chances that the material
Facts about Research you take from the Internet is worth your effort? In
recent years, information specialists have explored
No matter how large the Internet grows, libraries will how to answer these questions. Their studies have
continue to be the foundation for good research. Yet, come to slightly different conclusions, but there is
as Jenson (2004) argues, “many students are con- substantial agreement about what characteristics are
Critical Thinking About Internet Research Sources: What Students Need to Know A-35
page. By subscribing to various online databases (such

Questions to Ask in Evaluating Materials on the Internet
as PsycINFO and full-text digital journal archives such
as PsycARTICLES), your library has already pointed
1. Identity and qualifications of the author(s)
• Who is the author of the material? Is the author identified or anonymous?
out the most direct path to finding quality materi-
als. If you do use an Internet search engine, try the
• What is the author's academic or professional background and experience?
more specialized ones such as Google Scholar <http://
• Is the author writing within or outside his/her area of expertise and skill?
scholar.google.com/> or Scirus <www.scirus.com/>.
• If the material is the product of a group (a committee, governmental agency, or the like), what is
that group's qualifications or expertise regarding this subject? And remember, it may be prudent to ask your school’s
reference librarian for suggestions as you develop
2. Publisher or sponsor of the website
your own research competence.
• Is the material self-published by the author or is there some recognized organization (university,
It is also critical that you understand the difference
medical center, government agency, nonprofit foundation, and so forth) that sponsors the
website for the material? between print-based and web-based sources. Online data-
• Does the site's sponsor or publisher have a positive reputation? bases such as PsycINFO will give you abstracts (brief
summaries) of articles from professional journals.
3. Balance, objectivity, and independence
The articles themselves may be found in any of three
• Does the material or website strive for balance and objectivity rather than use extreme,
places: in digital archives online, on the shelves of
inflammatory, or highly subjective language or opinions?
your school’s library, or via interlibrary loan from an-
• Is more than one point of view evident at the site?
other school. Every school has different levels of ac-
• If the material takes a strong stand on one side of a controversial issue, does the author or site
acknowledge there may be another side to the matter? cess or availability for different journals. Thus, print-
• Is the website sponsored by any commercial or political organization that advocates for a
based sources, particularly journal articles, may require
particular point of view? you to recover them in person rather than online.
• Does the author have any financial or commercial interest that might conflict with a fair or On the other hand, Internet search engines will gen-
objective presentation of the topic? erally lead you to sources at different websites. The
• Is the material drawn from a site that sells a product or solicits customers for a service? materials at these sites may appear directly on your
web browser, or you may need to download the doc-
4. Quality of online presentation and other cues
uments to your personal computer.
• Is the site well organized or designed so that browsers can easily visit and retrieve information?
Once you have found such sources, how do you
• Does the site or online material show care in its preparation, such as proper spelling and good
grammar in all posted materials? evaluate if they are worthwhile? The comments that
• Does the site work effectively, so that the links to subpages and external sites are accurate follow suggest what you should think about.
and helpful?
• How recently has the site been updated? Does the site show evidence that someone regularly Identity and Qualifications
attends to it with corrections, new materials, and so forth? of the Authors
• Does the material contain clear and useful references to other scholarship from journals, The Internet is a kind of worldwide democracy. Just
professional books, and recognized research studies? about anyone—qualified or not—can construct a
• Have supporting references in the material been published in recent years, or do they include mostly webpage and put what they want to say online. With
out-of-date, or possibly obsolete sources?
so few restrictions on Internet publishing, the range
and quality of online resources is bound to vary from
invaluable to completely worthless. So, researchers
Figure E.1 associated with quality on the web. The rest of this who turn to the Net need to ask two related ques-
Evaluating online essay synthesizes their work and my own experience tions: Who has written this material? and What are
resources. The questions from over a decade of helping students and teachers their qualifications for so doing? These are probably the
listed here, which draw
heavily on the work of use the Net (see Figure E.1 for an overview). If I had two most important guides to the quality of online
Alexander and Tate (1999), to reduce this advice to its simplest terms, the most resources.
can help you to evaluate important key to finding quality resources online will Sometimes you will find no clues to the identity
the quality and reliability
of resource materials found always be the active exercise of judgment and critical of the author of a particular webpage or resource—
on the Internet. thinking. no name, no organizational affiliation, nothing that
Let’s discuss the process of finding sources first. It reveals the authorship of the material. If this is the
is important to understand the difference between online case, you should be skeptical about relying on this
databases and Internet search engines. Although it is information. It’s hard to defend the quality of a work
simple and painless to type a phrase into Google or when “Anonymous” is the author.
Yahoo! or another Internet search engine, these en- Suppose one or more authors are listed by name.
gines should not normally be the first or only mech- The next task is to discover the qualifications of these
anism you use to find resources. It is a better idea to authors. Do they have some type of expertise to jus-
go to the indexes your school’s library provides. These tify writing the online material or constructing the
indexes can often be accessed through a library’s web- online site? You should look for a statement of an
A-36 APPENDIX E
author’s academic credentials (such as an advanced in print directly. This practice is called “vanity pub-
degree like a Ph.D. or an M.D.) or appropriate work lishing” and is usually looked down upon by other
experience (such as “director of personnel” at a com- scholars.
pany or “senior researcher” at a laboratory). You may In a practice reminiscent of vanity publishing,
be able to read through a resumé at a personal web- many web authors post materials online directly
page showing the author’s qualifications. You should through commercial or free Internet service provid-
also try to determine whether the author has pub- ers. Because these writings have not been edited or
lished on a similar topic in reputable, peer-reviewed evaluated prior to their publication, you need to be
journals or belongs to professional or scholarly orga- cautious in judging their quality. This is not to dis-
nizations concerned with the subject. parage all self-published resources on the web. Clearly,
There are other cautions to keep in mind. Some experts have posted some valuable resources online
authors may be qualified to comment on one topic without peer review. But, in the absence of a clear
but go beyond their expertise into other domains of process of scholarly peer review, you must look for
knowledge—for example, a physician commenting other indicators of quality. For this reason, the over-
on economics or a biologist on educational methods. all qualifications of an author as an expert may be
Researchers need to be cautious with writers who crucial in determining whether to use a resource
move too far away from their fields of specialization. published without peer review.
Another consideration is whether authors may have Websites that are sponsored by academic institu-
a financial stake or commercial interest in the issue tions, government agencies, and nonprofit or schol-
that might compromise their objectivity. arly organizations have URLs that end with the des-
Finally, suppose the “author” of a web-based pub- ignation .edu, .gov, or .org rather than .com or .net.
lication has an institutional identity such as a profes- Such sites would be expected to offer some assurance
sional association, a governmental agency, a research of higher quality for data posted there. A particular
center, or a nonprofit organization. How should qual- clue to quality at corporate sites may be a copyright
ifications be weighed in such a case? Certainly the notice by a sponsoring organization rather than a
overall reputation of the institutional author should single individual. Often located at the bottom of a
be recognized. For example, a consensus statement webpage, this notice may signal that the organiza-
on a treatment approach produced by the National tion is willing to put its reputation behind the re-
Institute of Mental Health or a report on the employ- source. For example, there are many online health
ment characteristics of psychologists issued by the information centers that range in quality from dis-
American Psychological Association would both be mal to superb. At one excellent site, The Virtual Hos-
rated positively as reference sources. You may also pital <www.vh.org>, it is significant to find the no-
check whether a broad corporate board of editors or tice on its title page, “Copyright © 1992–2005 the
advisors is associated with an institutional voice on Author(s) and The University of Iowa.”
the Net. However, beware of fancy-sounding “Insti-
tutes” or “Commissions” or “Associations” that may Balance, Objectivity, and Independence
be the product of a single person or handful of indi- At the checkout line in a supermarket, shoppers often
viduals and serve only to artificially embellish the face a set of tabloid newspapers with outrageous head-
opinions of their creators. lines and the promise of lurid stories inside. Many
people pick up a copy of their favorite tabloid as en-
Publisher or Sponsor of the Website tertainment, something to be read purely for relax-
Book authors traditionally use print publishers to ation and enjoyment but not as an objective or reli-
promote and distribute their writings. In turn, pub- able source of reporting about the world. Although
lishers place their reputations on the line by issuing tabloid papers are an extreme example, other sources
new books. Discerning readers rely on a publisher’s of information should arouse similar suspicions be-
overall standing when they consider whether to ac- cause of their subjective, unbalanced, and biased style
quire new works. Especially in academic publishing, of presentation. In similar fashion, Internet resources
readers know that an editorial and review process pre- should be evaluated for their apparent balance and
cedes publication and that such efforts seek to ensure objectivity. Certainly, the presence of language,
a high level of quality for the published material. In- graphic images, or opinions that are extreme, inflam-
deed, the essence of academic scholarship lies in a matory, or highly subjective suggests that the ma-
willingness to submit research to prepublication cri- terial should be treated with some skepticism. The
tiques by knowledgeable colleagues. Occasionally, more extreme, vulgar, or intemperate the manner of
though, an author circumvents the editorial and peer presentation, the less likely that the resource is reli-
review process and pays to have his or her book set able and trustworthy.
A more difficult case arises from material found the actual content of a resource may be. Finally, more
on sites clearly advocating a particular point of view, credibility can be assigned to materials retrieved from
such as those for a lobbying group, political move- sites that are frequently updated and carefully cor-
ment, or professional advocacy or commercial trade rected. You should look for clear dates on pages con-
association. Researchers should expect that resources taining important information. Ideally, one date will
available at these sites will support the point of view indicate when the page was first posted online and
of the group. This fact does not necessarily disqualify another when it was last changed or revised.
the importance of materials found there. The spon- When I use the Net for research purposes, I use at
soring organizations may provide valuable informa- least two further cues to evaluate the quality of the
tion for visitors to their sites. Greater reliance can material or sites I find. First, in articles or papers on-
probably be given to resources found on a site that line, I look at the references used by the author and
acknowledges there is more than one side to a con- consider whether they include scholarly materials
troversial issue or, even, that the topic is controver- from journals, professional books, or other recog-
sial in the first place. Some sites even offer links to nized research sources. These sources should go well
the opposing side of a disputed topic. This openness beyond the author’s own previous writings. Second,
should inspire confidence by users of the site because I examine the dates of the supporting references. How
it suggests a sense of fairness. recent are they? Do they include sources published
A frequent challenge to researchers of psychologi- in the last several years? Or, do they include only
cal topics arises from commercial sites that stand to older and possibly out-of-date materials? The more
make money or gain new customers on the basis of up-to-date the references, the greater I tend to trust
what they post online. These sites may be businesses the source.
(with a .com address) or may be allied with the pro-
fessional office or practice of individuals such as psy- A Final Note of Advice
chotherapists or physicians. Sometimes these sites
offer a “Resource Center” or similar area that is filled I hope the suggestions summarized here make it clear
with articles relating to the product or service of the that any researcher must actively exercise judgment
site’s sponsor. These articles may include scientific- and critical thinking skills in evaluating online re-
sounding titles and come from magazines, journals, sources. Such skills are enormously enhanced when
or books that seem to be similarly professional. Most the researcher chooses a balanced overall research
evaluators warn researchers to be careful when using strategy. It is one thing to seek a quick fact or a sim-
materials from any site that has a direct financial mo- ple definition through a website; it is another to rely
tivation in sharing information. Finding quality in on the Internet as the sole data source for a major
online materials is always a judgment call, and the paper or research project. Yet for many people, the
more you know about a topic from other sources, the Internet is an easily “surfable” medium, one that can
better you can make that call at commercial sites. quickly lead to information of varying levels of qual-
ity. The very ease of conducting research online often
Quality of Online Presentation seduces student researchers to skip more difficult,
and Other Cues but crucially important, steps offline.
Another important index of quality is the care with The most important strategy a student can bring
which websites and materials have been organized to any research project is to develop an overall per-
and maintained. You should consider how easily you spective or a broad vantage point regarding the topic
can use a website. Do the hypertext links within the of the project. This situation is unlikely to happen un-
site work or do they point to empty or missing pages? less the investigator uses sources of different types—
Can visitors easily find the information they are look- scholarly books, journal and magazine articles, and
ing for? Is there evidence that the design of the site printed research reports—in addition to materials re-
was carefully considered and executed? Similarly, the trieved from the Internet. It is both easy to under-
actual text of materials retrieved from the Net should stand, but embarrassing in the long run, when a stu-
be free from gross errors. Poor grammar and improper dent hands in a paper with only Internet-based sources
spelling usually signal that something is amiss. Rep- and later discovers in a professor’s grading that the
utable scholars are fanatical about eliminating slop- Net provided a biased or slanted view of the topic.
piness or careless mistakes in what they write. They Without the counterbalance of non-Net sources, a
believe any such errors would suggest a parallel slop- student risks seriously misjudging how psychologists,
piness in their thinking. Thus, the presence of me- physicians, and other research scientists actually ap-
chanical and stylistic mistakes at a website or in a proach an issue. So, my final suggestion about research
document should raise doubts about how reputable is a simple rule of thumb: The longer and more im-
A-38 APPENDIX E
portant the research project or paper, the broader the ico State University Library website: http://lib.
kinds of references you should use to answer the re- nmsu.edu/instruction/eval.html
search question. Kirk, E. E. (1996). Evaluating information found on
the Internet. [Online] Available at the Sheridan Li-
For Further Reference and Reading braries of the Johns Hopkins University website:
http://www.library.jhu.edu/researchhelp/general/
Students who wish to further enhance their ability evaluating/
to evaluate Internet materials and sites should con- U.C. Berkeley Teaching Library Internet Workshops.
sider these outstanding online resources: (2005). Evaluating webpages: Techniques to apply and
questions to ask. [Online] Available at the Univer-
Beck, S. (1997). Evaluation criteria. [Online] The sity of California at Berkeley Library website:
good, the bad, and the ugly: Or, why it’s a good idea http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/
to evaluate web sources. Available at the New Mex- Internet/Evaluate.html
Glossary
A Anecdotal evidence Personal stories about specific Aversion therapy A behavior therapy in which an
incidents and experiences. aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits
Absolute refractory period The minimum length of an undesirable response.
Animism The belief that all things are living.
time after an action potential during which another
Anorexia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by Avoidance-avoidance conflict A conflict situation
action potential cannot begin.
intense fear of gaining weight, disturbed body image, in which a choice must be made between two un-
Absolute threshold The minimum amount of stim- attractive goals.
refusal to maintain normal weight, and dangerous
ulation that an organism can detect for a specific type
measures to lose weight. Avoidance learning Learning that has occurred
of sensory input.
Antagonist A chemical that opposes the action of when an organism engages in a response that pre-
Accommodation Changing existing mental structures vents aversive stimulation from occurring.
a neurotransmitter.
to explain new experiences.
Anterograde amnesia Loss of memories for events Axon A long, thin fiber that transmits signals away
Acculturation The degree to which a person is from the neuron cell body to other neurons, or to
that occur after a head injury.
socially and psychologically integrated into a new muscles or glands.
culture. Antianxiety drugs Medications that relieve tension,
apprehension, and nervousness.
Achievement motive The need to master difficult
challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high Antidepressant drugs Medications that gradually ele- B
standards of excellence. vate mood and help bring people out of a depression. Basilar membrane A structure that runs the length
Achievement tests Tests that gauge a person’s mastery Antipsychotic drugs Medications used to gradually of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the audi-
and knowledge of various subjects. reduce psychotic symptoms, including hyperactivity, tory receptors, called hair cells.
mental confusion, hallucinations, and delusions. Behavior Any overt (observable) response or activity
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
A disorder in which the immune system is gradually Antisocial personality disorder A type of personal- by an organism.
weakened and eventually disabled by the human ity disorder marked by impulsive, callous, manip- Behavior modification A systematic approach to
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). ulative, aggressive, and irresponsible behavior that changing behavior through the application of the
reflects a failure to accept social norms. principles of conditioning.
Acquisition The formation of a new conditioned
response tendency. Anxiety disorders A class of disorders marked by Behavior therapies Application of the principles of
feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety. learning to direct efforts to change clients’ maladap-
Action potential A brief change in a neuron’s elec-
trical charge. Applied psychology The branch of psychology con- tive behaviors.
cerned with everyday, practical problems. Behavioral contract A written agreement outlining
Acute stressors Threatening events that have a rela-
tively short duration and a clear endpoint. Approach-approach conflict A conflict situation in a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behav-
which a choice must be made between two attractive ior modification program.
Adaptation An inherited characteristic that increased
goals. Behavioral genetics An interdisciplinary field that
in a population (through natural selection) because
it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction Approach-avoidance conflict A conflict situation studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioral
during the time it emerged. in which a choice must be made about whether to traits.
pursue a single goal that has both attractive and un- Behaviorism A theoretical orientation based on the
Additive color mixing Formation of colors by super-
attractive aspects. premise that scientific psychology should study only
imposing lights, putting more light in the mixture
than exists in any one light by itself. Aptitude tests Psychological tests used to assess observable behavior.
talent for specific types of mental ability. Bilingualism The acquisition of two languages that
Adoption studies Research studies that assess heredi-
tary influence by examining the resemblance between Archetypes According to Jung, emotionally charged use different speech sounds, vocabularies, and gram-
adopted children and both their biological and their images and thought forms that have universal matical rules.
adoptive parents. meaning. Binocular depth cues Clues about distance based on
Afferent nerve fibers Axons that carry information Argument One or more premises used to provide the differing views of the two eyes.
inward to the central nervous system from the per- support for a conclusion. Biological rhythms Periodic fluctuations in physio-
iphery of the body. Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) The logical functioning.
Afterimage A visual image that persists after a stim- afferent fibers running through the reticular forma- Biomedical therapies Physiological interventions
ulus is removed. tion that influence physiological arousal. intended to reduce symptoms associated with psy-
Age of viability The age at which a baby can survive Assimilation Interpreting new experiences in terms chological disorders.
in the event of a premature birth. of existing mental structures without changing them. Biopsychosocial model A model of illness that
Aggression Any behavior that is intended to hurt Assumptions Premises for which no proof or evi- holds that physical illness is caused by a complex
someone, either physically or verbally. dence is offered. interaction of biological, psychological, and socio-
Agonist A chemical that mimics the action of a Attachment A close, emotional bond of affection cultural factors.
neurotransmitter. between infants and their caregivers. Bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic-
Agoraphobia A fear of going out to public places. Attention Focusing awareness on a narrowed range depressive disorder) Mood disorder marked by the
of stimuli or events. experience of both depressed and manic periods.
Alcohol A variety of beverages containing ethyl
alcohol. Attitudes Orientations that locate objects of thought Bisexuals Persons who seek emotional-sexual rela-
on dimensions of judgment. tionships with members of either sex.
Algorithm A methodical, step-by-step procedure for
trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solu- Attributions Inferences that people draw about the Body mass index (BMI) Weight (in kilograms)
tion to a problem. causes of events, others’ behavior, and their own divided by height (in meters) squared (kg/m2).
behavior. Bottom-up processing In form perception, progres-
Alternative outcomes effect Phenomenon that occurs
when people’s belief about whether an outcome will Auditory localization Locating the source of a sound sion from individual elements to the whole.
occur changes depending on how alternative out- in space. Bulimia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by
comes are distributed, even though the assumed prob- Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The system habitually engaging in out-of-control overeating fol-
ability of the alternative outcomes is held constant. of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, lowed by unhealthy compensatory efforts, such as
Amnesia A significant memory loss that is too exten- smooth muscles, and glands. self-induced vomiting, fasting, abuse of laxatives and
sive to be due to normal forgetting. See also Antero- Availability heuristic Basing the estimated proba- diuretics, and excessive exercise.
grade amnesia, Retrograde amnesia. bility of an event on the ease with which relevant Burnout Physical, mental, and emotional exhaus-
Androgens The principal class of gonadal hormones instances come to mind. tion that is attributable to work-related stress.
in males.
GLOSSARY G-1
Bystander effect A paradoxical social phenomenon Cognitive therapy An insight therapy that empha- Content validity The degree to which the content
in which people are less likely to provide needed help sizes recognizing and changing negative thoughts of a test is representative of the domain it’s supposed
when they are in groups than when they are alone. and maladaptive beliefs. to cover.
Collective unconscious According to Jung, a store- Continuous reinforcement Reinforcing every in-
house of latent memory traces inherited from peo- stance of a designated response.
C ple’s ancestral past. Control group Subjects in a study who do not re-
Cannabis The hemp plant from which marijuana,
Collectivism Putting group goals ahead of personal ceive the special treatment given to the experimental
hashish, and THC are derived.
goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the group.
Case study An in-depth investigation of an individ- groups one belongs to. Convergence A cue to depth that involves sensing
ual subject.
Color blindness Deficiency in the ability to distin- the eyes converging toward each other as they focus
Catastrophic thinking Unrealistically pessimistic guish among colors. on closer objects.
appraisals of stress that exaggerate the magnitude of
Commitment An intent to maintain a relationship Convergent thinking Narrowing down a list of
one’s problems.
in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise. alternatives to converge on a single correct answer.
Catatonic schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia
Comorbidity The coexistence of two or more Conversion disorder A somatoform disorder charac-
marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from
disorders. terized by a significant loss of physical function
muscular rigidity to random motor activity.
Companionate love Warm, trusting, tolerant affec- (with no apparent organic basis), usually in a single
Catharsis The release of emotional tension. organ system.
tion for another whose life is deeply intertwined
Central nervous system (CNS) The brain and the with one’s own. Coping Active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate
spinal cord. the demands created by stress.
Comparitors People, objects, events, and other stan-
Centration The tendency to focus on just one feature dards that are used as a baseline for comparisons in Corpus callosum The structure that connects the
of a problem, neglecting other important aspects. making judgments. two cerebral hemispheres.
Cephalocaudal trend The head-to-foot direction of Compensation According to Adler, efforts to over- Correlation The extent to which two variables are
motor development. come imagined or real inferiorities by developing related to each other.
Cerebral cortex The convoluted outer layer of the one’s abilities. Correlation coefficient A numerical index of the
cerebrum. Complementary colors Pairs of colors that produce degree of relationship between two variables.
Cerebral hemispheres The right and left halves of gray tones when added together. Counseling psychologists Psychologists who spe-
the cerebrum. Conceptual hierarchy A multilevel classification cialize in the treatment of everyday adjustment
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) A solution that fills the system based on common properties among items. problems.
hollow cavities (ventricles) of the brain and circulates Concordance rate The percentage of twin pairs or Creativity The generation of ideas that are original,
around the brain and spinal cord. other pairs of relatives that exhibit the same disorder. novel, and useful.
Channel The medium through which a message Conditioned reinforcers. See Secondary reinforcers. Criterion-related validity Test validity that is esti-
is sent. mated by correlating subjects’ scores on a test with
Conditioned response (CR) A learned reaction to a
Chromosomes Threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribo- conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous their scores on an independent criterion (another
nucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information. conditioning. measure) of the trait assessed by the test.
Chronic stressors Threatening events that have a Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral Critical period A limited time span in the develop-
relatively long duration and no readily apparent time stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired ment of an organism when it is optimal for certain
limit. the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. capacities to emerge because the organism is espe-
Chunk A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single cially responsive to certain experiences.
Cones Specialized visual receptors that play a key
unit. role in daylight vision and color vision. Critical thinking The use of cognitive skills and
Circadian rhythms The 24-hour biological cycles strategies that increase the probability of a desired
Confirmation bias The tendency to seek informa-
found in humans and many other species. outcome.
tion that supports one’s decisions and beliefs while
Classical conditioning A type of learning in which ignoring disconfirming information. Cross-sectional design A research design in which
a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a re- investigators compare groups of subjects of differing
Conflict A state that occurs when two or more
sponse that was originally evoked by another stimulus. age who are observed at a single point in time.
incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses
Client-centered therapy An insight therapy that compete for expression. Culture The widely shared customs, beliefs, values,
emphasizes providing a supportive emotional cli- norms, institutions, and other products of a commu-
Conformity The tendency for people to yield to real
mate for clients, who play a major role in determin- nity that are transmitted socially across generations.
or imagined social pressure.
ing the pace and direction of their therapy. Culture-bound disorders Abnormal syndromes
Confounding of variables A condition that exists
Clinical psychologists Psychologists who specialize found only in a few cultural groups.
whenever two variables are linked together in a way
in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological dis- that makes it difficult to sort out their independent Cumulative recorder A graphic record of reinforce-
orders and everyday behavioral problems. effects. ment and responding in a Skinner box as a function
Clinical psychology The branch of psychology con- of time.
Conjunction fallacy An error that occurs when
cerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psycho- people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events Cyclothymic disorder Exhibiting chronic but rela-
logical problems and disorders. happening together are greater than the odds of tively mild symptoms of bipolar disturbance.
Cochlea The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner either event happening alone.
ear that contains the receptors for hearing. Connectionist models. See parallel distributed pro- D
Coefficient of determination The percentage of cessing (PDP) models.
Dark adaptation The process in which the eyes
variation in one variable that can be predicted based Conscious Whatever one is aware of at a particular become more sensitive to light in low illumination.
on the other variable. point in time.
Data collection techniques Procedures for making
Cognition The mental processes involved in acquir- Conservation Piaget’s term for the awareness empirical observations and measurements.
ing knowledge. that physical quantities remain constant in spite
Decay theory The idea that forgetting occurs be-
Cognitive-behavioral treatments A varied combi- of changes in their shape or appearance.
cause memory traces fade with time.
nation of verbal interventions and behavioral Consolidation A hypothetical process involving
modification techniques used to help clients change Decision making The process of evaluating alterna-
the gradual conversion of information into durable
maladaptive patterns of thinking. tives and making choices among them.
memory codes stored in long-term memory.
Cognitive development Transitions in youngsters’ Declarative memory system Memory for factual
Construct validity The extent to which there is
patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remember- information.
evidence that a test measures a particular hypotheti-
ing, and problem solving. cal construct. Defense mechanisms Largely unconscious reactions
Cognitive dissonance A psychological state that that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such
Constructive coping Relatively healthful efforts that
exists when related cognitions are inconsistent. as anxiety and guilt.
people make to deal with stressful events.
G-2 GLOSSARY
Defensive attribution The tendency to blame vic- Double-blind procedure A research strategy in which Endorphins The entire family of internally produced
tims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely neither subjects nor experimenters know which sub- chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and
to be victimized in a similar way. jects are in the experimental or control groups. effects.
Deinstitutionalization Transferring the treatment Dream analysis A psychoanalytic technique in which Epidemiology The study of the distribution of men-
of mental illness from inpatient institutions to the therapist interprets the symbolic meaning of the tal or physical disorders in a population.
community-based facilities that emphasize out- client’s dreams. Episodic memory system Chronological, or tempo-
patient care. Drive An internal state of tension that motivates an rally dated, recollections of personal experiences.
Delusions False beliefs that are maintained even organism to engage in activities that should reduce Escape learning A type of learning in which an
though they are clearly out of touch with reality. the tension. organism acquires a response that decreases or ends
Dementia An abnormal condition marked by multiple Dual-coding theory Paivio’s theory that memory some aversive stimulation.
cognitive defects that include memory impairment. is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, Estrogens The principal class of gonadal hormones
Dendrites Branchlike parts of a neuron that are spe- since either can lead to recall. in females.
cialized to receive information. Dysthymic disorder A chronic depression that is Ethnocentrism The tendency to view one’s own
Dependent variable In an experiment, the variable insufficient in severity to merit diagnosis of a major group as superior to others and as the standard for
that is thought to be affected by the manipulation depressive episode. judging the worth of foreign ways.
of the independent variable. Etiology The apparent causation and developmental
Depth perception Interpretation of visual cues that E history of an illness.
indicate how near or far away objects are. Evaluative conditioning Efforts to transfer the emo-
Eating disorders Severe disturbances in eating be-
Descriptive statistics Statistics that are used to orga- havior characterized by preoccupation with weight tion attached to a UCS to a new CS.
nize and summarize data. concerns and unhealthy efforts to control weight. Evolutionary psychology Theoretical perspective
Development The sequence of age-related changes Eclecticism In psychotherapy, drawing ideas from that examines behavioral processes in terms of their
that occur as a person progresses from conception two or more systems of therapy instead of commit- adaptive value for a species over the course of many
to death. ting to just one system. generations.
Developmental norms The average age at which Efferent nerve fibers Axons that carry information Excitatory PSP An electric potential that increases
individuals display various behaviors and abilities. outward from the central nervous system to the the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire
Deviation IQ scores Scores that locate subjects periphery of the body. action potentials.
precisely within the normal distribution, using the Ego According to Freud, the decision-making com- Experiment A research method in which the inves-
standard deviation as the unit of measurement. ponent of personality that operates according to the tigator manipulates a variable under carefully con-
Diagnosis Distinguishing one illness from another. reality principle. trolled conditions and observes whether any changes
occur in a second variable as a result.
Discrimination Behaving differently, usually unfairly, Egocentrism A limited ability to share another
toward the members of a group. person’s viewpoint. Experimental group The subjects in a study who
receive some special treatment in regard to the inde-
Discriminative stimuli Cues that influence operant Elaboration Linking a stimulus to other information
pendent variable.
behavior by indicating the probable consequences at the time of encoding.
(reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response. Experimenter bias A phenomenon that occurs when
Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) Sending a
a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the
Dishabituation An increase in the strength of a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimu-
outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
habituated response elicited by a new stimulus. late (activate) it.
External attributions Ascribing the causes of be-
Disorganized schizophrenia A type of schizophre- Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) A biomedical
havior to situational demands and environmental
nia in which particularly severe deterioration of adap- treatment in which electric shock is used to produce
constraints.
tive behavior is seen. a cortical seizure accompanied by convulsions.
Extinction The gradual weakening and disappear-
Displacement Diverting emotional feelings (usually Electroencephalograph (EEG) A device that moni-
ance of a conditioned response tendency.
anger) from their original source to a substitute target. tors the electrical activity of the brain over time by
means of recording electrodes attached to the surface Extraneous variables Any variables other than the
Display rules Cultural norms that regulate the appro-
of the scalp. independent variable that seem likely to influence
priate expressions of emotions.
the dependent variable in a specific study.
Dissociation A splitting off of mental processes into Electromyograph (EMG) A device that records mus-
cular activity and tension. Extraverts People who tend to be interested in the
two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness.
external world of people and things.
Dissociative amnesia A sudden loss of memory for Electrooculograph (EOG) A device that records eye
important personal information that is too extensive movements.
to be due to normal forgetting. Elicit To draw out or bring forth. F
Dissociative disorders A class of disorders in which Embryonic stage The second stage of prenatal Factor analysis Statistical analysis of correlations
people lose contact with portions of their conscious- development, lasting from two weeks until the end among many variables to identify closely related
ness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their of the second month. clusters of variables.
sense of identity. Emit To send forth. Family life cycle A sequence of stages that families
Dissociative fugue A disorder in which people lose Emotion A subjective conscious experience (the tend to progress through.
their memory for their entire lives along with their cognitive component) accompanied by bodily arousal Family studies Scientific studies in which research-
sense of personal identity. (the physiological component) and by characteristic ers assess hereditary influence by examining blood
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) A type of dis- overt expressions (the behavioral component). relatives to see how much they resemble each other
sociative disorder characterized by the coexistence in Emotional intelligence The ability to perceive and on a specific trait.
one person of two or more largely complete, and usu- express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, Farsightedness A vision deficiency in which dis-
ally very different, personalities. Also called multiple- understand and reason with emotion, and regulate tant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear
personality disorder. emotion. blurry.
Distal stimuli Stimuli that lie in the distance (that Empiricism The premise that knowledge should be Fast mapping The process by which children map
is, in the world outside the body). acquired through observation. a word onto an underlying concept after only one
Divergent thinking Trying to expand the range of Encoding Forming a memory code. exposure to the word.
alternatives by generating many possible solutions. Feature analysis The process of detecting specific
Encoding specificity principle The idea that the
Dominant gene A gene that is expressed when paired value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corre- elements in visual input and assembling them into
genes are heterozygous (different). sponds to the memory code. a more complex form.
Door-in-the-face technique Making a large request Endocrine system A group of glands that secrete Feature detectors Neurons that respond selectively
that is likely to be turned down as a way to increase chemicals into the bloodstream that help control to very specific features of more complex stimuli.
the chances that people will agree to a smaller re- bodily functioning.
quest later.
GLOSSARY G-3
Fetal alcohol syndrome A collection of congenital G Hedonic adaptation An effect that occurs when the
(inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness-
use during pregnancy. Galvanic skin response (GSR) An increase in the unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their
electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when neutral point, or baseline for comparison, changes.
Fetal stage The third stage of prenatal development,
sweat glands increase their activity.
lasting from two months through birth. Heritability ratio An estimate of the proportion of
Gambler’s fallacy The belief that the odds of a trait variability in a population that is determined by
Field dependence-independence Individuals’ ten-
chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred variations in genetic inheritance.
dency to rely primarily on external versus internal
recently.
frames of reference when orienting themselves in Heterosexuals Persons who seek emotional-sexual
space. Gate-control theory The idea that incoming pain relationships with members of the other sex.
sensations must pass through a “gate” in the spinal
Fight-or-flight response A physiological reaction Heterozygous condition The situation that occurs
cord that can be closed, thus blocking pain signals.
to threat in which the autonomic nervous system mo- when two genes in a specific pair are different.
bilizes the organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing Gender Culturally constructed distinctions between
Heuristic A strategy, guiding principle, or rule of
(flight) an enemy. masculinity and femininity.
thumb used in solving problems or making decisions.
Fitness The reproductive success (number of des- Gender differences Actual disparities between the
Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s systematic arrange-
cendants) of an individual organism relative to the sexes in typical behavior or average ability.
ment of needs according to priority, which assumes
average reproductive success of the population. Gender roles Expectations about what is appropriate that basic needs must be met before less basic needs
Fixation According to Freud, failure to move forward behavior for each sex. are aroused.
from one psychosexual stage to another as expected. Gender stereotypes Widely held beliefs about males’ Higher-order conditioning A type of conditioning
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule A reinforcement sched- and females’ abilities, personality traits, and behavior. in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it
ule in which the reinforcer is given for the first re- General adaptation syndrome Selye’s model of were an unconditioned stimulus.
sponse that occurs after a fixed time interval has the body’s stress response, consisting of three stages: Hindbrain The part of the brain that includes the
elapsed. alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule A reinforcement schedule Generalized anxiety disorder A psychological dis- of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons.
in which the reinforcer is given after a fixed number order marked by a chronic, high level of anxiety that Hindsight bias The tendency to mold one’s inter-
of nonreinforced responses. is not tied to any specific threat. pretation of the past to fit how events actually
Flashbulb memories Unusually vivid and detailed Genes DNA segments that serve as the key functional turned out.
recollections of momentous events. units in hereditary transmission. Histogram A bar graph that presents data from a
Foot-in-the-door technique Getting people to agree Genetic mapping The process of determining the frequency distribution.
to a small request to increase the chances that they location and chemical sequence of specific genes on Homeostatsis A state of physiological equilibrium
will agree to a larger request later. specific chromosomes. or stability.
Forebrain The largest and most complicated region Genotype A person’s genetic makeup. Homosexuals Persons who seek emotional-sexual
of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, Germinal stage The first phase of prenatal devel- relationships with members of the same sex.
including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, opment, encompassing the first two weeks after Homozygous condition The situation that occurs
and cerebrum. conception. when two genes in a specific pair are the same.
Forgetting curve A graph showing retention and Glucose A simple sugar that is an important source Hormones The chemical substances released by the
forgetting over time. of energy. endocrine glands.
Fovea A tiny spot in the center of the retina that con- Glucostats Neurons sensitive to glucose in the sur- Human factors (human engineering) psychology
tains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot. rounding fluid. Area of psychology that examines the ways in which
Framing How issues are posed or how choices are Group Two or more individuals who interact and are work environments can be designed or modified
structured. interdependent. to match the capabilities and limitations of human
Fraternal twins Twins that result when two eggs Group cohesiveness The strength of the liking rela- beings.
are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, tionships linking group members to each other and Humanism A theoretical orientation that empha-
forming two separate zygotes. Also called Dizygotic to the group itself. sizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their
twins. Group polarization A phenomenon that occurs freedom and their potential for personal growth.
Free association A psychoanalytic technique in when group discussion strengthens a group’s domi- Hypnosis A systematic procedure that typically
which clients spontaneously express their thoughts nant point of view and produces a shift toward a produces a heightened state of suggestibility.
and feelings exactly as they occur, with as little more extreme decision in that direction. Hypochondriasis A somatoform disorder character-
censorship as possible. Group therapy The simultaneous treatment of ized by excessive preoccupation with health con-
Frequency distribution An orderly arrangement several clients in a group. cerns and incessant worry about developing physical
of scores indicating the frequency of each score or Groupthink A process in which members of a co- illnesses.
group of scores. hesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense Hypothalamus A structure found near the base
Frequency polygon A line figure used to present of critical thinking in arriving at a decision. of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation
data from a frequency distribution. Gustatory system The sensory system for taste. of basic biological needs.
Frequency theory The theory that perception of Hypothesis A tentative statement about the relation-
pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which ship between two or more variables.
the entire basilar membrane vibrates. H
Frustration The feeling that people experience in Habituation A gradual reduction in the strength
any situation in which their pursuit of some goal is of a response when a stimulus event is presented I
thwarted. repeatedly. Id According to Freud, the primitive, instinctive
Functional fixedness The tendency to perceive an Hallucinations Sensory perceptions that occur component of personality that operates according
item only in terms of its most common use. in the absence of a real, external stimulus, or gross to the pleasure principle.
Functionalism A school of psychology based on distortions of perceptual input. Identical twins Twins that emerge from one zygote
the belief that psychology should investigate the Hallucinogens A diverse group of drugs that have that splits for unknown reasons. Also called Mono-
function or purpose of consciousness, rather than powerful effects on mental and emotional function- zygotic twins.
its structure. ing, marked most prominently by distortions in Identification Bolstering self-esteem by forming an
Fundamental attribution error Observers’ bias in sensory and perceptual experience. imaginary or real alliance with some person or group.
favor of internal attributions in explaining others’ Health psychology The subfield of psychology con- Illusory correlation A misperception that occurs
behavior. cerned with how psychosocial factors relate to the when people estimate that they have encountered
promotion and maintenance of health and with the more confirmations of an association between social
causation, prevention, and treatment of illness. traits than they have actually seen.
G-4 GLOSSARY
Immune response The body’s defensive reaction to Introspection Careful, systematic observation of Long-term potentiation (LTP) A long-lasting in-
invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign one’s own conscious experience. crease in neural excitability in synapses along a
substances. Introverts People who tend to be preoccupied with specific neural pathway.
Impossible figures Objects that can be represented the internal world of their own thoughts, feelings, Longitudinal design A research design in which
in two-dimensional pictures but cannot exist in three- and experiences. investigators observe one group of subjects repeatedly
dimensional space. Involuntary commitment A civil proceeding in over a period of time.
Inattentional blindness Failure to see visible objects which people are hospitalized in psychiatric facilities Lowball technique Getting someone to commit to
or events because one’s attention is focused elsewhere. against their will. an attractive proposition before revealing the hidden
Incentive An external goal that has the capacity to Irreversibility The inability to envision reversing costs.
motivate behaivor. an action. Lucid dreams Dreams in which people can think
Inclusive fitness The sum of an individual’s own clearly about the circumstances of waking life and
reproductive success plus the effects the organism the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain
has on the reproductive success of related others.
J asleep in the midst of a vivid dream.
Job analysis A method for breaking a job into its
Incongruence The degree of disparity between one’s
component parts.
self-concept and one’s actual experience.
Journal A periodical that publishes technical and
M
Independent variable In an experiment, a condi- Major depressive disorder Mood disorder character-
scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area
tion or event that an experimenter varies in order to ized by persistent feelings of sadness and despair and
of inquiry.
see its impact on another variable. a loss of interest in previous sources of pleasure.
Just noticeable difference (JND) The smallest dif-
Individualism Putting personal goals ahead of group Manic-depressive disorder See Bipolar disorder.
ference in the amount of stimulation that a specific
goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal
sense can detect. Manifest content According to Freud, the plot of a
attributes rather than group memberships.
dream at a surface level.
Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology
Matching hypothesis The idea that males and
The branch of psychology concerned with the appli- K females of approximately equal physical attractive-
cation of psychological principles to the workplace. Kinesthetic system The sensory system that moni- ness are likely to select each other as partners.
Inferential statistics Statistics that are used to inter- tors the positions of the various parts of one’s body.
Maturation Development that reflects the gradual
pret data and draw conclusions.
unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint.
Ingroup The group that people belong to and iden-
tify with.
L MDMA A compound drug related to both ampheta-
Language A set of symbols that convey meaning, mines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; com-
Inhibitory PSP An electric potential that decreases monly called “ecstasy.”
the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire and rules for combining those symbols, that can be
used to generate an infinite variety of messages. Mean The arithmetic average of the scores in a
action potentials.
Language acquisition device (LAD) An innate distribution.
Insanity A legal status indicating that a person can-
mechanism or process that facilitates the learning Mean length of utterance (MLU) The average
not be held responsible for his or her actions because
of language. length of children’s spoken statements (measured
of mental illness.
Latent content According to Freud, the hidden or in phonemes).
Insight In problem solving, the sudden discovery
disguised meaning of the events in a dream. Median The score that falls exactly in the center
of the correct solution following incorrect attempts
Latent learning Learning that is not apparent from of a distribution of scores.
based primarily on trial and error.
behavior when it first occurs. Medical model The view that it is useful to think
Insight therapies Psychotherapy methods character-
Lateral antagonism A process in the retina that of abnormal behavior as a disease.
ized by verbal interactions intended to enhance
clients’ self-knowledge and thus promote healthful occurs when neural activity in a cell opposes activity Meditation A family of mental exercises in which
changes in personality and behavior. in surrounding cells. a conscious attempt is made to focus attention in a
Law of effect The principle that if a response in the nonanalytical way.
Insomnia Chronic problems in getting adequate
sleep. presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the Menarche The first occurrence of menstruation.
Instinctive drift The tendency for an animal’s innate association between the stimulus and the response is Mental age In intelligence testing, a score that indi-
responses to interfere with conditioning processes. strengthened. cates that a child displays the mental ability typical
Learned helplessness Passive behavior produced by of a child of that chronological (actual) age.
Instrumental learning. See Operant conditioning.
exposure to unavoidable aversive events. Mental hospital A medical institution specializing
Intelligence quotient (IQ) A child’s mental age
Learning A relatively durable change in behavior or in providing inpatient care for psychological disorders.
divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
knowledge that is due to experience. Mental retardation Subnormal general mental abil-
Intelligence tests Psychological tests that measure
Lens The transparent eye structure that focuses the ity accompanied by deficiencies in everyday living
general mental ability.
light rays falling on the retina. skills originating prior to age 18.
Interference theory The idea that people forget infor-
Lesioning Destroying a piece of the brain. Mental set Persisting in using problem-solving strate-
mation because of competition from other material.
Levels-of-processing theory The theory holding gies that have worked in the past.
Intermittent reinforcement A reinforcement sched-
that deeper levels of mental processing result in Message The information transmitted by a source.
ule in which a designated response is reinforced only
some of the time. longer-lasting memory codes. Metalinguistic awareness The ability to reflect on
Lie detector. See Polygraph. the use of language.
Internal attributions Ascribing the causes of be-
havior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and Life changes Any noticeable alterations in one’s Method of loci A mnemonic device that involves
feelings. living circumstances that require readjustment. taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where
Light adaptation The process whereby the eyes images of items to be remembered are associated
Internet addiction Spending an inordinate amount
become less sensitive to light in high illumination. with certain locations.
of time on the Internet and being unable to control
online use. Limbic system A densely connected network of Midbrain The segment of the brain stem that lies
structures roughly located along the border between between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
Interpersonal attraction Positive feelings toward
another. the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas. Midlife crisis A difficult, turbulent period of doubts
Linguistic relativity The theory that one’s language and reappraisal of one’s life.
Interpretation In psychoanalysis, the therapist’s
attempts to explain the inner significance of the determines the nature of one’s thought. Misinformation effect Phenomenon that occurs
client’s thoughts, feelings, memories, and behaviors. Link method Forming a mental image of items to when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed
be remembered in a way that links them together. is altered by introducing misleading postevent
Intimacy Warmth, closeness, and sharing in a
information.
relationship. Long-term memory (LTM) An unlimited capacity
store that can hold information over lengthy periods Mnemonic devices Strategies for enhancing memory.
of time.
GLOSSARY G-5
Mode The score that occurs most frequently in a ments, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG depend on patterns of activation in highly inter-
distribution. activity. connected computational networks that resemble
Model A person whose behavior is observed by Nondeclarative memory system Memory for actions, neural networks. Also called connectionist models.
another. skills, and operations. Parallel processing Simultaneously extracting dif-
Monocular depth cues Clues about distance based Normal distribution A symmetric, bell-shaped curve ferent kinds of information from the same input.
on the image from either eye alone. that represents the pattern in which many character- Paranoid schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia
Mood disorders A class of disorders marked by istics are dispersed in the population. that is dominated by delusions of persecution along
emotional disturbances of varied kinds that may Null hypothesis In inferential statistics, the assump- with delusions of grandeur.
spill over to disrupt physical, perceptual, social, tion that there is no true relationship between the Parasympathetic division The branch of the auto-
and thought processes. variables being observed. nomic nervous system that generally conserves
Mood stabilizers Drugs used to control mood swings bodily resources.
in patients with bipolar mood disorders. Parental investment What each sex invests—in
O terms of time, energy, survival risk, and forgone
Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a
Obedience A form of compliance that occurs when opportunities—to produce and nurture offspring.
language.
people follow direct commands, usually from some-
Motion parallax Cue to depth that involves images Partial reinforcement. See Intermittent reinforcement.
one in a position of authority.
of objects at different distances moving across the Participants See Subjects.
Obesity The condition of being overweight.
retina at different rates. Passionate love A complete absorption in another
Object permanence Recognizing that objects con-
Motivated forgetting Purposeful suppression of that includes tender sexual feelings and the agony
tinue to exist even when they are no longer visible.
memories. and ecstasy of intense emotion.
Observational learning A type of learning that
Motivation Goal-directed behavior. Pavlovian conditioning. See Classical conditioning.
occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced
Motor development The progression of muscular by the observation of others, who are called models. Percentile score A figure that indicates the percent-
coordination required for physical activities. age of people who score below the score one has
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) A type of
Multiple-personality disorder See Dissociative obtained.
anxiety disorder marked by persistent, uncontrollable
identity disorder. intrusions of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and Perception The selection, organization, and inter-
Myelin sheath Insulating material, derived from urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions). pretation of sensory input.
glial cells, that encases some axons of neurons. Oedipal complex According to Freud, children’s Perceptual asymmetries Left-right imbalances
manifestation of erotically tinged desires for their between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of
opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of visual or auditory processing.
N Perceptual constancy A tendency to experience a
hostility toward their same-sex parent.
Narcolepsy A disease marked by sudden and irre- stable perception in the face of continually changing
Olfactory system The sensory system for smell.
sistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. sensory input.
Operant chamber. See Skinner box.
Narcotics (opiates) Drugs derived from opium that Perceptual hypothesis An inference about which
are capable of relieving pain. Operant conditioning A form of learning in which
distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal
voluntary responses come to be controlled by their
Natural selection Principle stating that heritable stimuli sensed.
consequences.
characteristics that provide a survival reproductive Perceptual set A readiness to perceive a stimulus
advantage are more likely than alternative charac- Operational definition A definition that describes
in a particular way.
teristics to be passed on to subsequent generations the actions or operations that will be made to mea-
sure or control a variable. Peripheral nervous system All those nerves that
and thus come to be “selected” over time.
lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
Naturalistic observation A descriptive research Opiates. See Narcotics.
Person perception The process of forming impres-
method in which the researcher engages in careful, Opponent process theory The theory that color
sions of others.
usually prolonged, observation of behavior without perception depends on receptors that make antago-
intervening directly with the subjects. nistic responses to three pairs of colors. Personal unconscious According to Jung, the level
of awareness that houses material that is not within
Nearsightedness A vision deficiency in which close Optic chiasm The point at which the optic nerves
one’s conscious awareness because it has been re-
objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear from the inside half of each eye cross over and then
pressed or forgotten.
blurry. project to the opposite half of the brain.
Personality An individual’s unique constellation of
Need for self-actualization The need to fulfill one’s Optic disk A hole in the retina where the optic nerve
consistent behavioral traits.
potential. fibers exit the eye.
Personality disorders A class of psychological dis-
Negative reinforcement The strengthening of a Optical illusion See Visual illusion.
orders marked by extreme, inflexible personality traits
response because it is followed by the removal of an Optimism A general tendency to expect good that cause subjective distress or impaired social and
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. outcomes. occupational functioning.
Negative symptoms Schizophrenic symptoms that Organizational psychology Area of psychology Personality tests Psychological tests that measure
involve behavioral deficits, such as flattened emo- concerned with how people adapt emotionally and various aspects of personality, including motives,
tions, social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, socially to working in complex human organizations. interests, values, and attitudes.
and poverty of speech.
Outgroup People who are not part of the ingroup. Personality trait A durable disposition to behave in
Negatively skewed distribution A distribution in
Overextensions Using a word incorrectly to describe a particular way in a variety of situations.
which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.
a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Personnel psychology Area of psychology that deals
Nerves Bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are
Overlearning Continued rehearsal of material after with determining whether people have the knowl-
routed together in the peripheral nervous system.
one first appears to have mastered it. edge, skills, abilities, and personality necessary to
Neurons Individual cells in the nervous system that perform various types of work effectively.
Overregularization In children, incorrect generaliza-
receive, integrate, and transmit information.
tion of grammatical rules to irregular cases where Phenomenological approach The assumption that
Neurotransmitters Chemicals that transmit infor- they do not apply. one must appreciate individuals’ personal, subjective
mation from one neuron to another. experiences to truly understand their behavior.
Night terrors Abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep Phenotype The ways in which a person’s genotype
accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and P is manifested in observable characteristics.
feelings of panic. Panic disorder A type of anxiety disorder character-
Phi phenomenon The illusion of movement created
Nightmares Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to ized by recurrent attacks of overwhelming anxiety
by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.
awakening, usually from REM sleep. that usually occur suddenly and unexpectedly.
Phobias Irrational fears of specific objects or
Non-REM (NREM) sleep Sleep stages 1 through 4, Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models
situations.
which are marked by an absence of rapid eye move- Models of memory that assume cognitive processes
G-6 GLOSSARY
Phobic disorder A type of anxiety disorder marked Primary sex characteristics The sexual structures Punishment An event that follows a response that
by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or necessary for reproduction. weakens or suppresses the tendency to make that
situation that presents no realistic danger. Proactive interference A memory problem that response.
Phonemes The smallest units of sound in a spoken occurs when previously learned information inter- Pupil The opening in the center of the iris that helps
language. feres with the retention of new information. regulate the amount of light passing into the rear
Physical dependence The condition that exists Problem solving Active efforts to discover what chamber of the eye.
when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily
withdrawal illness. available.
R
Pictorial depth cues Clues about distance that can Problem space The set of possible pathways to a
Random assignment The constitution of groups in
be given in a flat picture. solution considered by the problem solver.
a study such that all subjects have an equal chance
Pituitary gland The “master gland” of the endocrine Prognosis A forecast about the probable course of of being assigned to any group or condition.
system; it releases a great variety of hormones that an illness.
Rational-emotive therapy An approach to ther-
fan out through the body, stimulating actions in the Projection Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, apy that focuses on altering clients’ patterns of
other endocrine glands. or motives to another. irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions
Place theory The idea that perception of pitch corre- Projective tests Psychological tests that ask subjects and behavior.
sponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that Rationalization Creating false but plausible excuses
along the basilar membrane. may reveal the subjects’ needs, feelings, and person- to justify unacceptable behavior.
Placebo effects The fact that subjects’ expectations ality traits.
Reaction formation Behaving in a way that’s exactly
can lead them to experience some change even Prospective memory The ability to remember to the opposite of one’s true feelings.
though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual perform actions in the future.
treatment. Reaction range Genetically determined limits on IQ
Proximal stimuli The stimulus energies that impinge or other traits.
Placenta A structure that allows oxygen and nutri- directly on sensory receptors.
ents to pass into the fetus from the mother’s blood- Reality monitoring The process of deciding whether
Proximodistal trend The center-outward direction memories are based on external sources (our per-
stream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.
of motor development. ceptions of actual events) or internal sources (our
Pleasure principle According to Freud, the principle
Psychiatrists Physicians who specialize in the diag- thoughts and imaginations).
upon which the id operates, demanding immediate
nosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Reality principle According to Freud, the principle
gratification of its urges.
Psychiatry A branch of medicine concerned with on which the ego operates, which seeks to delay
Polygenic traits Characteristics that are influenced
the diagnosis and treatment of psychological prob- gratification of the id’s urges until appropriate outlets
by more than one pair of genes.
lems and disorders. and situations can be found.
Polygraph A device that records autonomic fluctua-
Psychoactive drugs Chemical substances that modify Recall A memory test that requires subjects to re-
tions while a subject is questioned, in an effort to
mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning. produce information on their own without any cues.
determine whether the subject is telling the truth.
Psychoanalysis An insight therapy that emphasizes Receiver The person to whom a message is sent.
Population The larger collection of animals or people
the recovery of unconscious conflicts, motives, and Receptive field of a visual cell The retinal area that,
from which a sample is drawn and that researchers
defenses through techniques such as free association when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell.
want to generalize about.
and transference.
Positive psychology Approach to psychology that Recessive gene A gene whose influence is masked
Psychoanalytic theory A theory developed by Freud when paired genes are different (heterozygous).
uses theory and research to better understand the
that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and
positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of Reciprocal determinism The assumption that in-
mental disorders by focusing on unconscious deter-
human existence. ternal mental events, external environmental events,
minants of behavior.
Positive reinforcement Reinforcement that occurs and overt behavior all influence each other.
Psychodynamic theories All the diverse theories
when a response is strengthened because it is fol- Reciprocity Liking those who show that they like you.
descended from the work of Sigmund Freud that
lowed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. Reciprocity norm The rule that people should pay
focus on unconscious mental forces.
Positive symptoms Schizophrenic symptoms that back in kind what they receive from others.
Psychological dependence The condition that
involve behavioral excesses or peculiarities, such as Recognition A memory test that requires subjects to
exists when a person must continue to take a drug
hallucinations, delusions, bizarre behavior, and wild select previously learned information from an array
in order to satisfy intense mental and emotional
flights of ideas. of options.
craving for the drug.
Positively skewed distribution A distribution in Refractory period A time following orgasm during
Psychological test A standardized measure of a
which scores pile up at the low end of the scale. which males are largely unresponsive to further
sample of a person’s behavior.
Postsynaptic potential (PSP) A voltage change at stimulation.
Psychology The science that studies behavior and
the receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. Regression A reversion to immature patterns of
the physiological and cognitive processes that under-
Posttraumatic stress disorder Disturbed behavior lie it, and the profession that applies the accumu- behavior.
that is attributed to a major stressful event but that lated knowledge of this science to practical problems. Regression toward the mean Effect that occurs
emerges after the stress is over. when people who score extremely high or low on
Psychopharmacotherapy The treatment of mental
Preconscious According to Freud, the level of aware- disorders with medication. some trait are measured a second time and their
ness that contains material just beneath the surface new score falls closer to the mean (average).
Psychophysics The study of how physical stimuli
of conscious awareness that can easily be retrieved. Rehearsal The process of repetitively verbalizing or
are translated into psychological experience.
Prejudice A negative attitude held toward members thinking about information to be stored in memory.
Psychosexual stages According to Freud, develop-
of a group. Reification Giving an abstract concept a name and
mental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that
Premises The reasons presented to persuade some- leave their mark on adult personality. then treating it as though it were a concrete, tangible
one that a conclusion is true or probably true. object.
Psychosomatic diseases Physical ailments with a
Prenatal period The period from conception to birth, genuine organic basis that are caused in part by Reinforcement An event following a response that
usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy. psychological factors, especially emotional distress. strengthens the tendency to make that response.
Pressure Expectations or demands that one behave Puberty The period of early adolescence marked by Reinforcement contingencies The circumstances or
in a certain way. rapid physical growth and the development of sexual rules that determine whether responses lead to the
Prevalence The percentage of a population that (reproductive) maturity. presentation of reinforcers.
exhibits a disorder during a specified time period. Pubescence The two-year span preceding puberty Relearning A memory test that requires a subject to
Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently during which the changes leading to physical and memorize information a second time to determine
reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. sexual maturity take place. how much time or effort is saved by having learned
it before.
GLOSSARY G-7
Reliability The measurement consistency of a test Schema An organized cluster of knowledge about Short-term memory (STM) A limited-capacity store
(or of other kinds of measurement techniques). a particular object or sequence of events. that can maintain unrehearsed information for about
REM sleep A deep stage of sleep marked by rapid Schizophrenic disorders A class of psychological 20 to 30 seconds.
eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and disorders marked by disturbances in thought that Signal-detection theory A psychophysiological
dreaming. spill over to affect perceptual, social, and emotional theory proposing that the detection of stimuli in-
Replication The repetition of a study to see whether processes. volves decision processes as well as sensory processes,
the earlier results are duplicated. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers Stimulus which are influenced by a variety of factors besides
events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being the physical intensity of a stimulus.
Representativeness heuristic Basing the estimated
probability of an event on how similar it is to the associated with primary reinforcers. Skinner box A small enclosure in which an animal
typical prototype of that event. Secondary sex characteristics Physical features that can make a specific response that is systematically
are associated with gender but that are not directly recorded while the consequences of the response are
Repression Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings
involved in reproduction. controlled.
buried in the unconscious.
Sedatives Sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease Sleep apnea A sleep disorder characterized by fre-
Research methods Differing approaches to the manip-
central nervous system activation and behavioral quent reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person
ulation and control of variables in empirical studies.
activity. and disrupts sleep.
Resistance Largely unconscious defensive maneuvers
Self-actualizing persons People with exceptionally Slow-wave sleep (SWS) Sleep stages 3 and 4, during
a client uses to hinder the progress of therapy.
healthy personalities, marked by continued personal which low-frequency delta waves become prominent
Resistance to extinction In operant conditioning, in EEG recordings.
growth.
the phenomenon that occurs when an organism
Self-concept A collection of beliefs about one’s own Social comparison theory The idea that people
continues to make a response after delivery of the
nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. compare themselves with others to understand and
reinforcer for it has been terminated.
evaluate their own behavior.
Response set A tendency to respond to questions in Self-efficacy One’s belief about one’s ability to
perform behaviors that should lead to expected Social desirability bias A tendency to give socially
a particular way that is unrelated to the content of
outcomes. approved answers to questions about oneself.
the questions.
Self-enhancement Focusing on positive feedback Social loafing A reduction in effort by individuals
Respondent conditioning. See Classical conditioning.
from others, exaggerating one’s strengths, and seeing when they work in groups as compared to when
Resting potential The stable, negative charge of a they work by themselves.
oneself as above average.
neuron when it is inactive.
Self-esteem A person’s overall assessment of her or Social psychology The branch of psychology con-
Retention The proportion of material retained cerned with the way individuals’ thoughts, feelings,
his personal adequacy or worth.
(remembered). and behaviors are influenced by others.
Self-referent encoding Deciding how or whether
Retina The neural tissue lining the inside back Social roles Widely shared expectations about how
information is personally relevant.
surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, people in certain positions are supposed to behave.
and sends visual information to the brain. Self-report inventories Personality tests that ask
individuals to answer a series of questions about their Social schemas Organized clusters of ideas about
Retinal disparity A cue to the depth based on the categories of social events and people.
characteristic behavior.
fact that objects within 25 feet project images to
Self-serving bias The tendency to attribute one’s Social skills training A behavior therapy designed
slightly different locations on the left and right
successes to personal factors and one’s failures to to improve interpersonal skills that emphasizes
retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly differ-
situational factors. shaping, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal.
ent views of the object.
Semantic memory system General knowledge that Social support Various types of aid and succor pro-
Retrieval Recovering information from memory
is not tied to the time when the information was vided by members of one’s social networks.
stores.
learned. Socialization The acquisition of the norms, roles,
Retroactive interference A memory problem that
Semantic network Concepts joined together by and behaviors expected of people in a particular
occurs when new information impairs the retention
links that show how the concepts are related. society.
of previously learned information.
Semantics The area of language concerned with Soma The cell body of a neuron; it contains the
Retrograde amnesia Loss of memories for events
understanding the meaning of words and word nucleus and much of the chemical machinery com-
that occurred prior to a head injury.
combinations. mon to most cells.
Retrospective memory The ability to remember events
Sensation The stimulation of sense organs. Somatic nervous system The system of nerves that
from the past or previously learned information.
connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory
Reuptake A process in which neurotransmitters are Sensory adaptation A gradual decline in sensitivity
receptors.
sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynap- to prolonged stimulation.
Somatization disorder A type of somatoform dis-
tic membrane. Sensory memory The preservation of information
order marked by a history of diverse physical com-
Reversible figure A drawing that is compatible with in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually
plaints that appear to be psychological in origin.
two different interpretations that can shift back and only a fraction of a second.
Somatoform disorders A class of psychological
forth. Separation anxiety Emotional distress seen in many
disorders involving physical ailments with no au-
Risky decision making Making choices under con- infants when they are separated from people with
thentic organic basis that are due to psychological
ditions of uncertainty. whom they have formed an attachment.
factors.
Rods Specialized visual receptors that play a key role Serial-position effect In memory tests, the fact that
Somnambulism (sleepwalking) Arising and wan-
in night vision and peripheral vision. subjects show better recall for items at the beginning
dering about while remaining asleep.
and end of a list than for items in the middle.
Source The person who sends a communication.
Set-point theory The idea that the body monitors
S fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. Source monitoring The process of making attribu-
Sample The collection of subjects selected for obser- tions about the origins of memories.
Settling-point theory The idea that weight tends to
vation in an empirical study. drift around a level at which the constellation of Source-monitoring error An error that occurs when
Sampling bias A problem that occurs when a sample factors that determine food consumption and energy a memory derived from one source is misattributed
is not representative of the population from which expenditure achieve an equilibrium. to another source.
it is drawn. Sex The biologically based categories of male and Spermarche The first occurrence of ejaculation.
Scaffolding Situation that occurs in cognitive devel- female. Split-brain surgery A procedure in which the bun-
opment when the assistance provided to a child is Sexual orientation A person’s preference for emo- dle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres
adjusted as learning progresses. tional and sexual relationships with individuals of (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity
Scatter diagram A graph in which paired X and Y the same sex, the other sex, or either sex. of epileptic seizures.
scores for each subject are plotted as single points. Shaping The reinforcement of closer and closer Spontaneous recovery In classical conditioning, the
Schedule of reinforcement A specific presentation approximations of a desired response. reappearance of an extinguished response after a
of reinforcers over time. period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
G-8 GLOSSARY
Spontaneous remission Recovery from a disorder Synaptic cleft A microscopic gap between the ter- of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to
without formal treatment. minal button of a neuron and the cell membrane of a trait.
SQ3R A study system designed to promote effective another neuron. Type A personality Personality characterized by
reading by means of five steps: survey, question, read, Syntax A system of rules that specify how words can (1) a strong competitive orientation, (2) impatience
recite, and review. be combined into phrases and sentences. and time urgency, and (3) anger and hostility.
Stage A developmental period during which charac- Systematic desensitization A behavior therapy used Type B personality Personality characterized by rela-
teristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain to reduce clients’ anxiety responses through counter- tively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.
capacities become established. conditioning.
Standard deviation An index of the amount of
variability in a set of data.
U
T Unconditioned response (UCR) An unlearned
Standardization The uniform procedures used in
Tactile system The sensory system for touch. reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs
the administration and scoring of a test.
Tardive dyskinesia A neurological disorder without previous conditioning.
Statistical significance The condition that exists
marked by chronic tremors and involuntary spastic Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that
when the probability that the observed findings are
movements. evokes an unconditioned response without previous
due to chance is very low.
Telegraphic speech Speech that consists mainly of conditioning.
Statistics The use of mathematics to organize,
content words; articles, prepositions, and other less Unconscious According to Freud, thoughts, memo-
summarize, and interpret numerical data. See also
critical words are omitted. ries, and desires that are well below the surface of
Descriptive statistics, Inferential statistics.
Temperament An individual’s characteristic mood, conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great
Stereotypes Widely held beliefs that people have influence on behavior.
activity level, and emotional reactivity.
certain characteristics because of their membership
Terminal buttons Small knobs at the end of axons Underextensions Errors that occur when a child
in a particular group.
that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters. incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of
Stimulants Drugs that tend to increase central objects or actions than it is meant to.
nervous system activation and behavioral activity. Test norms Standards that provide information
about where a score on a psychological test ranks Undifferentiated schizophrenia A type of schizo-
Stimulus discrimination The phenomenon that phrenia marked by idiosyncratic mixtures of schizo-
in relation to other scores on that test.
occurs when an organism that has learned a response phrenic symptoms.
to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same Testwiseness The ability to use the characteristics and
way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. format of a cognitive test to maximize one’s score.
Stimulus generalization The phenomenon that Thalamus A structure in the forebrain through V
occurs when an organism that has learned a response which all sensory information (except smell) must Validity The ability of a test to measure what it was
to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to pass to get to the cerebral cortex. designed to measure.
new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. Theory A system of interrelated ideas that is used to Variability The extent to which the scores in a data
Storage Maintaining encoded information in mem- explain a set of observations. set tend to vary from each other and from the mean.
ory over time. Theory of bounded rationality Simon’s assertion Variable-interval (VI) schedule A reinforcement
Stress Any circumstances that threaten or are per- that people tend to use simple strategies in decision schedule in which the reinforcer is given for the first
ceived to threaten one’s well-being and that thereby making that focus on only a few facets of available response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
tax one’s coping abilities. options and often result in “irrational” decisions that
Variable-ratio (VR) schedule A reinforcement
are less than optimal.
Striving for superiority According to Adler, the schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a
universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon A temporary variable number of nonreinforced responses.
life’s challenges. inability to remember something accompanied by
Variables Any measurable conditions, events, char-
a feeling that it’s just out of reach.
Structuralism A school of psychology based on the acteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed
notion that the task of psychology is to analyze Token economy A system for doling out symbolic in a study.
consciousness into its basic elements and to investi- reinforcers that are exchanged later for a variety of
Vasocongestion Engorgement of blood vessels.
gate how these elements are related. genuine reinforcers.
Vestibular system The sensory system that responds
Subjective contours The perception of contours Tolerance A progressive decrease in a person’s
to gravity and keeps people informed of their body’s
where none actually exist. responsiveness to a drug.
location in space.
Subjective well-being Individuals’ perceptions of Top-down processing In form perception, a pro-
Visual illusion An apparently inexplicable discrep-
their overall happiness and life satisfaction. gression from the whole to the elements.
ancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus
Subjects The persons or animals whose behavior is Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) A new and its physical reality.
systematically observed in a study. technique that permits scientists to temporarily
Volley principle The theory holding that groups of
enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the
Subliminal perception The registration of sensory auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid
brain.
input without conscious awareness. succession, creating volleys of impulses.
Transfer-appropriate processing The situation that
Subtractive color mixing Formation of colors by
occurs when the initial processing of information
removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less
light than was originally there.
is similar to the type of processing required by the W
subsequent measures of attention. Weber’s law The theory stating that the size of a just
Superego According to Freud, the moral component
Transference In therapy, the phenomenon that occurs noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the
of personality that incorporates social standards
when clients start relating to their therapists in ways size of the initial stimulus.
about what represents right and wrong.
that mimic critical relationships in their lives.
Survey A descriptive research method in which re-
Trial In classical conditioning, any presentation of
searchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather
a stimulus or pair of stimuli.
Z
information about specific aspects of subjects’
Trial and error Trying possible solutions sequen- Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The gap
behavior.
tially and discarding those that are in error until one between what a learner can accomplish alone and
Sympathetic division The branch of the autonomic what he or she can achieve with guidance from
works.
nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources more skilled partners.
for emergencies. Trichromatic theory The theory of color vision hold-
ing that the human eye has three types of receptors Zygote A one-celled organism formed by the union
Synapse A junction where information is transmitted of a sperm and an egg.
with differing sensitivities to different wavelengths.
from one neuron to the next.
Twin studies A research design in which hereditary
influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance
GLOSSARY G-9
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lian prison. New York Times Magazine, Section 6, p. 36. 184–192.
R-68 REFERENCES
Name Index
A Alonso, S., 603 Arnett, J., 445 Barber, T. X., 196

Abel, E. L., 421 Alsop, B., 229 Arnkoff, D. B., 606, 608 Barch, D. M., 574
Abel, M. H., 542 Altman, I., 22 Arnold, L. M., 531 Bard, P., 406
Abi-Dargham, A., 577 Altmann, E. M., 278 Arnold, R. D., 493 Barea-Rodriguez, E. J., 286
Aboud, F. E., 670 Amabile, T. M., 367 Arnon, I., 559 Bargh, J. A., 399, 662
Abraham, C., 652 Amato, M., 670 Arnsten, J. H., 204 Barlett, D. L., 559
Abramov, I., 135 Amato, P. R., 465 Aronson, E., 651, 655 Barley, D. E., 605
Abramowitz, A. J., 237 Ambady, N., 404, 634, 635 Aronson, J., 359–360 Barlow, D. H., 557, 558, 560
Abrams, D., 668 Ames, A., 146–147 Arrigo, J. M., 564 Barnes, C. A., 286
Abrams, R., 614, 615 Ammerman, R. T., 421 Arthur, R. H., 514 Barnes, V. A., 198
Abrams, R. L., 123 Amodio, D. M., 669 Asch, S., 656–657 Barnett, S. W., 370, 371
Abramson, L. Y., 570 Anand, B. K., 378 Aschengrau, A., 535 Barnhardt, T. M., 123
Achemann, P. 186 Anand, S. S., 528 Asendorpf, J. B., 524 Barnier, A. J., 195, 273
Achille, N. M., 410 Ancoli-Israel, S., 185 Aserinsky, E., 173, 179 Baron, A., 233
Acker, M. M., 237 Anderluh, M. B., 589 Ashby, D., 613 Barrett, D., 209
Ackerman, P. L., 345 Anderson, B., 362 Ashcraft, M. H., 526 Barrett, M., 302
Ackerman, S., 449 Anderson, C., 643 Ashford, J. W., 452 Barrouillet, P., 267
Adair, J. G., 61 Anderson, C. A., 245, 246 Ashforth, B. E., 526 Barry, H., III, 442
Adam, K., 187 Anderson, E. A., 465 Ashton, M. C., 471, 499 Barry-Walsh, J., 566
Adamopoulos, J., 14 Anderson, I. M., 80 Aspinwall, L. G., 533 Barsky, A. J., 538, 563, 564
Adams, G., 446, 447 Anderson, K. J., 518 Asuncion, A. G., 652 Bartels, M., 352
Adams, H. E., 476, 563 Anderson, K. O., 159 Atkinson, J., 397–398 Bartlett, A., 555
Adams, H. F., 359 Anderson, M. C., 278 Atkinson, R. C., 263, 264 Bartlett, F., 273, 274
Adams, J. L., 313 Anderson, R., A-29 Atkinson, R. H., 29 Bartoshuk, L. M., 155, 156, 157
Adams, M. J., 259 Anderson, S., 365 Ator, N. A., 62 Basbaum, A. I., 80, 160
Adams, R. G., 643 Anderson, S. E., 443 Auerbach, C. F., 464 Bashore, T. R., 453
Addison, T., 387 Anderson, V. L., 198 Avais, N. E., 451 Basow, S. A., 461
Ader, R., 219, 531 Anderson, V. N., 670 Averill, J. A., 399 Bass, B. M., A-25
Adler, A., 6, 10, 479–480, 602 Anderson-Fye, E. P., 589 Axel, R., 157 Bassiri, A. B., 189
Adler, L. L., 33 Andreasen, N. C., 86, 103, 351, Ayanian, J. Z., 534 Bassok, M., 313, 315
Adolphs, R., 99, 402 368, 369, 573, 575, 578 Ayers, M. S., 274 Bassuk, E. L., 624
Affleck, G., 517, 527 Andres, R. L., 421 Ayres, J. J. B., 218 Bastardi, A., 319
Agnoli, F., 327 Andres-Pueyo, A., 355 Bates, E., 302, 308
Andreski, P., 55 Bates, G. W., 449
Ahadi, S. A., 426
Andrews, A. M., 531
B Bates, J. E., 425
Aharon-Peretz, J., 304 Baars, B. J., 299
Ahima, R. S., 380 Andrews, B., 280 Bates, M. S., 159
Andrews, T. J., 130 Bachelor, P., 367 Batki, S. L., 537
Ahn, H., 605 Backman, L., 453
Aikens, D. E., 561 Angell, M., 613 Bauer, M. S., 569
Angiulo, M. J., 565 Baddely, A., 266–267, 287 Baum, A., 513, 527
Ainsworth, M. D. S., 428–429, 645 Baenninger, R., 207
Ait-Daoud, N., 210 Anglin, J. M., 302 Baumeister, R. F., 377, 382, 388,
Angst, J., 480 Baer, J., 367 391, 394, 399, 460, 476, 522,
Ajzen, I., 650, 651 Baer, R. A., 504
Akerstedt, T., 176, 178, 184 Ani, C., 359 524, 525, A-23
Annas, P., 561 Baeyens, F., 123 Baumrind, D., 60, 236, 237, 659,
Akgun, S., 526 Bahrick, H. P., 276
Akimoto, S. A., 641 Ansbacher, H., 480 660
Anthenelli, R. M., 210 Bailey, J. M., 392, 393, 394 Bauserman, R., 386
Aks, D. J., 148 Baillargeon, R., 436, 437
Albee, G. W., 555, 620 Anton, R. F., 204 Baxter, P. M., 64
Antonuccio, D. O., 613 Bakalar, J. B., 204 Bayer, R., 555
Albert, C. M., 528 Bakan, P., 112
Albert, M. S., 287, 452 Antony, M. M., 216, 218, 558, Baylis, G. C., 138
560 Baker, F., 534 Baynard, M. D., 185
Albert, R. D., 13 Baker, L., 589
Alcock, J., 109, 110, 387 Antrobus, J., 190 Bazzini, D. G., 634
Antshel, K. M., 608 Bakketeig, L. S., 421 Beahrs, J. B., 196
Aldag, R. I., 666 Baldessarini, R. J., 612
Aldrich, M. S., 189 Apicella, L. F., 534 Beauchamp, G. K., 157, 381
Appelbaum, P. S., 624 Baldwin, D., 526 Beck, A. T., 521, 561, 570,
Alexander, C. N., 58, 198 Baldwin, E., 61
Alexander, F., 602 Archer, J., 460 608–609, 616–617
Archer, S., 446 Baldwin, W., 58 Becker, A. E., 589
Alexander, J., A-36 Balk, M. M., 3
Alexander, M. G., 389 Archibald, A. B., 442, 443 Beehr, T. A., 512
Arcus, D. M., 426 Ballenger, J. C., 188, 526, 610, 611 Beeman, M. J., 112
Allain, A. N., 581, 584 Balsam, P. D., 222
Allan, R. W., 217, 224 Arendt, J., 177 Beer, J. M., 493
Argyle, M., 409, 410, 411 Bandura, A., 243, 245–246, 248, Begg, I., 262
Allard, L. M., 646 462, 483, 485, A-23
Allen, J. J. B., 565 Arkes, H. R., 328, 507 Behl, G., 155
Arkin, A. M., 209 Banich, M. T., 111 Beidel, D. C., 608
Allen, K., 533 Banks, A., 139, 393
Allen, M., 10, 386, 670 Arkowitz, H., 620 Beier, M. E., 345
Armant, D. R., 421 Banks, W. C., 660 Beilin, H., 436
Allgood, W. P., 27 Banning, K., 515
Allison, D. B, 383 Armbruster, B. B., 29 Beilock, S. L., 525, 526
Armitage, C. J., 650 Banyard, V. L., 280, 387 Bekelman, J. E., 613
Alloy, L. B., 571–572 Barad, M., 221
Almeida, D. M., 471 Armony, J. L., 92, 287 Békésy, G. von, 152
Arndt, J., 498 Barba, G. D., 289 Bell, A. P., 392
Alonso, A., 603, 604 Barbaree, H. E., 386
NAME INDEX I-1

Bellack, A. S., 578, 608 Bjorklund, D. F., 281, 436 Boroditsky, 309 Brodsky, A., 618
Beller, M., 460 Bjorntorp, P., 382 Borus, J. F., 618, 621, 624 Brody, N., 341, 357, 358
Belli, R. F., 281 Black, D. W., 103, 573, 575, 578, Bossio, L. M., 533 Bromet, E. J., 557
Bellinger, D. C., 359 581, 584 Bosson, J. K., 644 Bronstein, P., 14
Belsky, J., 429, 430, 451 Blacker, D., 554 Bost, K. K., 429, 450 Brookmeyer, R., 452
Bem, D. J., 392, 394, 655 Blacker, L., 451 Botella, L., 620 Brooks-Dunn, J., 442
Bem, S. L., 462 Blackwell, J. M., 269 Both, S., 386 Broughton, R., 179
Benca, R. M., 187 Blagrove, M., 189 Bouchard, C, 383 Brown, A., 273, 420
Bendersky, M., 421 Blair, C., 355 Bouchard, T. J., Jr., 105, 353, 354, Brown, A. S., 557, 578
Benet, V., 471 Blair, I. V., 669 356 Brown, D., 284
Benjamin, L. T., Jr., 3, 11, 30 Blair, S. N., 545 Boudreaux, E., 485 Brown, E. J., 561
Benjet, C., 236, 237 Blakeslee, T. R., 112 Bouman, T. K., 562 Brown, G. D. A., 265, 291
Bennet, D. A., 452 Blanchard, E. B., 531 Bourgeois, J. A., 452 Brown, H. D., 112
Bennett, E. L., 96, 362 Blanchard, J. J., 578 Bourgeois, J. P., 115 Brown, J., 524
Bennett, H. L., 174 Blanchard, R., 392 Bourhis, R. Y., 670 Brown, M., 397
Bennett, P., 531 Blanco, C., 613 Bourne, L. E., Jr., 312 Brown, M. N., A-35
Ben-Porath, Y. S., 504 Blankenhorn, 464, 465 Bousfield, W. A., 270 Brown, R., 273, 671
Benson, H., 208, 544 Blascovich, J., 533 Bouton, M. E., 222 Brown, R. D., 281
Bereczkei, T., 15 Blasgrove, M., 193 Bowd, A. D., 61 Brown, R. T., 367
Berenbaum, S. A., 393 Blasko, D. S., 304 Bowden, C. L., 613 Brown, S. C., 278
Berger, H., 84 Blass, T., 660 Bower, G. H., 266, 270, 278, 292, Brown, S. L., 533
Bergin, A. E., 605, 609, 620, 626 Blazer, D. G., 567 293 Brown, T. T., 204
Berglund, P. A., 597 Bleier, R., 461 Bowlby, J., 428, 429 Browndyke, J., 74
Berkhof, J., 517 Blesbois, E., 220 Boyatzis, R. E., 397 Brownell, H. H., 113
Berkowitz, L., 521, 658 Bleuler, E., 573 Boyle, J. S., 422 Brownell, K. D., 382, 383
Berkowitz, R. I., 606, 609 Blieszner, R., 643 Boynton, R. M., 133 Bruant, J., 386
Berlin, B., 309 Bliwise, D. L., 181 Bozarth, M. A., 203 Bruce, C., 451
Berliner, L., 284 Block, J., 524 Bracken, B. A., 337, 339 Bruce, D., 283
Berman, A. L., 444 Block, L. G., 655 Bradfield, A. L., 295 Bruce, K. R., 589
Berman, R. F., 86 Block, N., 358 Bradshaw, J. L., 98, 113 Bruch, H., 589
Bernat, E., 123 Bloom, B. L., 621 Braginsky, D. D., 22 Bruer, J. T., 114, 115
Berndsen, M., 669 Bloom, B. S., 351 Braid, J., 194 Bruggerman, E. L., 440
Bernstein, D. M., 282 Bloom, P., 307 Brainerd, C. J., 436 Bryden, M. P., 98, 459
Bernstein, I. E., 381 Bloomfield, H. H., 197 Branaman, T. F., 401 Buchanan, B., 652
Bernstein, I. H., 338 Blouin, A. M., 221 Brand, R. J., 528 Buchanan, R. W., 573
Berntson, G. G., 399 Blue, H. C., 586 Branigan, C., 399 Buck, L. B., 155, 156
Berrettini, W. H., 569 Blum, R., 444 Bransford, J. D., 279 Buckman, R., 539
Berridge, K. C., 93, 376, 399, 401, Blundell, J. E., 80, 379 Brase, G. L., 325 Buckner, R. L., 289
403 Bock, P. R., 499 Bratslavsky, E., 382, 522 Budiansky, S., 306
Berry, D. T. R., 504 Boden, J. M., 476 Braun, K. A., 275 Bufe, B., 156
Berry, J. W., 13, 143, 316, 347, 348 Bodenhausen, G. V., 635, 636 Brawman-Mintzer, O., 611 Buffalo, E. A., 268
Berscheid, E., 644 Bodenheimer, T., 613 Bray, C. W., 152 Bühler, C., 10
Bertenthal, B. I., 424 Boehm, L. E., 652 Bredart, S., 275 Bulcroft, R., 450
Bertrand, R. M., 448 Boer, D. P., 480 Bredt, B. M., 204 Bulik, C. M., 589
Berzonsky, M., 447 Bogen, J. E., 13, 97, 98, 111, 113 Breedlove, S. M., 393, 394 Bull, D. L., 280
Bettman, J. R., 319 Bogg, T., 471, 534 Breggin, P. R., 615 Bunch, B., 349
Beumont, P. J. V., 588 Boggild, H., 177 Brehm, J., 673 Burger, J. M., 491, 640, 673
Beutler, L. E., 605, 625, 626, 627 Bohner, G., 650, 653 Brehm, S. S., 671 Burke, D. M., 273
Bhatnagar, S., 520 Bohning, D. E., 87 Breier, A., 576 Burke, J. D., 556, 557, 567
Bhattachary, S., 205 Boland, A. S., 612 Breland, K., 228, 238 Burleson, K. O., 198
Bialystok, E., 305 Boland, R. J., 567 Breland, M., 228, 238 Burnam, A., 624
Bianci, S., 450 Bolger, N., 524 Bremner, J. G., 438 Burns, B. D., 327
Biblarz, T. J., 450 Bolles, R. C., 377 Brende, J. O., 512 Burnstein, E., 108
Biederman, H. J., 139 Bolton, P., 350 Brennan, P. A., 584 Bursztajn, H. J., 618
Biehl, M., 404 Bond, C. F., Jr., 260 Breslau, N., 55 Burtt, H. E., A-17
Bierut, L. J., 569 Bond, M. J., 485 Bretherton, I., 429 Bushman, B. J., 245, 246, 522
Bigler, E. D., 461 Bond, R., 660 Breuer, J., 596 Bushnell, M. C., 158
Billings, J. F., 282 Bongar, B., 625 Brewer, W. F., 271 Busis, N., 76, 80
Binet, A, 16, 341, A-17 Bonnet, M. H., 184, 186 Brewin, C. R., 280 Buss, D. M., 10, 15, 377, 387, 388,
Bini, L., 614 Bontempi, B., 287 Brewster, K. L., 450 389, 390, 391, 460, 496, 507,
Birch, H. G., 425 Booth, D., 381 Brickman, P., 410 646–647, 648
Birch, L. L., 381 Bootzin, R. R., 188 Briere, J., 280, 284 Bussey, K., 462
Birchler, G. R., 564 Bopp, K., 278 Bright, J., 512 Buster, J. E., 419
Birdsall, T. G., 121 Borbely, A. A., 186 Brill, A., 6 Butcher, J. N., 503, 523
Birdsong, D., 305 Bordnick, P. S., 608 Bringmann, W. G., 3 Butcher, L. M., 356
Birgegard, A., 123 Borgida, E., 68 Brislin, R., 14, 24, 586 Butler, E. A., 543
Birnbaum, M., 319, 321 Boring, E. G., 2 Broadbent, D. E., 263 Butler, J. L., 525
Bishop, C. H., 30 Borkenau, P., 634 Broadbent, N. J., 287 Butler, K. M., 422
Bishop, S. R., 198 Born, J., 186 Brobeck, J. R., 378 Button, J., 195
Bixler, E. O., 526 Bornstein, B. H., 295 Broca, P., 96 Buxton, M. N., 531
Bjork, R. A., 291, 295 Bornstein, R. F., 480 Bröder, A., 60 Buxton, O. M., 176
I-2 NAME INDEX

Byne, W., 461 Cartwright, R. D., 190, 192–193 Cirincione, C., 584 Cooper, G., 123
Byrne, D., 643 Caruso, D., 365 Clancy, S. A., 282 Cooper, J., 123, 655
Carver, C. S., 521, 533 Clark, K., 17 Cooper, L., 512
Carver, R. A., 397 Clark, L. A., 470 Cooper, R. S., 358
C Casanova, C., 130 Clark, M. C., 292, 293 Cope, M. B, 383
Cabeza, R., 89 Casey, M. P., 536 Clark, R. E., 388 Coplan, J. D., 560
Cable, D., 50, 54, 65 Caspi, A., 105, 448, 569 Clarke, J. C., 239 Copper, C., 291, 666
Cabral, G. A., 204 Caspi, O., 198 Clayton, T., 417 Corballis, M. C., 111, 112
Cacioppo, J. T., 398, 399, 400, 655 Cassel, R. N., 487 Cleary, P. D., 534 Corballis, P. M., 99
Cade, J., 616 Cassidy, J., 427 Clemens, E., 178 Coren, S., 113, 146, 148, 173, 185,
Cain, C. K., 221 Castellvi-Bel, S., 350 Clifton, R. K., 424 286
Cain, W. S., 157 Castonguay, L. G., 619 Clinkenbeard, P. R., 350, 351 Cornell, D. G., 461, 507
Caine, E. D., 452 Caswell, N., 384 Clore, G. L., 643 Corpus, B., 327
Cajochen, C., 177 Catanese, K. R., 388 Clow, A., 100, 520 Correll, C. U., 612
Calhoun, L. G., 527 Catania, A. C., 225, 230 Coates, D., 410 Corsica, J. A., 382, 536
Calkins, M. W., 5 Catania, J. A., 537 Coates, T. J., 537 Corson, D., A-25
Callahan, C. M., 350, 351 Catrambone, R., 314 Coderre, T. J., 158 Cosmides, L., 10, 15, 325, 327,
Calvert, C., 330 Cattell, R. B., 5, 470, 503, 504 Coe, W. C., 196 377
Cameron, L., 538 Catz, S. L., 537 Coenen, A., 90 Costa, P. T., Jr., 448, 470, 503
Cameron, N., 563 Caudek, C., 142 Cohen, A., 453 Coston, M. L., 9
Cami, J., 202, 210 Cauffman, E., 445 Cohen, C. E., 636 Council, J. R., 195
Camos, V., 267 Cavanaugh, J. C., 452 Cohen, C. I., 624 Courage, M. L., 436
Campbell, A., 461 Cavell, T. A., 30 Cohen, D., 611, 613 Courtright, R. D., 350
Campbell, B., 669 Caverly, D. C., 28, 29 Cohen, D. B., 493 Coury, A., 387
Campbell, D. T., 148 Ceci, S. J., 346, 349354, 359 Cohen, F., 498 Coutts, A., 420
Campbell, J., 479 Centeno, S., 220 Cohen, J. D., 402 Cowan, N., 261, 266, 270
Campbell, L., 644, 646 Cerletti, U., 614 Cohen, M. N., 360 Cowan, P. A., 236
Campbell, R., 305, 386 Chabris, C. F., 136 Cohen, N., 219 Cowan, W. M., 105
Campbell, R. J., 174, 618 Chaiken, S., 651, 653 Cohen, N. J., 287 Cowart, B. J., 157
Campbell, S., 570 Chaisson, R., 422 Cohen, S., 532, 533 Cowey, A., 132
Campbell, W. K., 451, 640 Chambless, D. L., 605 Cohen, S. G., A-25 Cox, M. J., 451
Campfield, L. A., 379, 380 Chambliss, C. H., 618 Colburn, H. S., 154 Cox, P. D., 603
Cancro, R., 573, 575 Chan, J. W. C., 348 Colby, A., 440 Coy, K. C., 445, 451
Candela, S. F., 579 Chance, P., 114, 224 Colder, C. R., 522, 526 Coyne, J. C., 572
Canli, T., 99, 402 Chandler, C. C., 273 Colder, M., 543 Crabbe, J., 105
Cannon, W., 82, 376, 378, Chang, E. C., 512 Cole, D. A., 444 Craig, J. C., 159
405–406, 519 Chaplin, W. F., 635 Cole, G., 452 Craig, P., 417
Canter, P. H., 198 Chapman, P. D., 342 Coleman, J. C., 523 Craik, F. I. M., 87, 261, 262, 278,
Canton-Graae, E., 579 Charman, S. D., 295 Coles, R., 446 292
Cantril, H., 24–25 Chaves, M., 58 Collaer, M. L., 461 Craik, K. H., 13
Cao, Y., 96 Cheit, R., 284 Collins, A. M., 271 Crain, S., 307
Capaldi, E. D., 155, 381 Chemers, M. M., 485 Collins, C., 537 Cramer, P., 523, 524
Capozza, D., 671 Chen, D., 480 Collins, F. S., 105 Cramond, B., 350
Caputo, D., 536 Chen, J., 320 Collins, M. A., 634 Crandall, C., 108
Cardena, E., 198, 565 Chess, S., 425, 426 Collins, N. L., 646 Craske, M. G., 561
Carducci, B. J., 206 Chiapelli, F., 532 Collins, W. A., 445, 451 Cravens, H., 352
Carey, S., 438, 439 Chiarello, C., 112 Collins, W. R., 493 Crawford, M., 389
Carli, L. L., 295 Chiles, C., 657 Colom, R., 355 Crawley, R. A., 283
Carlsmith, J. M., 654–655 Chiriboga, D. A., 448 Coltrane, S., 450 Creed, F., 531
Carlson, A. J., 378 Chiroro, P., 386 Colvin, C. R., 524 Crepaz, N., 538
Carlson, D. N., 539, 540 Chisholm, J. S., 429 Colwill, R. M., 229 Creusere, M. A., 304
Carlsson, A., 577, 80 Chiu, C., 14 Combs-Orme, T., 451 Crites, S. L., 653
Carnevale, G., 302 Chivers, M. L., 394 Comer, D. R., 664 Crits-Cristoph, P., 626
Carney, S., 614 Chizmar, L., 536 Compas, B. E., 444 Crockett, H., 397
Caro, R. M., 109 Choi, I., 641 Compton, D. M., 61 Croizet, J., 360
Carpenter, D., 386 Choi, J., 461 Compton, W. C., 198 Cronbach, L. J., 351
Carpenter, W. T., 573, 575, 613, Chomsky, N., 10, 12, 299, Conger, J., A-25 Cropley, A. J., 367
614 307–308 Conklin, H. M., 578 Cross, J. E. 501
Carr, T. H., 526 Chopra, S. S., 614 Conner, B., 635 Cross, S. E., 462
Carrére, 451 Choudhry, N. K., 613 Conner, M., 650 Crouter, A. C., 462
Carrier, M., 263 Christensen, A. J., 540 Connolly, T., 320 Crowder, R. G., 269, 278
Carroll, J. M., 402 Christensen, L., 60 Constandriopoulos, A. P., 623 Crowell, J. A., 646
Carroll, M. E., 61 Christoph, R. T., 485 Conte, J. R., 280 Crowley, K., 462
Carskadon, M. A., 178, 207 Chrousos, G. P., 520 Conway, L. C., 15 Cruz, C., 177
Carson, R. C., 523, 575 Chu, J. A., 281 Cook, A., 498 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 15, 369,
Carson, S. A., 419 Chun, M. M., 136 Cook, C. A. L., 422 399, 527
Carter, B., 449, 450 Church, A. T., 499, 500 Cooke, A. D. J., 329 Cuban, L., 364
Carter, J. D., 460 Cialdini, R. B., 168, 255, 652, 673 Cooke, D. J., 581 Culnane, M., 422
Carter, M., A-26 Cianciolo, A. T., 343, 345 Coons, H. L., 515 Culpepper, L., 613
Carter, P. J., 112 Ciarrochi, J., 365, 526 Coontz, S., 449 Cummings, J. L., 452
Carter, R., 77–78 Cihangir, S., 666 Cooper, E., 367 Cummins, D., 461
NAME INDEX I-3

Cunningham, C. O., 536 Delay, J., 610, 616 Dinsmoor, J. A., 9, 225, 235 E
Cunningham, M., 462 Deldein, P. J., 576 Dion, K. L., 668 Eacott, M. J., 283
Cunningham, M. R., 648 Delinsky, S. S., 588 DiPietro, J. A., 423 Eagle, M. N., 599
Curfman, G. D., 613 Delis, D. C., 286, 288 Dixon, L., 622 Eagly, A. H., 391, 459, 461, 634,
Curnoe, S., 386 della Rocca, P., 177 Dixon, M., 195, 196 650, 653
Curphy, C. G., A-25 DelMonte, M. M., 281 Dixon, R. A., 453 Eaker, E. D., 529
Cusato, B., 240 DeLong, M. R., 79, 90 Dobs, A. S., 204 Eals, M., 33
Cushman, P., 620 Delongis, A., 512 Dobson, M., 512 Easterbrooks, M. A., 427
Cutler, R. L., 122 Delprato, D. J., 9 Dobzhansky, T., 107 Easterlin, B. L., 198
Cutting, L. P., 579 Delunas, L., 515 Docherty, J. P., 618 Eastman, R., 84
Czeisler, C. A., 176, 177 DelVecchio, W. F., 448 Docherty, N. M., 579 Eaton, A., 421
Czyzewska, M., 123 Dement, W. C.,173, 178, 179, 180, Doerr, P., 393 Eaton, J., 666
181, 184, 185 188, 191, 207 Doghramji, P. P., 185 Ebbinghaus, H., 276
Dempster, F. N., 292 Doherty, M. E., 295
D Denes-Raj, V., 323 Dohrenwend, B. P., 556
Ebel, K., 30
Dabbs, A., 655 Eber, H. W., 503
Deniker, P., 610, 616 Dohrenwend, B. S., 556 Ebert, V., 289
Dahl, R. 444 Denison, D. R., A-25 Dolan, A., 283
Dallal, G. E., 443 Eby, L. T., A-26
Denmark, F. L., 5 Dolan-Sewell, R. T., 580 Edberg, P., 505
Dallman, M. F., 520 Dennerstein, L., 451 Dollard, J., 481, 521
Dalton, S. O., 531 Edelstein, W., 429
Dennis, W., 453 Domhoff, B., 190 Edinger, J. D., 187
Daly, M., 10, 15 Denton, K., 637 Domhoff, G. W., 192, 193
Damasio, A. R., 402 Edwards, A., 417
Derogitis, L. R., 515 Dominguez, J. M., 385 Edwards, K., 652
Damasio, H., 99, 402 Derrick, B. E., 286 Dominowski, R. L., 312
Dan, B. A., 302, 303 Edwards, W. T., 159
Des Jarlais, D. C., 204 Domjan, M., 61, 220, 239–240 Efron, R., 112
D’Andrade, R. G., 192 Descartes, R., 4 Donahoe, J. W., 224
Daneman, M., 123, 174 Egan, J. P., 121
Desimone, R., 132 Donn, L., 472 Egan, M. F., 577, 578, 611
Danner, D. D., 452 Desjardins, R. N., 302 Donnerstein, E., 386
Danton, W. G., 613 Eggert, A., 29
Desmarais, S., 462 Donovan, S., 323 Ehrenberg, M., 625, 627
Danziger, K., 22 Detsky, A. S., 613 Dorn, L. D., 100, 443
Darley, J., 663 Ehrenberg, O., 625, 627
Detterman, L. T., 349 Dorner, G., 393 Ehrenreich, H., 204
Darwin, C., 5, 106–107, 406 Deutsch, G., 99, 112, 113, 461 Doty, R. L., 157
Das, E. H. H., 652 Eich, E., 565
Deutsch, J. A., 380 Dougall, A. L., 513, 527 Eichenbaum, J., 288
Das, J. P., 348 De Valois, R. L., 135 Dougherty, D. D., 86, 87
Dasen, P. R., 436 Eid, M., 404
de Villiers, J. G., 303 Douzenis, A., 80 Eifert, G. H., 562
Dash, P. K., 287 De Villiers, P., 233, 303 Dove, H., 425
Davenport, J. L., 141 Eimas, P. D., 438
Devine, P. G., 635, 655, 669 Dovidio, J. F., 669 Einstein, G. O., 289, 290, 291,
David, J. P., 512 Devlin, B., 357 Dowling-Guyer, S., 330
Davidoff, J., 309 292, 293
Devlin, J. T., 94 Draguns, J. G., 586 Eisen, J. L., 559
Davidson, J. E., 314 DeVries, R., 437 Draijer, N., 566
Davidson, M. A., 476 Eisenberg, N. H., 471
Dew, M. A., 557 Drake, C., 187 Eisler, R. M., 448
Davidson, R. J., 99, 198, 402, 402 De Waal, F, 215 Draper, P., 429, 430
Davies, D. R. T., 185 Eisman, E. J., 618
Dewan, T., 174 Draycott, S., 655 Eisner, T., 109
Davies, I. R. L., 309 Dewees, M., 623 Drazen, J. M., 613
Davies, R., 567 Ek, E., 381, 522
Dewey, J., 5 Drewnowski, A., 672 Ekman, P., 402, 403, 404
Davis, D., 646 de wijk, R. A., 157 Drigotas, S. M., 645
Davis, H., 198 Elbert, T., 95
de Wit, J. B. F., 652 Driskell, J. E., 291 Eldred, L., 422
Davis, J. L., 643 Dewsbury, D. A., 387 Driver, J., 138
Davis, M. N., 533 Eldredge, N., 107
Deyoub, P. L., 195 Druen, P. B., 648 Eleonora, G., 560
Davis, R., 638 Diamond, L. M., 394 Drum, D. J., 618
Davis, S., 385 Elfenbein, H. A., 404
Diamond, S. S., 47 Dubovsky, A. N., 567 Ellinwood, E. H., Jr., 80
Dawson, W. A., 192 Di Chara, G., 203 Dubovsky, S. L., 567, 569, 570
Day, M.-C., 421 Ellis, A., 521, 542, 608
Dick, D., 106 Duck, S., 643 Ellis, B. J., 377
Day, N., 421 Dickens, W. T., 354, 355, 358 Duckworth, K., 618, 621, 624
Day, R. H., 146 Ellis, R., 275
Dickson, M. W., A-25 Duckworth, M. P., 563 Ellsworth, P. C., 399
Deakin, J. F. W., 80 Dickson, W. J., A-18 Dudai, Y., 285, 287
Dean, F. P., 365 Elman, J. L., 308
Diekman, A. B., 463 Dudley, E., 451 Elpers, J. R., 623, 624
Deary, I. J., 361, 362 Diener, E., 404, 408, 409, 410, 512 Duff, K. J., 476
De Beni, R., 293 Emavardhana, T., 198
Diener, M., 408 Duff, P., 421, 422 Emmelkamp, P. M. G., 607, 608,
De Boysson-Bardies, B., 302 Dietrich, E., 313 Duffy, V. B., 155
DeCarvalho, R. J., 487 609
Dietrich, K. L., 61 Dunbar, R., 307 Engemann, K.M., 634
de Castro, J. M., 380, 381 Dieudonne, I., 421 Dunbar-Jacob, J., 540
Deci, E. L., 409 Engle, R. W., 94, 255, 267
Di-Girolamo, M. E., 261 Duncan, B. L., 669 Enns, J. T., 141
De Cock, K. M., 536 Dijksterhuis, A., 123, 635 Duncan, M., 265
Defeldre, A. C., 275 Entin, E. E., 397
Dilchert, S., 347 Dunkel-Schetter, C., 531 Epel, E. S., 532
Deffenbacher, J. L., 531 Dillbeck, M. C., 197 Dunn, R., 670
DeFrain, J., 450 Epley, N., 60
Di Lorenzo, P. M., 155 Dunne, M. P., 393 Epstein, S. P., 486
de Houwer, A., 304 Dilsaver, S. C., 568 Dunning, D., 669
De Houwer, J., 123 Epstein, S., 323
Di Matteo, R., 539, 540 Durlach, N. L., 154 Epstein, W., 121
del Costello, A. M., 421 Dimsdale, J. E., 159 Durrant, R., 377
de Jong, P. J., 561 Eptstein, L. H., 381
Din, J. N., 535 Durston, S., 443 Erber, M. W., 653
De Koninck, J., 190, 191 Dinges, D. F., 176, 177, 178, 183, Dwyer, J., 672
Delaune, K. A., 534 Erdelyi, M. H., 524
184, 185, 196, 206 Dykens, E. M., 350 Erickson, D. J., 639
I-4 NAME INDEX

Erickson, R. P., 155 Figueredo, A. J., 493 Franklin, J. E., Jr., 204 Gallagher, S. N., 401
Ericsson, K. A., 351 Fine, R., 480 Franks, C. M., 606 Gallistel, C. R., 240
Erikson, E., 17, 431–432, 446, 449 Fink, B., 647 Franks, J. J., 279 Gallo, D. A., 262
Eriksson, P. S., 96 Finnegan, L. P., 421 Franzen, M. D., 339 Gallo, L. C., 528, 532
Ernst, C., 480 Fiore, S. M., 173 Fraser, S. C., 673 Gallup, G. G., 207, 647
Eskes, G., 262 Fiorino, D. F., 387 Frasure-Smith, N., 529 Galton, F., 24, 341, 361, A-17
Esser, J. K., 666 Fischer, K. W., 436 Frazer, A., 80 Gambone, J. C., 539
Esterson, A., 480 Fischhoff, B., 295, 314, 320, 321, Frazier, J. A., 349 Gangestad, S. W., 643
Estes, R. E., 9 327, 328, 506 Frederick, S., 326, 411 Gantt, W. H., 216
Estes, W. K., 263 Fishbein, M., 650, 651 Frederickson, B. L., 15, 399, 518, Ganuza, J. M. G., 33
Ethier, K. A., 537 Fisher, B. S., 386 542 Garb, H. N., 505
Evans, D. E., 426 Fisher, C., 61 Fredriks, A. M., 443 Garcia, B. F., 485
Evans, F. J., 174 Fisher, J. A., 381 Fredrikson, M., 561 Garcia, J., 238, 239
Evans, G. W., 358 Fisher, L. E., 175 Freedman, J. L., 673 Garcia, M., 621
Evans, J. T., 386 Fisher, R. P., 273 Freeman, K. E., A-35 Garcia, S. D., 643
Evans, R. L., 611 Fisher, S., 192, 480, 628 Freese, J., 480 Gardner, B. T., 306
Everhart, D. E., 99 Fisher, T. D., 389 French, S. A, 383 Gardner, C. O., Jr., 566
Eysenck, H. J., 361, 480, 491–492, Fishman, D. B., 606 Freud, A., 446 Gardner, E. P., 158
494, 496, 581, 606 Fisk, J. E., 323 Freud, S., 6, 10, 17, 22, 174, 192, Gardner, H., 12, 113, 299,
Eysenck, H. L., 561 Fiske, S. T., 38, 635, 636, 669 193, 280, 376, 472–478, 494, 363–364, 367
Fite, R., 273 501, 502, 596, 599–602, 616–617 Gardner, R. A., 306
Fitness, J., 642 Frey, B. S., 409 Gardner, W. L., 398
F Flanagan, O., 174 Frey, K. S., 462 Gardos, P., 386
Fabes, R. A., 440 Flannery, R. B., Jr., 559 Freyd, J. J., 281 Garfield, S. L., 605, 620
Fabrigar, L. R., 59, 649, 650 Flapan, A. D., 535 Fricchione, G., 527 Garland, A. F., 351
Fagan, J. F., 360 Flavell, J. H., 436 Fridhandler, B., 475 Garner, L., 513
Fagot, B. I., 462, 463 Fleeson, W., 410, 486 Friedkin, N. E., 665 Garnett, N., 62
Fakhoury, W., 622 Flegal, K. M., 382 Friedman, H., 204, 533 Garry, M., 274, 275, 281
Falls, W. A., 232 Fleischhacker, W. W., 612 Friedman, M., 528 Garson, B., A-24
Falsetti, S. A., 526 Fletcher, G., 642, 644 Friedman, S. R., 204 Gartrell, N. K., 393
Fancher, R. E., 6, 216 Flett, G. L., 629 Friedrich, J., 652 Gatchel, R. J., 158
Faraday, A., 209 Flippo, R. F., 31 Friesen, W., 402, 403, 452 Gawronski, B., 639
Faraday, M. M., 535 Flora, J., 445 Frieze, I. H., 634 Gazzaniga, M. S., 13, 97, 98, 99
Faraone, S. V., 576 Flores, B. H., 569, 570 Frijda, N. H., 404 Gearon, J. S., 578
Faravelli, C., 561 Florio, C. M, 505 Frishman, L. J., 127 Geddes, J. R., 613, 614
Farmer, L., 189 Flu, F. B., 535 Fritz, C., A-26 Gee, T. L., 565
Farre, M., 202, 210 Flum, H., 446 Fromherz, S., 188 Geer, J. H., 386
Farrell, M. P., 448 Flynn, J. R., 349, 354, 355, 358 Fromm, E., 196 Geiger, M. A., 30
Fausto-Sterling, A., 461 Fobes, J. L., 93 Frumkes, T. E., 128 Geller, J. L., 623
Fazio, R. H., 254, 649, 650, 653 Fode, K. L., 59 Fuchs, A. H., 3 Gelman, R., 439
Fechner, G., 120 Fodor, E. M., 397 Fujita, F., 409 Gelman, S. A., 462
Fedoroff, L., 384 Folkman, S., 512, 518, 524, 526 Fuller, S. R., 666 Genesee, F., 304
Feeney, D. M., 62 Folsom, D. P., 624 Fullerton, C. S., 559 Gennari, S. P., 309
Feeney, J. A., 429, 646 Fontaine, K. R., 382 Fullilove, M., 421 Gentilia, T., 645
Fegan, M., 533 Fontaine, P. A., 598 Funder, D. C., 486, 496, 524 Gentner, D., 302, 304
Fehr, B., 644 Ford, D. E., 204 Furberg, A., 536 George, J. M., 451, A-25
Fein, S., 671 Forget, J., 291 Furnham, A., 463 Gepshtein, S., 121
Feingold, A., 634, 643 Formicelli, L., 451 Furumoto, L., 5 Geraci, L., 262
Feist, G. J., 367, 368 Forsen, T., 420 Fuster, J. M., 95 Gerard, M., 501
Feixas, G., 620 Forstein, M., 555 Fyer, A. J., 560 Gergen, K. J., 13
Feldman, D. H., 366, 367, 436, Forster, K. L., 260 Fyrberg, D., 61 Gershoff, E. T., 236
437 Forsyth, D. R., 627, 639, 663, 664 Gershon, E. S., 569
Feldman, J., 281 Foster, C. A., 451 Geschwind, N., 461
Fellous, J.-M., 404 Foster, G. D., 382
G Ghez, C., 90
Fennema, E., 459 Foster, R. G., 175, 176 Gabbard, G. O., 480, 626 Gibb, R., 95
Fenson, L., 302 Foulkes, D., 193, 209 Gabriel, L. T., 349 Gibson, C. B., A-25
Fenster, J. R., 527 Fournet, G. P., 9 Gaddis, C., 215 Gibson, H. B., 195
Fenton, W. S., 575 Fowler, J. S., 203 Gaertner, S. L., 642, 669 Gidycz, C. A., 387
Fenwick, P., 197 Fowles, D. C., 578 Gaeth, C. J., 312 Gieders, N. E., 522
Ferenczi, S., 6 Fox, G. L., 451 Gafni, N., 460 Gigerenzer, G., 325, 326
Ferguson, M. J., 399 Fozard, J. L., 451 Gage, F. H., 96, 570 Gilbert, C. D., 96
Ferguson, T., 539, 612 Fraley, R. C., 646 Gagne, F., 291 644 Gilbert, D. T., 320, 639
Fernald, L., 359 Frame, S., 275 Gagnon, A., 670 Gilbreth, L., A-17
Fernandez, J. R, 383 Francasso, M. P., 427 Gais, S., 186 Giles, H., 670
Ferris, A. L., 409 Frances, R. J., 204 Galaburda, A. M., 461 Giles, T. R., 618
Ferris, C. D., 79 Francis, G., 264 Galambos, N. L., 463 Gilgen, A. R., 9, 225
Ferster, C. S., 231 Frank, J., 626 Galanter, E., 121 Gilhooly, K. J., 315
Festinger, L., 654–655 Frank, J. B., 605 Galati, B., 402 Gillberg, M., 184
Fiedler, K., 401 Frank, J. D., 605 Galderisi, S., 575 Gillette, M. U., 188
Fields, H. L., 160 Frank, L. R., 614 Galizio, M., 233 Gillham, J. E., 533
Fields, R. D., 75, 160 Franke, T., 445 Gallagher, J. J., 350 Gilovich, T., 25, 320, 636, 637
Fifer, W. P., 420 Frankland, P. W., 287 Gallagher, K. I., 545 Ginnett, R. C., A-25
NAME INDEX I-5

Ginter, D. R., 176 Grafton, A., 93 Gunnell, D., 613 Haselton, M. G., 648
Girgus, J. S., 146 Graham, C. A., 386 Gupta, G. R., 647 Hashibe, M., 204
Gistner, R., 306 Granberg, G., 58 Gureje, O., 562 Hashtroudi, S., 275
Gitlin, M., 611, 612 Grant, I., 531 Gurevich, M., 512 Haslam, N., 392
Gladue, B. A., 394 Grantham-McGregor, S., 359 Gurm, H., 329 Haslam, S. A., 670
Glaser, R., 532 Graver, J. A., 442 Guthrie, J., 451 Hastle, R., 506
Glass, C. R., 606, 608 Gray, J. R., 399 Gutierres, S. E., 169 Hastorf, A., 24–25
Glass, R. M., 614, 615, 618 Gray, K. F., 452 Guyton, A. C., 125 Hatch, T., 364
Glassman, A., 531 Gray, W. D., 278 Guzeldere, G., 174 Hatfield, E., 388, 391, 644, 647
Glassner, B., 328 Graziano, W. G., 15, 471 Guzzo, R. A., A-25 Haug, N. A., 537
Glatt, A. E., 536 Green, B., 219 Haughland, G., 624
Glatt, S. J., 576 Green, B. L., 620 Hauri, P. J., 187
Gleason, J. B., 300, 302, 303 Green, C., 8
H Hauser, M., 438, 439
Gleaves, D. H., 284, 565 Green, J. P., 196 Haas, L., 450 Hawkins, R. D., 285
Gleitman, L. R., 308, 309 Greenberg, D. L., 269 Hackam, D. B., 528 Hawkins, S. A., 506
Glisky, M. L., 565 Greenberg, J. L., 497–499, 545 Hackworth, C., 177 Haworth-Hoeppner, S., 589
Gluck, M. A., 92 Greenberg, L. S., 603 Hadaway, C. K., 58 Haxby, T. V., 132
Goddard, H., 360 Greenberg, R. P., 192, 480, 628 Hagan, H., 204 Hayes, J. R., 314
Goeders, N. E., 526 Greene, R. L., 278, 291 Hagen, E., 387 Hayes, R., 437
Goff, D. C., 622 Greenfield, D., 50 Hager, J. L., 238 Hayes, S., 475
Goin, M. K., 620 Greenfield, D. N., 522 Hagerty, M. R., 411 Hays, K. F., 545
Gold, M. S., 80 Greenfield, P., 355, 528 Hain, S. P., 652 Haywood, T. W., 623
Goldberg, J. H., 640 Greenleaf, M., 194 Hakel, M. D., 354 Hazan, C., 429, 645–646
Goldberg, M. E., 161 Greeno, C. G., 381 Hakuta, K., 304, 305 Hazen-Niejodek, I., 521
Golden, C. J., 339 Greeno, J., 310 Hales, D., 208 He, J., 546, 547
Goldenberg, H., 11 Greenough, W. T., 114 Halford, J. C. G., 80, 379, 381 Healy, A. F., 269
Goldenberg, J. L., 498 Greenson, R. R., 600 Hall, C. C. I., 13 Healy, D., 612, 613
Goldfield, B. A., 303 Greenwald, A. G., 123, 123 Hall, C. S., 190, 209 Healy, E., 463
Goldin, L. R., 569 Gregory, R. J., 55 Hall, E., 436 Heap, M., 195
Goldman, H., 622 Gregory, R. L., 140, 146 Hall, G. S., 3–4, 6, 16, 444 Heaps, C. M., 282
Goldman-Rakic, P. S., 94, 115 Greist, J. H., 613 Hall, J. A., 460 Hearst, E., 220
Goldsmith, H. H., 429 Grencavage, L. M., 605 Hallahan, B., 635 Heatherton, T. F., 382
Goldsmith, M., 271 Griffin, D. W., 644 Halmi, K. A., 588, 589 Heaton, T. B., 450
Goldstein, D. G., 325 Griffin, M., 445 Halpern, D. F., 32, 33, 315, 328, Heckler, S. E., 255
Goldstein, E., 281 Griffith, E. E., 586 330, 412, 413, 459, 460, 461 Heider, F., 638
Goldstein, E. B., 152, 162 Grigerenko, E. L., 24, 105, 352, Halpern, S. D., 130 Heine, S. J., 641
Goldstein, H. W., 347 354, 355, 357, 363 Ham, J. J., 639 Heinrichs, R. W., 574
Goldstein, I. L., 347 Grinspoon, L., 204 Hamann, S., 88–89, 92 Helby, E. M., 596
Goldstein, R. D., 567 Grob, C. S., 205 Hamilton, W. D., 15, 108, 110 Heller, W., 111
Goldstein, W. M., 318, 324, 327 Grob, G. N., 511, 554 Hammen, C., 567 Hellige, J. B., 112, 113, 461
Goleman, D., 364 Grohol, J., 620 Hammerstein, S. K., 392 Helmholtz, H. von, 133–134, 152,
Golombok, S., 461 Grose-Fifer, J., 420 Hammill, R., 68 153
Gonzalez, C. A., 586 Gross, C. P., 613 Hammond, D. C., 284 Helms, J. E., 358, 360
Gooch, C., 623 Gross, J. J., 543 Hampson, E., 461 Helson, R., 448, 449
Goodenough, D. R., 208, 209, 316 Grossbaum, M. F., 449 Hampton, T., 420 Hemenover, S. H., 543
Goodstein, L. D., 504 Grossman, J. B., 608 Haneda, K., 123 Hemphill, S. A., 426
Goodwin, C. J., 217 Grossman, R. P., 255 Haney, C., 660, 661 Hencke, R. W., 436
Goodwin, F. K., 568, 569 Grossman, S. P., 90 Hankins, W. G., 239 Henderson, K. E, 383
Gooley, J. J., 176 Grossmann, K., 429 Hannigan, J. H., 421 Hendrick, C., 643, 646
Gopnik, A., 115 Grossmann, K. E., 429 Hansen, M. B., 302 Hendrick, S. S., 643, 646
Gordon, B., 610, 613 Grotevant, H., 451 Hanson, D. R., 106 Hendrickx, H., 123
Gordon, H. W., 113 Groth-Marnat, 505 Hanson, F. A., 335 Henley, S. J., 534
Gordon, J., 135 Grove, W. M., 505 Happonen, P., 536 Henley, T. B., 4
Gordon, J. U., 532 Gruber, A. J., 205 Hardcastle, V. G., 89, 174 Hennessey, D. A., 513
Gordon-Salent, S., 451 Grubin, D., 400 Hare, R. D., 581 Henriksson, M. M., 49
Gorski, R. A., 100 Gruen, R. J., 515 Harlow, H., 427–428 Henry, K. R., 150
Gosling, S. D., 13, 483–484 Gruenberg, A. M., 567 Harman, C., 429 Henry, M. E., 614
Gottdiener, J. S., 529 Grunberg, N. E., 535 Harmsen, P., 531 Henry, P. J., 363
Gottesman, I. I., 103, 106, 576, Gruneberg, M., 291 Harnack, L, 383 Hepper, P., 420
577 Guarnaccia, P. J., 586 Harrington, M. E., 176 Herbener, E. S., 448
Gottfredson, L. S., 347, 357, 362, Gudeman, J. E., 622 Harris, J., 507 Herek, G. M., 392
363 Gudjonsson, G. H., 280 Harris, J. E., 289 Hering, E., 135
Gottman, J. M., 451 Guenther, K., 280 Harris, J. R., 480, 493 Herman, C. P., 384
Gottschall, J., 648 Guevremont, D. C., 607 Harrison, D. W., 99 Herman, J. L., 280
Gould, E., 96 Guggenheim, P. G., 562 Harrison, M. S., A-15 Herman, L. M., 306
Gould, R., 448 Gugula, S., 462 Harsch, N., 268 Hermann, R. L., 614
Gould, S. J., 15, 107 Guilbault, R. L., 294 Hart, J. W., 664 Hermans, H. J. M., 14
Gouras, P., 134 Guilford, J. P., 367 Hart, K. J., 440 Herrett-Skjellum, J., 670
Gourevitch, M. N., 204 Guilleminault, C., 188, 189 Hart, S. D., 581 Herrmann, D., 291, 293
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., 205 Gullotta, T., 446 Hart, T. A., 538 Herrnstein, R. J., 347, 352, 357,
Grace, R. C., 220 Gunderson, J. G., 581 Harvey, M. H., 284 358, 371
Graf, P., 289 Gunn, D. V., 138 Harwood, T. M., 605 Hersh, S. M., 662
I-6 NAME INDEX

Herskovits, M. J., 148 Hollis, K. L., 240 Hunter, J., 347, 360 Janssen, R. S., 536
Hertwig, R., 60, 325, 328 Hollon, S. D., 605, 608 Huntsinger, E. T., 646 Jaroff, L., 282
Herzberg, F., A-23 Holmbeck, G., 604 Hurrell, J. J., A-29 Jefferson, J. W., 613
Herzog, D. B., 588 Holmberg, S., 58 Hurvich, L. M., 135 Jeffery, R. W, 383
Herzog, H. A., 61 Holmes, D. S., 197, 280 Husband, T. H., 282 Jemmott, J. B., 533
Herzog, T. A., 535 Holmes, J. G., 644 Huston, A. C., 245, 246 Jensen, A. R., 352, 354, 356–357,
Heshka, S., 380 Holmes, T. H., 514, 515 Huttenlocher, P. R., 78, 115 361, 366, 370
Hessels, S., 278 Holschuh, J. L., 29 Huxley, A., 75 Jensen, E., 114
Hetherington, E. M., 465, 493 Holtgraves, T., 58 Hyde, J. S., 459 Jensen, M. P., 195
Hetherington, M. M., 380 Holt-Lunstad, J., 533 Hyde, T. M., 577, 578, 611 Jenson, J. D., A-35
Hettema, J. M., 560 Holyoak, K. J., 314 Hyman, I. A., 236 Jernigan, M., 358
Hettich, P. I., 27 Honeycutt, H., 15 Hyman, I. E., Jr., 282 Jessell, T. M., 80, 157, 160
Hevern, V. W., A-35 Hong, G. K., 621 Hyman, S. E., 105 Jevning, R., 197
Hewstone, M., 670 Honig, W. K., 229 Jex, S. M., 485
Heymsfield, S. B., 380 Honzik, C. H., 240, 241 Ji, L.-J., 318
Higgins, A. J., 646 Hooley, J. M., 579
I Jick, H., 613
Higgins, E. T., 38 Hooper, J., 111, 113 Iacono, W. G., 401, 565, 578 Jick, S. S., 613
Highhouse, S., 673 Hopkins, B., 421, 425 Ickovics, J. R., 537 Jindal, R., 80, 569
Hilgard, E. R., 4, 22, 194–195, 196, Hopko, D. R., 346, 526 Iezzi, T., 563 Johansen, C., 531
197, 241, 341 Hopper, C., 271 Infante, J. R., 198 John, O. P., 471, 643
Hilgard, J., 194 Horgan, T. G., 460 Inglehart, R., 409 Johnson, A., 288
Hilgetag, C. C., 86 Horn, J. L., 357 Ingram, R. E., 572 Johnson, B. A., 210
Hill, A. J., 383 Horn, J. M., 354 Innocenti, G. M., 461 Johnson, B. T., 263, 652
Hill, J. O, 383 Hornstein, G. A., 6 Irabarren, C., 529 Johnson, C., 636
Hill, M. J., 604 Horowitz, F. D., 8 Irvine, S. H., 347 Johnson, D., 61
Hill, T., 123 Horwath, E., 558 Irwin, S., 469 Johnson, J. A., 540
Hilliard, A. G., III, 360 Hossain, J. L., 177 Irwin, T., 469 Johnson, J. S., 305
Hilton, H. J., 139 Hotopf, M., 564 Isaacowitz, D. M., 521 Johnson, M. E., 330
Hilton, J. L., 636 Houts, A. C., 555 Isabella, R. A., 429 Johnson, M. K., 263, 275, 276
Hines, M., 461 Howard, A., 18 Isenberg, K. E., 614, 615 Johnson, M. L., 424
Hinsz, V. B., 665 Howard, D. J., 673 Ismail, B., 579 Johnson, S. B., 539, 540
Hirsh, I. J., 149 Howard, G., 535 Ismail, M. A., 422 Johnson, V., 394–396
Hirt, E. R., 274 Howard, K., 445 Isometsa, E. T., 49 Johnston, J. C., 137, 261
Hitch, G., 266 Howard, M. S., 646 Israel, M., 589 Johnston, W. A., 261
Ho, B., 103, 573, 574, 578 Howard, R., 575 Ivens-Tyndal, C. O., 526, 567, 570 Joiner, T. E., Jr., 572
Hobson, C. J., 515 Howe, M. J. A., 351 Iversen, L., 90 Jones, B. C., 647
Hobson, J. A., 183, 193, 208 Howe, M. L., 436 Iversen, S., 90 Jones, B. E., 183
Hocevar, D., 367 Howland, R. H., 80, 569 Iwao, S., 647 Jones, C., 448
Hochberg, J., 140, 142 Hrdy, S. B., 391 Iwawaki, S., 347 Jones, E. E. , 6, 638, 639
Hodapp, R. M., 350 Hsee, C. K., 320 Izard, C. E., 365, 401, 402, 404, Jones, F., 515
Hodge, C. N., 670 Hsiang, R., 613 406, 407 Jonides, J., 267
Hodges, S. D., 653 Hsu, L. M., 626 Jorgensen, R. S., 543
Hodgkin, A., 75 Hu, L., 485 J Joseph, R., 111
Hodgson, D., 532 Hua, J. Y., 78 Jablensky, A., 573 Josse, G., 112
Hoebel, B. G., 379 Hubbard, J. R., 527 Jackendoff, R., 307 Judge, T., 50, 54, 65
Hoek, H. W., 588 Hubel, D., 10, 13, 93, 114, Jackicic, J., 545 Julien, R. M., 200
Hofbauer, R. K., 196 130–131, 137 Jacklin, C., 17, 462 Jun, S. Y., 329
Hoff, E., 301, 303, 304 Hublin, C. G. M., 187, 188 Jackson, D. C., 402 Jung, C. G., 6, 10, 478–479, 501,
Hoff, R. E., 579 Hudkicka, E., 404 Jackson, L. A., 670 602
Hoffman, E., 479 Hudman, K. S., 535 Jackson, S., 255 Jusczyk, P., 302
Hoffman, R. F., 526 Hudson, J. I., 281 Jacob, R. G., 609
Hoffman, R. R., III, 533 Hudson, W., 142, 143 Jacobs, B. L., 570
Hoffrage, U., 325, 326 Hudspeth, A. J., 151, 161
K
Jacobs, G. H., 135 Kaas, J. H., 96
Hoffstein, L., 207 Huesmann, L. R., 246, 247 Jacobs, H. S., 452
Hofmann, V., 429 Huettel, S. A., 94 Kaelber, C. T., 556
Jacobs, W. J., 287 Kaemingk, K., 421
Hofstede, G., 641 Huff, C., 60 Jacobsen, T., 429
Hogan, M. F., 615, 623 Hughes, C. C., 620 Kagan, J., 426–427, 507
Jacobson, C. K., 450 Kahan, T. L., 190, 263, 276
Hogan, R., A-25 Hughes, J., 80 Jacobson, E., 208
Hogarth, R. M., 318, 324, 327 Hughes, J. R., 535 Kahane, H., 330
Jacobson, G., 421 Kahneman, D, 318, 321, 322, 325,
Hogg, M. A., 668 Hughes, R. L., A-25 Jacobvitz, D., 429
Hohne, E., 302 Hughes, S. M., 647 326, 327, 328, 329, 411, 591
Jacoby, L. L., 278 Kaiser, P., 128
Holahan, C. J., 351, 524, 533, 572 Huitt, B., 346 Jacquez, F. M., 444
Holden, C., 299, 612 Hull, C., 17, 376 Kaiser, R. B., A-25
Jadjiyannakis, K., 572 Kako, E., 306
Holden, G. W., 237 Hull, E. M., 385 James, J. E., 535
Holder, M. D., 306 Hulme, C., 270 Kalaria, R. N., 529
James, W., 3, 4-5, 15, 16, 174, 405 Kales, A. K., 526
Holen, A., 559 Hulshoff, H. E., 578 Jamison, K. R., 368, 568, 569
Holian, J., 422 Hummel, J. E., 139 Kales, J. D., 208
Jang, K. L., 492 Kalichman, S. C., 537
Holland, C. C., 659 Hunsley, J., 505 Janig, W., 400, 405
Holland, C. R., 360 Hunt, E., 364, 421 Kalidindi, S., 569
Janis, I. L., 512, 518, 665–666 Kalin, N. H., 402
Holland, K., 450 Hunt, H., 192 Janoff-Bulman, R., 410
Hollander, E., 558 Hunt, J. M., 651 Kalkwarf, H. J., 536
Janofsky, J. S., 584 Kalton, G., 58
Hollingworth, L. S., 5, 16 Hunt, S. P., 158 Janssen, E., 386
NAME INDEX I-7

Kameda, T., 665 Keren, G., 327 Kluegel, J. R., 670 Kunda, Z., 669
Kamin, L, 357–358, 360 Kernan, J. B., 651 Kluft, R. P., 284, 565 Kuper, N. A., 263
Kanaya, T., 349 Kerr, N. L., 666 Klymenko, V., 131 Kupferman, L., 90
Kandall, S. R., 421 Kerwin, R., 612 Knapp, T. J., 513 Kurzban, R., 15
Kandel, E. R., 76, 77, 79. 81, 90, Kesner, R. P., 94 Knecht, S., 86, 113 Kusel, S. J., 196
130, 132, 157, 158, 285 Kessen, W., 433 Knight, J., 400 Kutchins, H., 553
Kandell, J. J., 522 Kessler, R. C., 532, 556, 567, 597, Knippenberg, A., 635 Kutchinsky, B., 386
Kane, J. M., 612 598, 646 Knowlton, B., 92, 288 Kwan, V. S. Y., 448
Kane, M. J., 94 Kester, J. D., 261 Knutsson, A., 177 Ky, K. N., 115
Kane, T. D., 485 Ketterlinus, R. D., 427 Kobak, R., 430 Kyrou, I., 520
Kanowitz, J., 59 Key, B., 122 Kochanska, G., 429
Kant, A. K., 535 Key, C. B., 355 Koegel, P., 624
Kanungo, R. N., A-25 Khalsa, S., 176 Koehler, J. J., 321
L
Kao, T., 422 Khan, M., 262 Koelling, R. A., 239 La Cerra, P., 15
Kaplan, A. G., 626 Khersonsky, D., 643 Koester, J., 75 LaBar, K. S., 402
Kaplan, H., 425 Khot, U. N., 528 Koestner, R., 397 LaBerge, S., 190, 209
Kaplan, H. I., 527 Khoury, J. C., 536 Kohlberg, L., 439–441 LaBine, G., 507
Kapur, S., 615 Khroyan, T. V., 535 Kohler, J. K., 465 LaBine, S. J., 507
Karau, S. J., 663, 664 Kidd, K. K., 352 Kohn, P. M., 512 Laborit, H., 616
Kardiner, A., 499 Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., 532 Kohout, J., 618 Lacey, S. E., 267
Kassel, J. D., 522 Kiernan, M., 536 Kok, G., 652 Lachman, M. E., 448, 449
Kasser, T., 391, 409, 490 Kieseppa, T., 569 Kolb, B., 95 Lachman, S. J., 141
Kassin, S. M., 294, 671 Kiesler, C. A., 551, 615, 623, 624 Kolb, R., 562 Lachter, J., 260
Katigbak, M. S., 499 Kiewta, K. A., 29 Koocher, G. P., 335 Lader, M. H., 188
Katz, A. N., 304 Kihlstrom, J. F., 123, 197, 281, 565 Kop, W. J., 529 Lafreniere, K., 512
Katz, J., 572 Kilbey, M. M., 55 Kopnisky, K. L., 105 Laitinen, J., 381, 522
Katzman, M. A., 588 Killeen, P. R., 242 Kopta, S. M., 605 Lakein, A., 27
Kaufman, A. S., 341, 343, 345, 356 Killiany, R. J., 452 Koren, D., 559 Lakin, M., 603
Kaufman, J. C., 348, 367, 369 Kim, A., 660 Koriat, A., 271, 274, 291, 295 Lalich, J., 625
Kaufman, L., 148 Kim, K., 437 Korn, J. H., 9, 60, 61 Lam, L. T., 365
Kavesh, L., 633 Kim, Y., 634 Kornhaber, M. L., 364 Lamb, H. R., 427, 624
Kawas, C., 452 Kimmel, A. J., 61 Kory, R. B., 197 Lamberg, L., 192
Kay, J., 601 Kimmel, M. S., 386 Koss, M. P., 386, 387 Lambert, C. E., 604
Kay, P., 309 Kimura, D., 112, 461 Kosslyn, S. M., 112 Lambert, M. J., 554, 605, 609, 620,
Kay, R. L., 601 Kinder, B., 588 Kostreva, M., 178 625, 626
Kaye, J. A., 613 King, A. C., 207, 536 Kotovsky, K., 314 Lambiase, J., 254
Kaye, W. H., 588 King, B. H., 350 Kotulak, R., 114 Lamon, S. J., 459
Kazdin, A., 236, 237, 250, 596 King, G. R., 80 Koukounas, E., 386 Lampe, A., 531
Kazmerski, V. A., 304 King, M., 555 Kozak, M., 190 Lampi, M., 424
Keating, D. P., 444 King, N. J., 560 Kracke, W., 192 Lampinen, J. M., 275
Keck, P. E., 574 Kinman, G., 515 Kraft, U., 208 Landabaso, M. A., 608
Keefauver, S. P., 189 Kinsbourne, M., 174, 289, 461 Krajicek, N. K., 139 Landel-Graham, J., 531
Keefe, F. J., 531 Kinsey, A., 392 Krakauer, J., 375 Landsberger, H. A., A-18
Keefer, L., 531 Kippin, T. E., 220 Kramer, M., 190 Landy, F., A-15, A-18
Keenan, J. P., 648 Kirby, S. L., 365 Krames, L., 629 Lane, M., 598
Keesey, R., 90, 384 Kirk, S. A., 555 Kransny, L., 608 Lang, P. J., 399
Kehoe, E. J., 220 Kirker, W. S., 263 Krantz, D. H., 327 Langdon, P. E., 623
Keinan, G., 525–526 Kirkpatrick, L. A., 429 Krantz, D. S., 529, 531 Lange, C., 405
Keith-Spiegel, P., 626 Kirsch, I., 195, 196, 197 Krantz, J., 139 Langeland, W., 566
Keller, D. M., 452 Kitayama, S., 108, 317, 500, 641 Kraus, L. A., 533 Langevin, R., 386
Keller, H. E., 62 Kitchens, A., 112 Kraus, S. J., 650 Langlois, J. H., 634
Keller, M. B., 567, 612 Kittler, P. G., 155, 381 Krause, M., 240 Lanphear, B. P., 536
Keller, P. A., 655 Klauer, K. C., 270 Krebs, D. L., 441, 637 Lanyon, R. I., 504
Kelley, B. D., 578 Klayman, J., 328 Kribbs, N. B., 183 Lapiere, Y. D., 612
Kelley, H. H., 25, 638 Klein, E., 559 Kring, A. M., 574 LaPierre, R. T., 650, 668
Kellogg, J. S., 526 Klein, M., 602 Kroger, J., 446 Lareau, A., 358
Kelly, J., 451 Klein, P. D., 364 Kroonenberg, P. M, 430 Larsen, J. T., 399
Kelly, J. A., 537 Klein, T. W., 204 Krosnick, J., 51, 58, 59, 123 Larson, J. R., Jr., 666
Kelly, J. P., 161 Klein, W. M., 322, 538 Krueger, J., 639, 670 Larson, R., 442, 445, 451
Kelly, K. M., 531 Kleinke, C. L., 403 Krueger, R. F., 580 Larzelere, R. E., 236, 237
Kelly, P. J., 183 Kleinknecht, E. E., 282 Krueger, W. C. F., 291 Lash, T. L., 535
Kelly, S. J., 421 Kleinmurtz, B., 568 Krug, K. S., 268 Latané, B., 663, 664
Kelman, H. C., 60, 660 Kleitman, N., 173, 179 Kruglanski, A. W., 653, 656 Laties, V. G., 225
Kelsoe, J. R., 105 Klerman, E. B., 181, 186 Krull, D. S., 639 Lattal, K. A., 225
Keltner, D., 402, 404, 643 Klerman, G. L., 619 Kryger, M. H., 188, 207 Lattimore, P., 384
Kempen, H. J. G., 14 Klerman, L. V., 420 Krystal, A. D., 187 Latz, S., 183
Kendall, P. C., 604 Kline, P., 346, 504 Kubovsky, M. 121 Laughlin, H., 523, 558
Kendler, K. S., 393, 560, 566, 569, Klinger, M. R., 123 Kuczaj, S. A., 306 Laumann, E. O., 388, 395
572, 576 Klipper, M. Z., 208, 544 Kuhl, P. K., 115, 302 Laurence, J. R., 195, 196
Kennedy, T. E., 285 Klohnen, E. C., 643 Kuhn, J., 572 Laursen, B., 445, 451
Kenrick, D. T., 169, 460, 486 Klosch, G., 208 Kulich, A. R., 574 Lavie, P., 175
Kent, R. N., 59 Kluckhohn, C., 499 Kumar, V. M., 176 Lavin, C., 633
I-8 NAME INDEX

Lavine, H., 589 Lewin, K., 513 Ludwig, A, M., 368, 369, 351 Main, M., 429
Lawler, E. E., A-23 Lewinsohn, P. M., 572 Ludwig, D. S., 535 Main, T., 624
Lawler, J., 301 Lewis, D. O., 566 Luecke-Aleksa, D., 463 Maio, G. R., 649, 650, 652
Lawless, H. T., 156 Lewis, M., 421 Luecken, L. J., 646 Mak, T., 463
Lazarus, A. A., 399, 620, 627 Lewis-Fernandez, R., 585 Luft, A. R., 285 Malamuth, N., 386, 387
Lazarus, R. S., 18, 512, 518 Lewontin, R., 355 Luft, H. S., 613 Malanos, A. B., 410
Leary, M. R., 377 Li, N. P., 648 Lugaresi, E., 207 Maldonado, J. R., 565
Leavitt, F., 199, 200, 284 Li, Y., 613 Luh, C. W., 277 Malenka, R. C., 203, 286., 402
LeBoeuf, M., 28 Libby, P., 528 Lundberg, U., 520 Maletzky, B. M., 608
LeBoeuf, R. A., 319, 320, 324, 325 Liberman, R. P., 575 Luntz, B. K., 584 Malla, A. K., 575
Leckman, J. F., 559 Lichtenstein, S., 295, 320, 321, Luo, S., 643 Malloy, M. H., 422
LeDoux, J. E., 92, 287, 398, 399, 327, 328 Luria, G., A-26 Malone, P. S., 639
402, 406 Lickey, M. E., 610, 613 Luskin, F. M., 198 Malthus, T., 107
Lee, C. M., 505 Lickliter, R., 15 Luthans, F., 485 Maltzman, I., 210
Lee, I.-M., 536 Liden, R. C., 664 Luthe, W., 208 Mandler, G., 12, 518
Lee, J. E., 534 Liebergott, J. W., 302 Lutsky, N., 658 Mangelsdorf, S., 429
Lee, R. M., 620 Liebert, L. L., 486 Lutz, D. J., 436 Mann, J. J., 80, 569, 615
Lee, R. T., 526 Liebert, R. M., 486 Lutz, W., 330, 404 Mann, N., 380
Lee, S., 62, 469, 588 Liebowitz, S. F., 379 Lydiard, R. B., 611 Manson, J. E., 382
Lee, Y. J., 422 Lilienfeld, S. O., 505, 565, 566 Lydon, J. E., 644 Mantyh, P. W., 158
Leeper, R. W., 140 Lin, D. Y., 25 Lye, D. N., 450 Maragiote, R. A., 618
Lefcourt, H. M., 542 Lin, S. W., 210 Lyketsos, C. G., 452 Marcelino, A. S., 381
Leff, J., 579, 623 Linden, D. E. J., 86 Lykken, D. T., 401, 410, 491 Marcenes, W. G., 531
Lehman, A. C., 351 Linders, A., 386 Lyn, H., 306 Marcia, J., 446
Lehman, D. R., 14, 282 Lindren, H. C., 29 Lyness, J. M., 452 Marcus, D. K., 643
Lehmann, H. E., 573, 575 Lindsay, P. H., 136 Lynn, M., 673 Marcus, G. F., 303
Lehrer, P. M., 544 Lindsay, S. D., 275, 281, 282, 284 Lynn, S. J., 194, 195, 197, 273, Marcus-Newhall, A., 522
Leibovic, K. N., 127 Lindsley, O. R., 606 281, 282, 565, 566 Marder, S. R., 611, 612
Leighton, J. P., 313 Linford, K. M., 639 Lyons-Ruth, K., 429 Maric, A., 386
Leinbach, M. D., 462 Link, B. G., 515 Lytton, H., 236 Maris, R. W., 444
Leiter, M., 526 Linnet, K. M., 421 Lyznicki, J. M., 185 Mark, V., 113
Lejuez, C. W., 562 Linton, R., 499 Markman, E. M., 302
Lemack, G. E., 526 Linz, D., 386 Markman, K. D., 274
LeMagnen, J., 379 Lipsitt, L. P., 155
M Markowitsch, H., J., 287
Lemery, K. S., 426 Lisanby, S. H., 615 Maas, J. B., 206, 207 Marks, G., 538
Lennie, P., 135 Litaker, D. B., 329 Maass, A., 669 Markus, H. R., 462, 500, 501, 641,
Leo, J., 491 Litwin, G. H., 397 Maccoby, E. E., 17, 493 660
Leon, A. C., 612 Liu, T., 531 MacCoun, R. J., 57, 59 Marler, P. L., 58
Lepine, R., 267 Livesley, W. J., 492, 581 MacDonald, K., 507 Marschark, M., 262
Lerman, H., 480 Lizarraga, M. L. S., 33 MacDonald, R., 496 Marsh, E. J., 275
Lerner, J. S., 320 Lloyd, M. A., A-30 MacDonald, S. E., 237 Marteau, T. M., 539, 540
Lerner, M. J., 640 Lloyd, M., 19 MacDonald, T. K., 649, 650 Martin, A., 289
Lesage, A. D., 623 Lluis-Font, J. M., 355 Macht, M., 382 Martin, C. L., 462, 463
Lesher, G. W., 138 Locke, B. Z., 556 MacIan, P., 386 Martin, J. H., 84
Leslie, E. M., 439 Locke, E. A., A-23, A-24 Macinnis, D. J., 329 Martin, L., 309
Lesperance, F., 529 Lockhart, R. S., 261, 262, 277, 280 Mack, A., 136, 204, 210 Martin, N. G., 393
Letiecq, B.-L., 465 Locurto, C., 354 Mack, P. B., 94 Martin, R., 538, 539, 542
Lett, H,. S., 531 Loehlin, J. C., 354, 356, 493 Mackie, D. M., 652 Martinez, J. L., Jr., 286
Leucht, S., 612 Loewenstein, G., 320, 411 MacLean, A. W., 185 Marzuk, P. M., 612
Levant, R. F., 618 Loewenstein, R. J., 564 MacLean, P., 92 Mascher, J., 358
LeVay, S., 392 Loftus, E. F., 69, 271, 274, 275, MacLean, P. D., 401 Maseri, A., 528
Levenson, R. W., 403, 405 281, 282, 283, 294 MacMillan, H. L., 280, 566 Maslach, C., 526
Levenstein, S., 531 Loftus, G. R., 264 Macmillan, M., 480 Maslen, R. J. C., 303
Leventhal, E. A., 538 Logie, R. H., 267 MacQueen, G., 220 Maslow, A., 10, 17, 488–490
Leventhal, H., 406, 538, 539 Logue, A. W., 108 Macrae, C. N., 635, 636 Massaro, D. W., 264
Levin, L., 671 Lohr, B. A., 476 Macrae, M., 220 Masters, W., 394–396
Levine, A., 445 Long, J. E., Jr., 596 MacWhinney, B., 302, 308 Masuda, T., 317
Levine, J. D., 160 Longman, D. G., 29 Maddi, S. R., 486 Matsumoto, D., 14, 404
Levine, J. M., 664 Lonner, W. J., 13, 14, 499 Maddrey, R. M., 158 Matte, T. D., 420
Levine, M. W., 132 Lopes, P. N., 365 Madon, S., 669 Matthews, G., 365
Levine, R., 647 Lott, B., 358, 396 Madsen, K. B., 377 Matthey, S., 546
LeVine, R. A., 499 Lotto, B., 135 Madsen, L., 400 Mattia, J. I., 580
Levine, R. V., 48–49 Low, J., 115 Maes, J., 671 Matusov, E., 437
Levinson, D. J., 448 Lowden, A., 178 Magloire, K., 533 Matute, H., 242
Levinthal, C. E., 200 Lowe, M. R., 384 Magnusson, D., 426 Mauro, R., 404
Levis, D. J., 235, 560 Lowery, B. S., 670 Maguire, W., 131, 136 Maxwell, J. S., 99, 402
Levitsky, D. A., 380 Lowinson, J. H., 200 Maher, B. A., 574 May, M. C., 565
Levy, G. D., 462 Lubart, T. I., 368 Maheswaran, D., 651, 652 Mayer, J., 379
Levy, J., 97, 113 Luborsky, L., 604, 626 Mahoney, M., 608 Mayer, J. D., 364, 365
Lew, R. A., 177 Lucas, J. A., 286, 288 Mahowald, M. W., 189 Mayo, E., A-18
Lewandowsky, S., 265 Lucas, R. E., 410, 411 Maier, N. R. F., 312, 313 Mays, V. M., 14, 620
Lewicki, P., 123 Luchins, A., 312 Maier, S.F., 160 Mazzoni, G. A. L., 283
NAME INDEX I-9

McAdams, D., 471 Meeus, W., 446 Mogil, J. S., 158 Murray, C., 347, 352, 357, 358,
McAllister, L. E., 422 Mega, M. S., 92 Mohammed, F. B., 207 371
McBride-Chang, C., 462 Meichenbaum, D., 608 Mojtabai, R., 597, 624 Murray, H. A., 377, 499
McBurney, D. H., 81 Meilman, P. W., 447 Mokdad, A. H., 382 Murray, J. B., 160
McCabe, M., 386 Meiser, T., 270 Moldin, S. O., 103 Murray, S. L., 643, 644
McCabe, R. E., 216, 218, 558, 560 Mellers, B. A., 46, 325, 329 Moline, M. L., 177 Murstein, B. I., 598
McCarley, R. W., 180, 193 Mellor, D., 669 Möller, J., 529 Musen, G., 288
McCarthy, G., 94 Meltzer, H. Y., 612 Mollon, J. D., 133 Mustanski, B. S., 394
McCauley, M. E., 262 Meltzoff, A. N., 115, 302 Monaghan, T., A-29 Myers, C. E., 92
McCeney, M. K., 529 Melzack, R., 159 Monahan, J., 554 Myers, D. G., 408, 409, 410
McClanahan, T. M., 613 Mendel, G., 107 Monahan, J. L., 123 Myers, J., 572
McClelland, D. C., 377, 396, 397 Mendelson, W. B., 183, 187 Moncrieff, J., 614 Mynatt, C. R., 295
McClelland, J. L., 137., 271–272 Mendes, W. B., 533 Monk, C. E., 420
McConkey, K. M., 195, 196, 273 Mennella, J. A., 156, 381 Monk, T. H., 177
McConnell, J. V., 122, 285 Mentzer, R. L., 30 Monroe, S. M., 572
N
McCormick, K. K., 623 Menyuk, P., 302 Monteith, M. J., 635 Nadel, L., 287
McCrae, R. R., 448, 470, 471, 499, Merckelbach, H., 561 Montemayor, R. 446 Nadon, R., 195
542, 581 Meredith, M. A., 130 Moore, B. C. J., 150 Nagengast, B., 254
McCready, D., 148 Merikangas, K. R., 569 Moore, K. L., 419 Nahas, Z., 86
McCrink, K., 438–439 Merikle, P. M., 123, 174 Moore, S., 169 Nairne, J. S., 264, 269, 270
McCubbin, M., 613 Mesquita, B., 404 Moos, R. H., 521, 524, 533 Nakajima, S., 93
McCullough, M. E., 544 Metalsky, G. I., 572 Morahan-Martin, J., 522 Naples, A. J., 315
McDaniel, M. A., 289, 290, 291, Metcalfe, B., 504 Morecraft, R. J., 92 Narasimhan, B., 300
292, 293, 362 Metzger, E. D., 614 Morey, L. C., 580 Narrow, W. E., 556, 597
McDermott, K. M., 282, 283 Meyer, D. E., 271 Morgan, H., 364 Narumoto, J., 99
McDonald, C., 106 Meyer, R. E., 210 Morgan, M. J., 205 Nash, M., 194, 281, 282
McDonald, E. H., 274 Meyer, R. G., 194, 273 Morgulis, S., 217 Nasrallah, H. A., 611
McDonald, R. V., 220 Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L., 394 Moriarty, J. L., 85 Neale, M. C., 560, 569
McDonald, W. M., 614 Mezulis, A. H., 640, 641 Morin, C. M., 188 Nee, D. E., 267
McDonald, W. T., 278, 279 Mezzich, J. E., 585, 586 Morley, J. E., 452 Needlman, R. D., 424
McElroy, T., 512 Michaels, S., 392, 393 Morokoff, P. J., 388 Neely, J. H., 278
McFarland, L. A., A-22 Mickelson, K. D., 646 Morris, A. S., 443 Neese, R. M., 519
McGaugh, J. L., 285, 287 Midgley, B. D., 9 Morris, C. D., 279 Neisser, U., 12, 268, 355, 360, 370
McGeoch, J. A., 278, 279 Mignot, E., 188 Morris, E. K., 8 Nelson, C. A., 114, 115, 444
McGlashan, T. H., 526, 575, 579 Mikulincer, M., 429, 646 Morris, M. M., 533 Nelson, J. B., 222
McGoldrick, M., 449 Mila, M., 350 Morrison, A. K., 615, 623 Nelson, L. D., 39–41
McGrath, J. E., 512 Milano, P. J., 640 Morrison, A. R., 179 Nemeroff, C. B., 531
McGraw, L. A., 449 Milar, K. S., 3, 5 Mortimer, J. A., 452 Nemes, I., 386
McGregor, H. A., 498 Milgram, S., 17, 657–660 Morton, A., 417 Nemeth, C., 657
McGrew, J. H., 623 Milkie, M. A., 450 Moruzzi, G., 183 Nemiah, J. C., 563
McGue, M., 353 Miller, A. C., 99, 113 Moscovitch, M., 262 Nestler, E. J., 203, 402
McGuffin, P., 105, 569 Miller, A. G., 660 Moseman, S. E., 613 Nettelback, T., 361
McGuire, W. J., 650 Miller, E. K., 402 Mosher, D. L., 386 Nettle, D., 368
McHale, S. M., 462 Miller, G. A., 12, 266, 299 Moskowitz, D. S., 449 Neugebauer, R., 556
McHugh, P. R., 565 Miller, G. E., 532 Moskowitz, J. T., 524, 526 Neuschatz, J. S., 273, 275
McIntosh, W. E., 634 Miller, I. J., 155 Moss, M. B., 287 Newby, D. E., 535
McKean, K., 322, 328 Miller, J. G., 14, 442 Moss, P., 339 Newell, A., 12, 299, 313
McKelvie, P., 115 Miller, L. S., 246 Most, S. B., 136 Newman, L. S., 476
McKenna, J. J., 182 Miller, N., 481, 513, 514 Motz, M., 262 Newport, E., 305, 308, 437, 439
McKenna, K. Y. A., 662 Miller, R. R., 220, 242, 618 Mowrer, O. H., 235 Niaura, R., 529
McKusick, V. A., 105 Miller, R. S., 643 Moynihan, J. A., 531 Nicholson, N. A., 517
McLean, D. E., 515 Miller, T., 535 Mrdjenovic, G., 380 Nickerson, C., 409
McLellan, A. T., 210 Millman, J., 30 Mroczek, D. K., 471 Nickerson, R. S., 259, 328
McLeod, D., 463 Millon, T., 580 Mubk-Jorgensen, P., 623 Nicoladis, E., 304
McLoyd, V. C., 358, 465 Mills, J., 655 Mullen, B., 636, 666 Nicoll, R. A., 286
McNally, R. J., 281, 559, 561 Millstone, E., 61 Mullen, J. L., 28, 29 Nida, S. A., 663
McNamara, D. S., 269 Milner, B., 112, 113, 286 Mulligan, N. W., 260 Niebyl, J. R., 419, 421
McNaughton, B. L., 286 Milner, P., 92 Mullins, S., 581 Nielsen, T. A., 189, 190, 191
McNeil, E. B., 122 Mineka, S., 244, 560 Mulvey, E. P., 445 Nikelly, A. G., 210
McNeil, T. F., 579 Minuchin, S., 589 Mulvihill, T., 611 Nikles, C. D., 209
McNeilis, E., 178 Miranda, J., 564, 620, 621 Munck, A., 520 Ninan, P. T., 611
McNeill, D., 273, 307 Mischel, W., 397, 483, 485–486 Munholland, K. A., 429 Nisbett, R. E., 32, 68, 317, 318,
McNulty, J. K., 46–47, 411 Mishra, R. C., 316 Munoz, M., 624 356, 357, 639, 641
Meade, M. L., 275 Mistlberger, R. E., 176 Munsterberg, H., A-17 Nishino, S., 188
Means, M. K., 187 Mitchell, J. E., 588 Muntasser, S., 611 Nist, S. L., 29
Mebert, C. J., 426 Mitchell, K. J., 275 Murdock, B., 291 Nolan, C., 33
Mechanic, D., 555, 597, 621 Miyamoto, S., 611 Murnen, S. K., 463, 588 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., 567–568,
Mednick, M., 367 Moak, D. H., 204 Murphy, J. M., 556 570
Mednick, S., 367, 578, 584 Modestin, J., 565, 575 Murphy, K. C., 106 Nomaguchi, K. M., 450
Medora, N. P., 647 Moe, A., 293 Murphy, K. R., 347 Norcross, J. C., 605., 626
Medvec, V. H., 636 Moffitt, T. E., 581 Murphy, L. R., A-29 Norenzayan, A., 48–49, 641
Medway, E. J., 646 Moghaddam, F. M., 24 Murphy, S. T., 123 Norfleet, M. A., 596
I-10 NAME INDEX

Norman, D. A., 136, 263 Owen, M. J., 576 Persaud, T. V. N., 419 Pope, H. G., 205, 281, 566, 574
Norman, R. L., 199 Owyang, M. T., 634 Person, E. S., 480 Pope, K. S., 626
Norman, R. M. G., 575 Ozer, D. J., 471 Pert, C., 80 Popenoe, D., 464, 465
Norris, F. H., 559 Ozer, E. J., 559 Perugini, E. M., 196 Popp, D., 389
North, C. S., 624 Ozgen, E., 309 Petermans, E., 138 Poppas, D. P., 526
Norwood, A. E., 559 Peters, J. C, 383 Popper, C. W., 349, 350
Nourse, C. B., 422 Petersen, A. C., 445 Pornpitakpan, C., 651
Novick, L. R., 313, 315
P Peterson, C., 15, 533 Porter, L. W., A-23
Noyes, R., Jr., 563 Pace-Schott, E. F., 180, 193 Peterson, M. J., 265 Porter, S., 282
Nucci, L. P., 442 Padavic, I., 450 Peterson, R., 264, 265 Posner, M. I., 87, 261
Nunnally, J. C., 338 Padgett, D. A., 531 Peterson, T. R., 403 Post, F., 368
Nurse, R. J., 155 Padilla-Walker, L. M., 427 Petit, D. A. D., 204 Postman, L., 276
Nust, A., 443 Pagel, J. F., 190 Petrie, K. J., 538 Postmes, T., 666
Nyberg, L., 89 Paivio, A., 262, 263, 293 Petrie, M., 110 Potter, M. C., 141
Nyberg, S. E., 27, 291 Palladino, J. J., 206 Petrill, S. A., 354, 355, 356 Potthoff, J. G., 572
Pallanti, S., 561 Petty, R. E., 649, 650, 651, 652, Powell, B., 480
Palmer, B. R., 365 653, 655, 656 Powell, J. H., 205
O Palmer, J. C., 274 Pezdek, K., 268, 564 Powell, R. A., 237, 480, 565
Oakes, M. E., 381 Palmer, S. E., 138 Pfau, M., 255 Powley, T. L., 90
Oakes, P., 670 Panksepp, J., 406 Pfaus, J. G., 220 Pratkanis, A., 651
O’Boyle, C., 462 Pansky, A., 271 Phares, V., 465 Premack, D., 307
O’Brien, J. T., 529 Papafragou, A., 309 Phelps, R., 618 Prentky, R., 368
O’Callahan, M., 531 Paquette, A., 421 Phillips, A. G., 387 Prescott, C. A., 572
Ochse, R., 368 Paradiso, S. P., 92 Phillips, K., 33 Pretz, J. E., 315
Oden, M. H., 351 Park, C. L., 527 Phillips, K. A., 559, 581 Price, D., 159
O’Donahue, W., 250 Park, C. W., 329 Phillips, L., 295, 328 Priebe, S., 622
O’Donovan, M. C., 576 Parke, R. D., 237, 451 Phillips, W. T., 536 Priester, J. R., 650, 651
Ogles, B, M., 625, 605 Paronis, C. A., 522 Phillips-Grant, K., 283 Priluck, R. L., 219, 254, 653
O’Hanlon, J. F., 204 Parrott, A. C., 205 Pi, E. H., 612 Prince, G., 112
O’Hara, L. A., 368 Parsons, B., 461 Piaget, J., 10, 12, 433–436, 440 Prochaska, J. O., 535
Ohayon, M. M., 181 Partinen, M. M., 187, 188 Pickles, J. O., 151 Proffitt, D. R., 142, 144–145
Ohman, A., 244, 399, 560 Pashler, H., 261, 263 Pierce, C. M., 620 Profitera, A., 342
Okami, P., 183, 388, 391 Patel, J. K., 576, 577 Pike, A., 493 Pronin, E., 25
Okifiji, A., 158 Pato, M. T., 559 Pike, K. M., 589 Provine, R. R., 207
Olds, J., 10, 13, 92 Patrick, C. J., 401 Pilcher, J. J., 176, 184–185 Prudic, J., 614
Olds, M. E., 93 Patterson, D. R., 195 Pillard, R. C., 393 Pruitt, D. G., 665
O’Leary, K. D., 59 Patterson, R. L., 93 Pilling, M., 309 Pucetti, R., 111
O’Leary, S. G., 237 Patton, G., 587 Pillow, D. R., 512 Puente, A. E., 360
Oleson, K. C., 669 Pauk, W., 31 Pilowsky, I., 564 Pulice, R. T., 623
Olfson, M., 597, 598, 612, 620 Paulhus, D. L., 475, 480, 504 Pinals, D. A., 576 Pullman, G. K., 309
Olio, K., 284 Paulos, J. A., 546, 547 Pine, D. S., 558 Purdy, J. E., 61
Oliveri, M., 86 Paunonen, S. V., 471, 499 Pinel, J. P. J., 382, 384 Purves, D., 130, 135
Ollendick, T. H., 560 Pavlov, I., 8, 10, 16, 216–217, 220, Pines, A. M., 526, 646 Pylyshyn, Z., 438
Oller, K., 304 222, 248 Pinker, S., 307 Pysyczynski, T. A., 497–499
Olmstead, R., 183 Payne, D. G., 269, 275, 291 Piomelli, D., 203
Olson, D. H., 450 Payne, J. W., 319 Piper, W., 603
Olson, E. A., 294, 295 Pazder, L., 565 Pi-Sunyer, F. X., 382
Q
Olson, J. E., 634 Pearce, L., 551 Pitre, U., 260 Quina, K., 14
Olson, J. M., 636, 655 Pearson, B. Z., 304 Pittenger, O. J., 62 Quinn, J. M., 652
Olson, M. A., 254, 649, 650, 653 Pearson, C., 197 Pittman, E., III, 625 Quinn, K. A., 636
Olszewski-Kubilius, P., 351 Pearson, S. E., 386 Plant, E. A., 669 Quinn, L., 589
Ones, D. S., 347 Pedersen, P., 621, 670 Plante, T. G., 536, 545, 618 Quinn, P. C., 438
Operario, D., 635 Peele, S., 210 Platek, S. M., 207 Quitkin, F. M., 58
Organista, P. B., 564 Peladeau, N., 291 Pliner, P., 380
Orlando, V. P., 28, 29 Pelham, W. H., 609
Orme-Johnson, D. W., 197, 198 Penfield, W., 267, 285
Plomin, R., 24, 103, 105, 106, 352, R
353, 354, 356, 493 Rabins, P. V., 452
Orne, M. T., 196, 659 Peng, K., 318 Plotkin, H., 15, 174
Ornstein, R. E., 111, 112, 174 Pennebaker, J. W., 538, 543 Rabkin, J. G., 385
Plous, S., 61, 636 Rabkin, R., 385
Ortiz, F. A., 500 Pennix, B. W., 530–531 Plucker, J. A., 367
Ortmann, A., 60 Penrod, S., 386 Rachman, S. J., 250, 561
Plutchik, R., 406, 407 Rae, D. S., 556
Osei, S. Y., 380 Penton-Voak, I., 647 Pohl, R. F., 330
Oskamp, S., 654 Pepino, M. Y., 156 Rafal, R., 86
Poland, R. E., 205 Ragland, D. R., 528
Osrin, D., 421 Peplau, L. A., 388, 396 Polaschek, D. L. L., 274
Ostendorf, F., 524 Pepperberg, I. M., 306 Ragsdale, K., 448
Polger, T., 135 Rahe, R. A., 514, 515
Ostovich, J. M., 388 Perlman, M. D., 356 Policastro, E., 367
Ostrove, J. M., 447, 449 Pern, M. G., 382 Rahman, M. A., 535
Polivy, J., 384 Raichle, M. E., 87
Oswald, I., 187 Perone, M., 233 Pollack, R. H., 386
Oswald, L. M., 87 Perot, P., 267, 285 Raine, A., 584
Polley, B. A, 383 Rains, G. D., 96
Ott, P., 421 Perri, M. G., 536 Polonko, K. A., 449
Outtz, J. L., 347 Perry, C., 195 Raitt, F. E., 284
Pomerantz, E. M., 486 Raj, A., 610, 611
Overall, N., 642 Perry, D. G., 196 Pomeroy, C., 588
Overmier, J. B., 61 Perry, L. C., 196 Rajaram, S., 273
Ponterotto, J. G., 670 Rakic, P., 115
NAME INDEX I-11

Ramadan, N. M., 531 Rhodes, K., 652 Rose, D. P., 536 Ryan, R. M., 409
Ramaekers, J. G., 204 Riba, M. B., 618 Rose, H., 15 Ryckeley, R., 215
Ramey, C. T., 349, 371 Ricci-Bitti, P. E., 402 Rose, R., 106
Ramey, S. L., 349, 371 Rice, L. N., 603 Rose, S. E., 15
Ramirez, M., 620 Rich-Edwards, J. W., 420 Rosenbaum, M., 603
S
Ramsay, D. S., 380 Richards, M. H., 445 Rosenberg, H. J., 448 Sabini, J., 388
Ramsay, M. C., 360 Richardson, C. B., 545 Rosenberg, S. D., 448 Sachs, J., 302
Randolfi, E., 513 Richardson, G. S., 176 Rosenblatt, A., 498 Sachter, D. L., 284
Rapee, R. M., 558, 560 Richert, E. S., 351 Rosenhan, D., 554 Sack, A. T., 86, 89
Raphael, B., 512 Richter, L., 533 Rosenheck, R., 624 Sackeim, H. A., 614
Rapson, R. L., 644, 647 Ridderinkhof, K. R., 453 Rosenman, R., 528 Sacks, O., 119
Rasmussen, C., 513 Ridker, D. M., 528 Rosenthal, R., 59., 634 Sadker, D., 463
Rasmussen, T., 112, 113 Rieber, R. W., 6 Rosenzweig, M. R., 96, 114, 115, Sadker, M., 463
Ratner, N. B., 300, 302 Rief, W., 564 362 Sadowsky, B., 176
Ratterman, M. J., 302 Rieskamp, J., 326 Rosenzweig, S., 6 Safstrom, C. A., 645
Rauch, S. L., 86, 87 Rigotti, N. A., 534 Rosenzwig, E. S., 286 Sagi, A., 429
Rauscher, F. H., 115 Rihmer, Z., 612 Rosler, F., 84 Sais, E., 305
Ravnkilde, B., 570 Riis, J., 409 Rosman, B. L., 589 Salkovskis, P. M., 558, 564
Rawson, N. E., 157 Riley, I. J., 159 Ross, B. J., 380 Salminen, S., 640
Raybeck, D., 291 Rilling, M., 8, 285 Ross, C. A., 565 Salonen, J. T., 536
Ray-Casserly, C. M. 335 Rimal, R. N., 485 Ross, D., 245–246 Salovey, P., 364, 365
Raye, C. L., 276 Rinehart, P., 444 Ross, L., 25 Salthouse, T. A., 453, 458
Raynor, H. A., 381 Risch, N., 569 Ross, L. D., 39–41, 658 Salvendy, J. T., 603
Raynor, J. O., 397 Riskind, J. H., 561 Ross, S., 245–246 Sanbonmatsu, D. M., 641
Raynor, R., 222 Ritter, R. C., 380 Rossi, P. H., 624 Sanchez, I. M., 618
Read, C. R., 463 Rivas-Vazquez, R. A., 612 Rosso, I. M., 578 Sande, M. A., 536
Read, J. D., 122, 281, 284 Rivera, B., 505 Roter, D. L., 540 Sandin, B., 561
Real, L., 324 Roazen, P., 446 Roth, D. K., 11 Sandler, I., 512
Reber, R., 328 Robach, H. B., 603 Roth, T., 187, 188 Sanger, D. J., 188
Recanzone, G. H., 95 Robbe, H. W., 204 Rothbart, M., 425, 426, 670 Sanislow, C. A., 575
Recht, L. D., 177 Roberson, D., 309 Rothblum, E. D., 555 Sankis, L. M., 555
Rechtschaffen, A., 178, 179 Robert, R. D., 365 Rothenberg, A., 368 Sann, L. J., 512
Reddy, B. S., 536 Roberts, B. W., 448, 471, 486, 534 Rotter, J., 483 Sanna, L. J., 669
Reder, L. M., 274 Roberts, R. D., 341 Rouiller, E. M., 151 Sanson, A., 426
Reed, D. R., 156 Robin, P., 155 Routledge, C., 498 Santerre, C., 198
Reed, G. M., 524 Robiner, W. N., 596 Rowatt, W. C., 648 Sanz, J., 624
Reed, J. G., 64 Robins, L. N., 556 Rowe, D. C., 494, 493 Saper, C. B., 90, 176
Reed, S. K., 314 Robins, R. W., 13 Rowe, S. M., 437 Sarason, B. G., 567
Reedy, F. E., Jr., 155 Robinson, A., 350, 351 Royzman, E., 399 Sarason, I. G., 567
Rees, C. J., 504 Robinson, D. E., 93 Rozee, P. D., 386 Sarwer, D. B., 382, 383
Reeve, C. L., 354 Robinson, D. G., 575 Rozin, P., 380, 381, 399 Sato, K., 404
Reeve, H. K., 15 Robinson, F. P., 28 Rubin, D. G., 268–269 Sauter, S. L., A-29
Regan, P. C., 385, 643 Robinson, T. E., 95 Ruble, D. N., 462, 463 Savage-Rumbaugh, S., 306, 307
Regan, T., 61 Rock, I., 136, 138, 148 Ruble, T. L., 459 Savitsky, K., 636, 637
Regier, D. A., 556, 557, 567 Rodgers, J., 205 Rudisch, B., 531 Sawicki, R. F., 339
Rehm, L. P., 526., 570 Rodin, J., 380, 382, 588, 589 Rudnicki, S. R., 531 Saxe, L., 401
Reibel, D. K., 58, 198 Roediger, H. L., III, 262, 273, 275, Rudorfer, M. V., 614 Saxton, P. M., 401
Reich, P., 527 280, 282, 283 Ruiperez, M. A., 585 Sayers, S. L., 531
Reichert, T., 254, 255 Roehrs, T., 185, 187, 188 Ruiter, R. A., 652 Scanzoni, J., 449
Reinharz, D., 623 Roese, N. J., 61, 655, 636 Ruiz, P., 608 Scarborough, E., 5
Reise, S. P., 471 Roethlisberger, E. J., A-18 Rumelhart, D. E., 271 Scarr, S., 352, 355, 356
Reisman, J. M., 11 Rogers, C. R., 10, 11, 17, 487–488, Runyan, J. D., 287 Schab, F. R., 157
Reisner, A. D., 280 491, 494, 602–603, 616–617 Rusbult, C. E., 643 Schaberg, L., 669
Reiss, D., 493 Rogers, N. L., 177, 178, 185 Ruscio, J., 68 Schachner, D. A., 646
Reiss, S., 560 Rogers, P. M., 527 Rush, A. J., 609, 612 Schachter, S., 42-44, 45, 60, 406
Reiter, R. C., 539 Rogers, T. B., 263 Rushton, J. P., 352, 357, 362 Schacter, D. L., 69, 269, 289, 294
Remer, R., 608 Rogers, T. T., 271 Rushworth, M. F. S., 94 Schaefer, J. A., 521
Rennie, D., 613 Rogers, W. T., 30 Rusiniak, K. W., 239 Schaeffer, N. C., 59
Renshaw, K., 641 Rogler, L. H., 586 Russell, G. F. M., 587, 588 Schafe, G. E., 381
Renzulli, J., 351, 367 Rogoff, B., 436, 437 Russell, J., 634 Schaie, K. W., 452
Repetto, M., 80, 204 Rogol, A., 442 Russell, J. A., 402, 404 Schaller, M., 14, 15
Rescorla, R., 224., 241 Rohde, P. A., 480, 572 Russell, K., 112 Scheflin, A. W., 284
Resick, J. S., 303 Rohner, R. P., 465 Russo, E., 204 Scheidlinger, S., 603
Rest, J. R., 440 Rohrer, D., 291 Russo, N. F., 5 Scheier, M. F., 521, 533
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., 99, 113 Rollman, G. B., 159 Rutherford, A., 9 Scherer, K. R., 399, 402, 404
Reynolds, A. J., 371 Rolls, E. T., 132, 406 Rutherford, W., 152 Scherer, M., 544
Reynolds, C. F., 187, 619 Romano, S. J., 589 Ruthruff, E., 260, 261 Schiefelbein, V. L., 100, 443
Reynolds, C. R., 337, 360 Ronald, A., 536 Ruthsatz, J. M., 349 Schiff, M., 355
Reynolds, K. J., 670, 671 Roozendaal, B., 285 Rutledge, T., 533 Schiffman, J., 381
Reznick, J. S., 427 Rosch, E. H., 309 Rutledge, T. R., 403 Schimel, J., 498
Rhem, L. P., 567 Rose, D., 614, 615 Rutter, M., 106, 350 Schimmack, U., 653
I-12 NAME INDEX

Schkade, D., 321 Selye, H., 17, 83, 519–520, 541 Sieck, W. R., 328 Smith, E., 287
Schlegel, A., 442 Semendeferi, K., 92 Siegel, J. M., 80, 183 Smith, E. E., 652
Schlosberg, H., 399 Semmer, N. K., 512 Siegel, S., 220 Smith, F. J., 379
Schmid, J., 401 Serocynski, A. D., 444 Siegelbaum, J. A., 75, 77, 79 Smith, G., 555
Schmidt, F. L., 347, 360 Serpell, R., 348 Siegle, G., 572 Smith, J. C., 198
Schmithorst, V. J., 443 Servan-Schreiber, D., 562 Siegler, R. S., 301, 341, 436 Smith, J. S., 61
Schmitt, D. P., 385, 388, 389, 391, Servis, M. E., 452 Sigel, I. E., 371 Smith, M., 565
460, 646, 648, 649 Seta, E. E., 512 Sigman, M., 355 Smith, M. F., 651
Schmitt, M. T., 671 Seta, J. J., 512 Signorielli, N., 463 Smith, M. T., 188
Schmitz, J. M., 534 Seto, M. C., 386 Silberg, J., 106 Smith, P. B., 660, 664
Schmolck, H., 268 Shackelford, T. K., 388, 391, 648, Silberman, E. K., 599, 611 Smith, S., 273
Schneider, F., 576 649 Silberstein, L. R., 588 Smith, S. B., 417, 418
Schnoll, S. H., 204 Shackman, A. J., 99, 402 Silver, E., 584 Smith, S. J., 78
Schoenfeld, G. A., 485 Shafir, E., 319, 320, 324, 325 Silver, H., 578 Smith, S. M., 313, 634
Scholey, A. B., 205 Shafto, M. A., 273 Silverman, I., 33, 461 Smith, T. W., 450, 528, 532
Schooler, J. W., 173, 280, 281, 282 Shakesby, P. S., 292 Silverman, M. M., 444 Smith, W. P., 198
Schrag, R. D., 371 Shalev, A. Y., 559 Silverstein, L. B., 464 Smith-McLallen, A., 652
Schramke, C. J., 531 Shallenberger, W. R., III, 30 Sime, W. E., 515 Smith-Swintosky, V. L., 80
Schreiber, F. R., 565 Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., 304 Simeon, D., 558 Smolak, L., 588, 588
Schull, A., 621 Shank, R. P., 80 Simon, H. A., 12, 17, 266, 299, Smyth, J. M., 543
Schultz, J. H., 208 Shanker, S. G., 306 313, 314, 318, 324 Smythe, P. E., 262, 263
Schultz, M. C., 302 Shanteau, J., 312 Simon, R. I., 584, 585 Snidman, N., 426, 427
Schulz-Hardt, S., 666 Shapiro, A. F., 451 Simon, T., 341, 438 Snodgrass, M., 123
Schumacher, P., 522 Shapiro, C. M., 177 Simonoff, E., 350 Snow, C. E., 304
Schuman, H., 58 Shapiro, D. H., Jr., 58, 197, 198 Simons, D. K., 136 Snow, R. E., 366
Schumann, J., 305 Shapiro, K. J., 61 Simons, G., 382 Snowden, L. R., 620, 621
Schusterman, R. J., 306 Shapiro, L., 309 Simonton, D. K., 351, 352, 367, Snowdon, D. A., 452
Schvaneveldt, R. W., 271 Shapiro, S. L., 198 368 Snyder, A., 113
Schwartz, A., 329 Sharma, Y. S., 391 Simonton, D. T., 453 Snyder, E., 393
Schwartz, B. L., 273 Sharp, D., 61 Simpson, D. K., 469 Snyder, S. H., 79, 80
Schwartz, C. E., 427 Sharp, L. K., 543 Simpson, G. M., 612 So, K. T., 198
Schwartz, D. G., 209 Sharps, M. J., 139 Simpson, J. A., 429, 644 Sobal, J., 588
Schwartz, G. E. R., 198 Shatz, C. J., 115 Simpson, J. L., 419 Sohlberg, S., 123
Schwartz, J. H., 74, 79, 285 Shaver, P., 429, 645–646 Sinclair, D., 157 Solberg, E. C., 409
Schwartz, J. P., 646 Shavitt, S., 636, 652 Sinclair, R. C., 406 Soldatos, C. R., 179, 182
Schwartz, L., 564 Shaw, G. L., 115 Sinclair, S., 670 Soler, C., 647
Schwartz, L. M., 534 Shaw, J. C., 12 Singer, J. E., 406 Solity, J. E., 291
Schwartz, M. W., 379, 380 Shea, M. T., 580 Singer, L. T., 421 Soll, J. B., 328
Schwartz, N., 411 Shear, J., 197 Singer, M. T., 625 Solms, M., 192
Schwartz, S. H., 660 Shear, M. K., 608 Sinha, D., 348 Solomon, D. A., 567
Schwartz, W. J., 177 Shearer, B., 364 Skeels, H. M., 355 Solomon, H. C., 606
Schwarz, N., 59, 650, 653 Shedler, J., 580 Skene, D. J., 177 Solomon, J., 429
Scoboria, A., 196 Sheehan, D., 610, 611 Skerrett, P. J., 382, 536 Solomon, L. J., 555
Scott, T. R., 155 Sheehan, P. W., 273 Skinner, A. E. G., 280 Solomon, S., 497–499
Scott, W., 572 Sheehan, S., 573 Skinner, B. F., 8–9, 10, 11, 17, 224, Solowij, N., 204, 205
Scoville, W. B., 286 Sheiham, A., 531 225–227, 231, 248, 307, 377, Solso, R. L., 162
Scroppo, J. C., 566 Sheldon, K. M., 490 481–482, 494, 606, A-23 Sommer, B., 113
Scullin, M. H., 349 Shepard, R., 146, 147 Skinner, N. F., 480 Song, S., 78
Scully, J. A., 515 Shepperd, J. A., 46–47, 411, 664 Skitka, L. J., 640 Sonnentag, S., A-26
Scweitzer, P. K., 188 Sher, L., 80, 512, 569 Skodak, M., 355 Sorenson, J. L., 537
Seabrook, R., 291 Sheridan, J. F., 531 Skolnick, P., 80, 560 Soriano, M., 621
Seaman, J. S., 452 Sherif, M., 670 Slamecka, N. J., 276, 278 Sotiriou, P. E., 29
Searle, A., 531 Sherman, D. A., 669 Slatcher, R. B., 543 Sovio, U., 381, 522
Searleman, A., 289, 291 Sherman, D. K., 39–41 Slater, M. A., 564 Sowell, E. R., 444
Sears, D. O., 58, 654 Sherman, M., 355 Slaughter, M., 128 Spangler, W. D., 396
Sears, R., 351 Sherman, P. W., 108 Sloman, S. A., 326 Spanos, N. P., 196, 281
Sedikides, C., 640, 642, 644 Shermer, M., 136, 672 Slotterback, C. S., 381 Spear, P., 442
Seeley, R. J., 379 Sherry, D. F., 240 Slovic, P., 319, 320, 327, 506 Spears, R., 666
Segall, M. H., 13, 148 Shettleworth, S. J., 240, 324 Small, B. J., 453 Specter, S., 204
Segerstrom, S. C., 532, 533 Shevrin, H., 123 Small, D. A., 320 Speed, A., 643
Seguin, J. R., 589 Shields, A. E., 358 Smart, D., 426 Spelke, E. S., 437, 439
Seidlitz, L., 512 Shiffrin, R. M., 261, 263, 264 Smeaton, G., 643 Spencer, S. J., 360, 671
Seifer, R., 358, 359 Shike, M., 536 Smedley, A., 358 Sperling, G., 264, 265
Seinberg, L., 443 Shimamura, A. P., 94, 453 Smedley, B. D., 358 Sperry, R. W., 10, 13, 17, 97, 98,
Sekel, A., 618 Shimp, T. A., 255 Smedley, S. R., 109 461
Self, D. W., 203 Shiner, R. L., 448 Smilkstein, G., 511 Spiegel, D., 194., 195, 196, 565
Seligman, M. E. P., 15, 238, 399, Shobe, K. K., 280, 282 Smith, A. P., 532 Spiegel, H., 194
409, 521, 526, 527, 533, 560, Shors, T. J., 526 Smith, B. W., 531 Spiegler, M. D., 607
570, 618, 626 Shulman, R. B., 612 Smith, C., 396 Spiers, M. V., 81, 96
Seltzer, B., 452 Shurkin, J. N., 625 Smith, C. A., 518 Spinath, F. M., 353, 354
Selwyn, P. A., 536 Siebert, A., 26, 31 Smith, D. A., 619 Spitzer, R. L., 556
NAME INDEX I-13

Sprecher, S., 391, 643, 644, 645 Strager, S., 385 Taylor, D. M., 24, 669 Tooby, J., 10, 15, 325, 327, 377
Sprenger, M., 114 Straus, M. A., 236 Taylor, E., 10, 490 Tori, C. D., 198
Springer, S. P., 99, 112, 113, 461 Strayer, D. L., 261 Taylor, F. W., A-18 Tormala, Z. L., 649, 653
Springston, F., 266 Streissguth, A. P., 421 Taylor, J. H., 440, 441 Torrey, E. F., 480, 507, 624
Squire, L. R., 92, 268, 287, 288 Stricker, E. M., 379 Taylor, K. M., 664 Tosi, H., 515
Srivastava, S., 471 Striegel-Moore, R. H., 382, 588 Taylor, L., 305 Toufexis, A., 184
Staats, A. W., 307 Striepe, M., 382 Taylor, M. G., 462 Tovee, M. T., 132
Staats, C. K., 307 Strike, P. C., 529 Taylor, M. M., 305 Tozzi, F., 588
Stack, A. D., 522 Stroebe, W., 652, 653, 656 Taylor, S., 283, 519, 524 Trachtenberg, J. D., 536
Stahl, T., 401 Strong, S. R., 627 Taylor, T. J., 306 Tranel, D., 99
Stainton, J., 469 Stroud, L. R., 522 Teachman, J. D., 449, 450 Trapnell, P. D., 480
Stajkovic, A. D., 485 Strube, M. J., 644 Teasdale, J. D., 570 Trasselli, C., 254
Stamler, J., 535 Strupp, H. H., 597 Tedeshi, R. G., 527 Trasti, N., 421
Stanford, T. R., 90, 161 Stuart, E. W., 255 Tedlock, L. B., 192 Travis, F., 197
Stanley, J. C., 459 Stumpf, H., 459 Tellegen, A., 410, 492 Treiber, F., 198
Stanovich, K. E., 68, 326, 327, 328 Stunkard, A. J, 383 Tennen, H., 527 Trevarthen, C., 97
Stanton, A. L., 531 Sturman, T. S., 398 Tenopyr, M. L., 347 Treyens, J. C., 271
Starcevic, V., 563 Stutzer, A., 409 Tepper, B. J., 155 Triandis, H. C., 499, 641, 647
Stasser, G., 666 Styfco, S. J., 371 Tepperman, T., 378 Trick, L., 438
Stattin, H., 426 Sucher, K. P., 155, 381 Teresi, D., 111, 113 Trieman, N., 623
Steadman, H. J., 584 Sue, D., 620 Terman, L., 17, 341–342, 351, 533 Trivers, R. L., 15, 387
Steele, C. D., 452 Sue, D. W., 620 Terr, L., 280 Trost, M. R., 460, 673
Steele, C. M., 359–360 Sue, S., 14 Terrace, H., 306 Trotter, R. J., 645
Steele, J. B., 559 Sue, S., 620, 621 Tessier-Lavigne, M., 128, 130 Trull, T. J., 581
Steele, K. M., 115 Sugiyama, L. S., 647 Testa, K., 281 Tsai, J. L., 585, 586
Steelman, L. C., 480 Suh, E., 410, 499 Teuber, H., 286 Tsigos, C., 520
Steiger, H., 589 Suinn, R. M., 563 Teuber, M., 165 Tsuang, M. T., 554, 556, 576
Stein, B. E., 90, 130, 161 Sullivan, G. M, 560, 624 Thach, W. T., 90 Tucker, J., 404
Stein, M. B., 559 Sullivan, L. A., 670 Tharp, R. G., 250 Tugade, M. M., 518, 542
Steinberg, L., 429, 430, 445, 451 Sullivan, P. F., 569 Thase, M. E., 80, 569, 609 Tulving, E., 262, 278, 279,
Steinberg, W., 451 Sullivan, Q., 391 Thayaparan, B., 537 288–289, 292
Steingard, R. J., 350 Sulloway, F., 480 Thayer, R. E., 382, 399 Turek, F. W., 177, 188
Steinhausen, H., 588 Super, C. M., 425 Thelen, E., 424 Turk, D. C., 158
Steinmetz, J. E., 285 Susman, E. J., 100, 442, 443 Theorell, T., 531 Turkheimer, E., 357, 358, 493
Stekel, W., 602 Susser, E., 420, 578 Thiele, K., 185 Turkkan, J. S., 224
Stelfox, H. T., 613 Sutker, P. D., 581, 584 Thomas, A., 425, 426 Turner, J. C., 670, 671
Stellar, E., 378 Suzuki, L. A., 356, 360 Thomas, A. J., 529 Turner, J. R., 515, 532
Stepanski, E. J., 207 Swan, G. E., 535 Thomas, D. R., 222, 223 Turner, S. M., 559, 618
Stephan, W. G., 669 Swann, W. B., 644 Thomas, G., 644 Tversky, A., 319, 321, 322, 327,
Stephens, R. S., 202 Sweeney, D., 589 Thomas, K. M., A-15 328, 329, 591
Steptoe, A., 529 Swets, J. A., 121 Thomas, R. M., 432, 436 Tweney, R. D., 295
Steriade, M., 183 Swim, J. K., 669 Thompson, J. K., 588, 589 Twenge, J. M., 391, 451
Stern, W., 341 Switzer, G. E., 557 Thompson, K. S., 624 Twyman, R. E., 80
Sternberg, R. J., 24, 310–311, 313, Symbaluk, D. G., 237 Thompson, R. A., 114, 115., 427, Tyrell, D. A., 532
315, 343, 345, 346–347, 348, Symons, C. S., 263 429 Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., 112
352, 354, 355, 357, 358, 363, Szasz, T. S., 551–552 Thompson, R. F., 13, 285
367, 368, 436, 644, 645 Szmanski, L. S., 350 Thomson, D. M., 279
Stetler, C., 531 Szmukler, G. L., 587 Thorndike, E. L., 224–225
U
Stevens, S. S., 150 Thorne, B. M., 4 Uchino, B. N., 533
Stevens-Graham, B., 75 Thornhill, R., 109 Ulrich, R. E., 61
Stewart, A. J., 447, 449
T Thornton, B., 169, 640 Umbel, V. M., 304
Stewart, C. M., 89 Tabachnick, B. G., 626 Thorpe, S. J., 558 Underwood, B. J., 27, 291
Stewart, D. D., 666 Tabas, G., 562 Thorpy, M. J., 188, 207 Ungerleider, L. G., 132
Stewart, J. H., 236 Tajfel, H., 670 Thrune, I., 536 Uno, D., 533
Stewart-Williams, S., 58, 159 Takahashi, M., 207 Thun, M. J., 534 Ursano, R. J., 559, 599
Stice, E., 589 Takahashi, T., 84, 177 Tibbo, P., 578 Ursin, R., 183
Stich, S. P., 318 Talarico, J. M., 268–269 Tice, D. M., 382, 522 Uttal, W. R., 89
Stickgold, R., 186, 187, 193 Talbott, J. A., 623 Tiegen, K. H., 321 Uttl, B., 289
Stockmyer, J., 112 Talwar, S., 229 Till, B. D., 219, 254, 255, 653 Uzzo, R. G., 526
Stoddard, G., 355 Tamminga, C. A., 80, 577 Tindale, R. S., 665, 666
Tanaka-Matsumi, J., 585
Stoddard, J. J., 535
Tang, I. T., 536
Titchener, E., 4 V
Stone, A. A., 531, 585 Titsworth, B. S., 29 Vaillant, G. E., 476, 521, 523, 533
Stone, B., 177 Tanner, W. P., 121 Tobler, I., 183
Tansky, J. W., 485 Valencia, R. R. ., 360
Stone, J., 655 Todd, P. M., 325 Valenstein, E. S., 378
Stone, L., 647 Tardiff, K., 554, 612 Todff, J. T., 8
Tart, C. T., 192, 209 Vallone, R. P., 328
Stone, W. N., 603, 603, 604 Toguchi, Y., 642 Vanable, F. A., 536
Stoner, J. A. F., 6665 Tarter, R. E., 421 Tohen, M., 556
Tashkin, D. P., 204 Van de Castle, R., 190
Stoney, C. M., 528 Tolman, D. L., 394 van den Boom, D. C., 429
Stoohs, R. A., 207 Tataryn, D. J., 123 Tolman, E. C., 240, 241, 244
Tate, M., A-36 VandenBos, G. R., 155
Stoolmiller, M., 493 Tomarken, A. J., 406 van den Oord, E. J. C. J., 492, 493
Stough, C., 361 Tatsuoka, M. M., 503 Tomer, R., 304
Tavris, C., 507 Vandereycken, W., 588
Strack, F., 411 Tomkins, S. S., 402, 406, 407
I-14 NAME INDEX

van der Molen, M. W., 453 Wagner, A., 526, 567, 570 Wegner, D. M., 174, 190, 191 Willerman, L., 354
van der Post, L., 478 Wagner, A. D., 289 Weinberg, M. S., 392 Willett, W. C., 382, 535
Vandewater, K., 381 Wagner, A. R., 241 Weinberg, R. A., 355, 356 Williams, A., 670
Van Dongen, H. P. A., 176, 184 Wagner, G. J., 385 Weinberger, D. A., 476 Williams, C. D., 228, 535
van Eck, M., 517 Wagner, H., 406 Weinberger, J., 605 Williams, E., 189
van Gelder, T., A-35 Wagner, S. H., 589 Weiner, B., 638, 639, 669 Williams, E. M., 439
Van Hoesen, G. W., 92 Wagner, U., 187 Weiner, H., 563 Williams, G. C., 15
van IJzendoorn, M. H., 429, 430 Wahlin, Å., 453 Weinfield, N. S., 429 Williams, J., 220
van Kammen, D. P., 611 Wahlsten, D., 352 Weinger, M. B., 185 Williams, J. B. W., 554
Van Leeuwen, M. D., 260 Wakefield, J. C., 556 Weinman, J., 539, 540 Williams, J. E., 529
van Ryn, M., 533 Walbott, H. G., 404 Weinstein, L. M., 209 Williams, K. D., 663, 664
Vase, L., 159 Wald, G., 135 Weinstein, N. D., 322, 538 Williams, K. E., 485
Vaughn, B. E., 429 Waldo, M., 646 Weisberg, J., 289 Williams, L. M., 280, 281
Vaughn, C., 207, 579 Waldron, M., 493 Weisberg, R., 366 Williams, M. H., 626
Vaughn, S. I., 666 Waldrop, D., 485 Weisner, T., 183 Williams, N. A., 531
Vazquez, C., 624 Walker, A. J., 449 Weissman, M. M., 558, 619 Williams, R., 112
Vecera, S. P., 138 Walker, E., 575, 579 Weisstein, N., 131 Williams, R. B., 543
Veenhoven, R., 408 Walker, L., 270 Weiten, W., 4, 30, 47, 516 Williams, R. L., 29
Vegas, R., 224 Walker, L. J., 440, 441 Welch, H. G., 534 Williams, V. P., 543
Vegas, W. A., 620 Walker, M. P., 186, 187, 193 Wells, A. J., 534 Williams, W., 355
Veldhuis, J. D., 424 Wall, P., 159 Wells, C. G., 113 Williams, W. M., 233, 346, 359
Veneziano, R. A., 465 Wallace, B., 175 Wells, G. L., 294, 295, 323–324 Williamson, C. L., A-35
Ventura, J., 579 Wallace, M. T., 90, 161 Wenger, M. J., 291 Williamson, D. A., 589
Venturello, S., 561 Wallen, K., 385 Wenzlaff, R. M., 190, 191 Willis, R. P., 291
Verdone, P., 190 Waller, N. G., 471 Werker, J. F., 302 Willis, W. D., 158
Verduin, T., 604 Wallman, J., 306 Wertheimer, M., 138, 139 Willoughby, T., 262
Vermeeren, A., 188 Walraven, J., 128 Wertsch, J. V., 437 Wills, T. A., 533
Vernberg, E. M., 559 Walsh, B. T., 588, 628 Wertz, F. J., 10 Willshire, D., 584
Vernon, M. L., 646 Walsh, J. K., 184, 185, 187, 188 Wessely, S., 612 Wilska, M., 350
Vernon, P., 494 Walster, E., 644 Wesson, D. R., 188 Wilsnack, S. C., 281
Vernon, P. A., 361 Walter, C. A., 451 West, D. S., 382 Wilson, G. T., 201
Vernon, P. E., 347, 348 Walter, T., 31 West, R. F., 326, 328 Wilson, M., 10, 15
Vgontzas, A. N., 526 Walters, A. S., 184–185 West, S. A., 350 Wilson, R. S., 452
Viau, V., 520 Walther, E., 254, 255 West, W. B., 198 Wilson, S., 442
Vickers, Z., 381 Walton, K. E., 534 Westbrook, G. L., 74, 84 Wilson, T. D., 68, 653
Vidbech, P., 570 Walton, M. E., 94 Westen, D., 7, 480, 580 Windham, G. C., 421
Vierck, C., 160 Wampold, B. E., 605, 626 Westra, T., 425 Windholz, G., 216
Viglione, D. J., 505 Wang, G. C., 203 Wetter, M. W., 504 Windschitl, P. D., 323–324
Vihman, M., 302 Wang, P. S., 598 Wever, E. G., 152 Wing, R. R, 383, 381
Villarreal, D. M., 286 Wangensteen, O. H., 378 Wexler, B. E., 87 Winick, C., 199, 386
Vinogradov, S., 603, 604 Wardle, J., 384 Whalen, P. J., 402 Winkielman, P., 399
Vinokur, A. D., 533 Wark, G., R., 441 Whaley, S. E., 355 Winn, P., 378
Vinters, H. V., 452 Warnes, H., 620 Whalley, L. J., 362 Winner, E., 351
Visser, P. S., 655 Warr, P., 410 Wheaton, B., 515, 532 Winquist, J. R., 666
Viswesvaran, C., 347 Warwick, D. P., 61 Wheeler, L., 634 Winsler, A., 437
Viteles, M., A-17 Warwick, H. M. C., 564 Wheeler, M. A., 273 Winzelberg, A. J., 198
Vodelholzer, U., 80 Wasco, S. M., 386 Wheeler, S. C., 649 Wise, M. G., 452
Vogel, E. K., 138 Washburn, A. L., 378 Whitaker, C., 612, 613 Wise, R. A., 93, 203
Vohls, K. D., 388 Washburn, M. F., 5, 16 Whitbourne, S. K., 448, 449, 451 Wisniewski, N., 387
Vokey, J. R., 122 Washington, E., 515 White, S. H., 342 Witkin, H., 316
Volkmar, F. R., 114 Wasow, J. L., 302 White, W., 469 Wittenberg, L., 382
Volkow, N. D., 202, 203 Wasserman, J. D., 337, 339 Whitehouse, W. G., 283 Wittkower, E. D., 620
Vollmer, W. M., 535 Waterman, A., 446 Whiteman, S. D., 462 Witviliet, C. J., 544
Volvaka, J., 612 Watkins, L. R., 160 Whitfield, C. L., 280 Wolfe, J. M., 136
von der Heydt, R., 138 Watkins, M. J., 262 Whorf, B. L., 308–309 Wolitzky, D. L., 599
von Hippel, W., 636 Watson, C. S., 149 Whyte, M. K., 647 Wolk, A., 535
von Meduna, L., 614 Watson, D., 470, 512, 643 Wibom, R., 178 Woloshin, S., 534
Voutilainen, S., 536 Watson, D. L., 250 Widiger, T. A., 553, 581 Wolpe, J., 606–607, 616–617
Voyer, D., 33, 459 Watson, J. B., 7–8, 10, 11, 16, 24, Widom, C. S., 584 Wolpert, E., 191
Voyer, S., 33, 459 222–223, 481 Wiederman, M. W., 391 Wolsic, B., 409
Vraniak, D. A., 356 Waugh, N. C., 263 Wiens, S., 399 Wonder, J., 112
Vredenburg, K., 629 Weatherall, A., 330 Wiesel, T., 10, 13 , 93, 114, Wonderlich, S. A., 589
Vroom, V. H., A-23 Weaver, C. A., 268 130–131, 137 Wood, E., 262, 462
Vygotsky, L., 436–437 Weaver, J. B., 386 Wiesenthal, D. L., 513 Wood, F., 289
Vyse, S. A., 215 Weaver, M. F., 204 Wigboldus, D. H. J., 635 Wood, J. M., 505
Webb, W. B., 181, 182, 183, 206 Wiggs, C. L., 289 Wood, N. L., 261
Weber, E., 121 Wight, W., 4 Wood, W., 391, 461, 652
W Wechsler, D., 342, 344 Wik, G., 561 Woodbury, M. A., 155
Wachtel, P., 620 Wechsler, H., 201, 534 Wilding, J., 291 Woodcock, R. W., 337
Wadden, T. A., 382 Weems, C. F., 560 Wiley, E., 305 Woodhead, M., 371
Waddill, P. J., 292 Wegener, D. T., 649, 650, 652, Wiley, J. L., 202 Woodman, G. F., 138
Wade, C. E., 177 655, 656 Wilkaitis, J., 611 Woods, S. C., 379
NAME INDEX I-15

Woolfolk, R. L., 544 Y Z Zhao, S., 556

Woo-Sam, J. M., 346 Yager, J., 207 Zadra, A., 189 Zhou, J., A-25
Workman, E. A., 527 Yalom, I. D., 603 Zajonc, R. B., 123, 399 Zickafoose, D. J., 295
Worth, L. T., 652 Yamada, A., 620 Zane, N., 620, 621 Zigler, E., 351, 371
Worthen, J. B., 177 Yamamoto, J., 621 Zang, D., 531 Zillman, D., 386
Worthington, E. L., Jr., 544 Yang, H., 531 Zanna, M. P., 636 Zillmer, E. A., 81, 96
Worthington-Roberts, B. S., 420 Yang, P., 30 Zarate, M. A., 670 Zimbardo, P. G., 660–662
Wright, J., 195 Yapko, M. D., 281 Zarcone, V. P., Jr., 207 Zimmerman, B. J., 485
Wright, J. H., 609 Yates, F. A., 291 Zatzick, D. F., 159, 618 Zimmerman, I. L., 346
Wright, L. W., 476 Ybarra, O., 669 Zautra, A. J., 512, 531 Zimmerman, M., 580
Wright, S. C., 24, 669 Yen, S., 581 Zebrowski, L. A., 634 Zoellner, L. A., 282
Wundt, W., 3, 4, 16 Yerkes, R. M., 217, A-17 Zechmeister, E. B., 27, 291 Zohar, D., A-26
Wurtz, R. H., 130, 132 Yi, H., 204 Zedeck, S., 347 Zola, S. M., 13, 287
Wyatt, J. K., 207 Yost, W. A., 153, 154, 451 Zeedyk, M. S., 284 Zorick, F. J., 187
Wylie, M. S., 280 Young, D. M., 586 Zeelenberg, M., 320 Zorumski, C. F., 614, 615
Wynder, E. L., 536 Young, E. A., 519 Zehr, J. L., 385 Zrenner, E., 135
Wynn, K., 438–439 Young, K., 522, 621 Zeidner, M., 365 Zubieta, J., 160
Wynne, C. D. L., 306 Young, T., 133 Zeiler, M., 233 Zucco, G. M., 267
Youngentob, S. L., 155 Zellner, D. A., 155 Zuck, M., 110
Zucker, K. J., 392
X Yount, S. E., 531 Zenhausen, R., 112
Zurbriggen, E. L., 398
Xiaghe, X., 647 Yudofsky, S. C., 86 Zentall, T. R., 244
Yuille, J. C., 262, 263, 282 Zepelin, H., 183, 207 Zuroff, D. C., 449
Yurgelun-Todd, D., 205 Zhang, J., 320 Zwislocki, J. J., 152
Yutzy, S. H., 562 Zhang, Z. F., 204
I-16 NAME INDEX

Subject Index
A addition-subtraction abilities, memory and, 290 Ames room, 147

abnormal behavior 438–439 sleep cycle and, 181–182 amino acids, as neurotransmitters,
classification of, 554–556 additive color mixing, 133, 134 agonist chemicals, 79 80
criteria of, 552–554 additive strategy, 319 agoraphobia, 558 amnesia
culture and, 585 adolescence, 442–447 agreeableness, 471, 493, 496, 500 dissociative, 564–565
legal aspects of, 584–585 cognitive development in, aha myth, 366 for child abuse, 281
medical model of, 551–552 435–436, 456 AIDS (acquired immune organic, 286, 287, 289
misconceptions about, 551, 554 conflict with parents in, 445, 451 deficiency syndrome) , 204, posthypnotic, 195
see also psychological disorders eating disorders in, 588–589 452, 536–538 amphetamines, 80, 87, 199, 200,
aborigines, 192 Freud’s view of, 477–488 homosexuals and, 537, 670 202
absolute refractory period, 76 physical changes in, 442–443, misconceptions about, 537 amplitude
absolute threshold, 120–121, 150 456 partners of people with, 518 of brain waves, 174
abstract thinking, 435 search for identity in, 446–447 prenatal exposure to and, 422 of light waves, 124, 125, 133
abstracts, of journal articles, 65, sleep patterns in, 182 prevalence of, 536 of sound waves, 149, 150
66, 67, A-36 suicide in, 444 prevention of, 537–538 amygdala, 88, 91, 92, 285, 286,
Abu Ghraib, 661, 662 turmoil in, 444–445 transmission of, 537 287, 288, 401–402, 427
academic performance, 291 violence in, 444–445 treatment for, 536 anagrams, 311
improving, 26–31 adoption studies, 105 airport screeners, A-22 anal stage, 477
SAT scores and, 55 of homosexuality, 393 alarm clock, internal, 207 analogies
self-efficacy and, 485 of intelligence, 353–354 alarm reaction, 520 in solving problems, 314–315
stress and, 526 adrenal glands, 83, 100, 520, 521 Albers, Josef, 168, 169 weak, 413
accidents adrenocorticotropic hormone alcohol use, 199, 200–201 analogy problems, 311
airplane, A-18, A-27 (ACTH), 520, 521 on college campuses, 201 analytic cognitive style, 317–318
drug use and, 204 adulthood, 447–453, 456–458 health risks of, 204, 210, 211, 536 analytic thinking, 113
inattentional blindness and, 136 adjusting to marriage in, 450 prenatal development and, 421 analytical intelligence, 363
sleep deprivation and, 185, 186 adjusting to parenthood in, stress and, 522, 526 analytical psychology, 478–479
workplace, A-29 450–451 alcoholism anandamide, 202
accommodation, cognitive, 433 family life cycle in, 449–451 as disease, 210–211 Anaylze This, 595
accommodation, visual, 125, midlife crisis in, 448–449 treatment seeking for, 597 androgens, 385, 393–394, 461
142 personality development in, treatment for, 607–608 anecdotal evidence, 68–69, 672
acculturation, 305 447–449, 456–458 alertness, 176 anesthesia
acetylcholine (ACh), 79 advertising, 651 algorithms, 313 awareness under, 174
Ache (Paraguay), 425 classical conditioning in, 219, Ali, Muhammed, 79 hypnosis used for, 195
achievement 254, 653 all-or-none law, 76 anger, 475, 518, 522, 528, 529
creativity and, 367 political, 255 alpha waves, 175, 179, 197 managing, 543–544
IQ and, 351 subliminal messages in, 122 alprazolam, 610 animal magnetism, 194
need for, 396–398, 664 techniques in, 673 alternative explanations, 33, 371, Animal Mind, The (Washburn), 5
achievement tests, 336 afferent nerve fibers, 82 465 animal research, 8, 9, 10
acquired immune deficiency affiliation need, 42, 43–44, 377, alternative outcomes effect, behaviorism and, 486
syndrome. See AIDS 397 323–324 criticisms of, 487
acquisition affirmative action, 39 alternatives, evaluating, 318–320, ethics of, 61–62
in classical conditioning, 220, African Americans, 14 547 animal rights activists, 61
221, 230 IQ scores of, 356, 359 Alzheimer’s disease, 287, 452 Animal Welfare Information
in observational learning, 244 mental health services utilization Ambien, 188 Center, 61
in operant conditioning, by, 597 ambivalence, in attitudes, animals
227–228, 230 prenatal health care and, 422 649–650 behavioral adaptations of,
acronyms, 293 test anxiety and, 359–360 amenorrhea, 588 108–109, 124
acrophobia, 558 afterimages, 134, 264 American Airlines, A-28 decision making by, 324, 325
acrostics, 293 age American Association on Mental language learning in, 306
ACTH, 520, 521 happiness and, 409 Retardation (AAMR), 349 mating behaviors in, 387
action potential, 75–76 mental health services utilization American Obesity Association, training of, 9, 228, 238
activation-synthesis model, of and, 597 382 animism, 434, 436
dreams, 193 violent crime and, 445 American Psychiatric Association, Anna O, 596
actor-observer bias, 638–639 age of viability, 420 553, 554, 555 annoyance, 518
acupuncture, 160 age stereotypes, 635 American Psychoanalytic anorexia nervosa, 586, 588–589
acute stressors, 513 agency counselors, A-33 Association, 601 ANS. See autonomic nervous
A-delta fibers, 158, 159 aggression, 521–522 American Psychological system
adaptation in children, 236–237, 243, Association (APA), 19, A-17, answer changing, on tests, 30
dark and light, 128 245–246 A-33 antagonist chemicals, 79
evolutionary, 108 cultural worldviews and, 498 founding of, 4 antecedents, of responses, 251,
hedonic, 411 evolutionary perspective on, 14 ethical principles of, 62 253
sensory, 123–124 gender differences in, 460, 461 membership in, 18, 19 anterograde amnesia, 286
adaptations, behavioral, 108–109, media violence and, 246–247 women in, 5 antianxiety drugs, 560, 610–611
124 aggressive impulses, Freud’s view American Psychological Society antibodies, 219, 220
addiction of, 474 (APS), 12 anticipatory name calling, 331
drug, 201, 203 aggressive pornography, 386–387 American Sign Language (ASL), antidepressant drugs, 569–570,
Internet, 522–523 aging, 451–453, 457 306 612–613, 619
SUBJECT INDEX I-17

antipsychotic drugs, 577, 611–612 artists, mental illness and, 368, for success and failure, 638, 639, effectiveness of, 609–610
antisocial personality disorder, 369 641, 669 social skills training, 608
580, 581, 584 ascending reticular activating atypical antipsychotic drugs, 612 systematic desensitization,
anxiety, 518, 523 system (ARAS), 183 auditory cortex, 94 606–607, 616–617
affiliation need and, 42, 43–44 Asian Americans, 14 auditory hallucinations, 574 behavioral contract, 253
buffering of, 498 Asian cultures, 317, 500, 501 auditory localization, 153–154 behavioral disengagement, 521
about death, 497–498, 499 see also China; Japan auditory nerves, 152 behavioral genetics, 101, 492–493,
Freud’s view of, 474–475 Asmat, 156 auditory processing, in brain, 94, 496
illness symptoms and, 538 assertiveness, 500, 504 97–98 behavioral maneuvers, 108–109
insomnia and, 187, 208 assimilation, 433 auditory system, 149–154 behavioral perspective, 13
Rogers’s view of, 488, 602 assumptions, 412 authority, obedience to, 657–660 on personality, 481–486, 494–495
separation, 427, 429 asylums, 551, 622 autogenic training, 208 behavioral residue, 483
subjectivity of, 512 atherosclerosis, 528, 529 autonomic arousal, 400–401, 405 behaviorism, 7–9, 10, 481, 486,
testing and, 359–360 attachment autonomic nervous system (ANS), 606
anxiety disorders, 557–562, culture and, 429 82–83, 90, 100, 400, 519, 521, beliefs, 649, 668
582–583 evolutionary perspective on, 581 Bell Curve, The (Herrnstein &
biological factors in, 560, 583 429–430 autonomy versus shame and Murray), 357, 358, 370
cognitive factors in, 561, 583 in infants, 427–430 doubt, 432 Bellini, Gentile and Giovanni,
conditioning of, 560–561, 583, love and, 645-646 availability heuristic, 321, 328, 162, 163
606–607 in monkeys, 427–428 329, 591 bell-shaped curve, 343, A-9–A-10,
drug therapy for, 610–611, 612 patterns of, 428–429 averages, 52–53, A-8 A-11
etiology of, 559–562, 583 theories of, 427–428 aversion therapy, 607–608 Belvedere (Escher), 166
lifetime prevalence of, 557 attachment styles, 645–646 aversive stimulus, 233–234, 235 benzodiazepines, 187, 610
stress and, 526, 561–562, 583 attention avoidance behavior, 251, 560 beta waves, 175, 180
treatment for, 606-607, 608–609 divided, 261 avoidance learning, 234–235 Beyond Freedom and Dignity
treatment seeking for, 597 marijuana use and, 204 avoidant attachment, 428, 429, (Skinner), 9
types of, 557–559, 582 memory encoding and, 260–261 645, 646 bias
anxiety hierarchy, 606–607 observational learning and, 243 avoidance-avoidance conflict, in attributions, 638–640,
anxiety sensitivity, 560, 583 pain perception and, 159 513, 514 669–670
anxious-ambivalent attachment, selective, 136, 290 awareness, levels of, 174, 473 confirmation, 328, 666
428, 429, 645, 646 stress and, 525–526 axons, 74 disconfirmation, 652
anxious/fearful personality in working memory, 266 in optic nerve, 128 experimenter, 59
disorders, 580 attention filter, 261 squid, 75 in person perception, 636–637
appeal to ignorance, 370 attitude alignment, 643 sampling, 57–58, 69
appeals, to fear, 652 attitudes, 633, 649–656 self-effacing, 641
appearance. See physical accessibility of, 649
B self-serving, 640–641, 642
appearance ambivalent, 649–650 babbling, 302 social desirability, 59, 68, 504
application, as goal of scientific behavior and, 650–651 babies. See infancy Big Five traits, 470–471, 480
approach, 38 changing, 651–653 bachelor’s degree, in psychology, cross-cultural studies of, 499, 500
applied psychology, 11–12, 19–21, components of, 649, 650 A-30 evolutionary perspective on, 496,
A-15–A-29 conditioning of, 254, 653–654 back pain, stress and, 531 507
appraisals, cognitive, 399, 405, defined, 649 balance, 90, 161 heritability of, 493, 496
406, 512, 518, 542 dimensions of, 649–650 Bantu, 142 measurement of, 503
apprehension, 518 of employees, A-18 barbiturates, 199 bilingualism, 304–305
approach-approach conflict, existing, 652–653 base rates, 546–547 Binet-Simon intelligence scale,
513–514 formation of, 653–656, 670 ignoring, 321–322, 325 341, 347
approach-avoidance conflict, 513, observational learning of, 654 baseball teams, jet lag and, 177 binge drinking, 201
514 prejudiced, 667–671 baseline data, 251 binge eating/purging, 588
aptitude tests, 336, 337 sexual, 386 basilar membrane, 151, 152 binocular cues, to depth
Arapesh, 192 similarity in, 643 Bay of Pigs, 665–666 perception, 142
archetypes, 479 strength of, 649, 650, 653 Beck Institute of Cognitive biological constraints, on
archival records, as data source, 40 subliminal influences on, 123 Therapy and Research, 609 conditioning, 238–240
Archives of the History of attraction. See interpersonal bedtime biological motives, 377–378, 477
American Psychology (AHAP), attraction ideal, 176 biological perspective, 10, 13
13 attractiveness regular, 208 on personality, 491–493,
arguments cultural standards for, 647 behavior 494–495, 496
components of, 412–413 eating disorders and, 588 cultural factors in, 23–24 biological rhythms, 175–178
evaluating, 413 happiness and, 409 defined, 7–8 biomedical therapies, 596,
one-sided versus two-sided, 652 impressions and, 634–635, 637 evolution of, 108–110 610–615, 616–617
arithmetic, infants and, 438–439 judgments of, 169 multifactorial causation of, 23, biopsychosocial model, 511, 541
Army General Classification Test, mate preferences and, 389, 390 110, 201 408, 499, 540–541, bipolar disorder, 566, 567,
12 persuasion and, 652 586–587 568–569, 586
arousal attribution processes, 633, observable, 8 drug therapy for, 613
emotional, 518–519, 543 637–642 behavior modification, 27, treatment seeking for, 597
optimal level of, 518–519 attributions, 637 250–253, 608, 627 bird and train problem, 315–316
physiological, 400–401 bias in, 638–640, 669–670 Behavior of Organisms, The birth defects, 419, 420, 421
sexual, 386, 394–395 culture and, 641–642 (Skinner), 225 birth order, 479–480
arrangement, problems of, 310 defensive, 639–640, 670 behavior therapies, 596, 606–610, birth weight, 420-421
art, perceptual principles and, external, 638, 639, 670 616–617, 626 bisexuals, 392, 537
162–167 internal, 638, 639, 670 aversion therapy, 607–608 blaming
arthritis, stress and, 531 stable-unstable dimension of, cognitive therapy, 608–609, of self, 518, 521
articles, journal, 64–67 638, 639 616–617 of victims, 640, 670
I-18 SUBJECT INDEX

blind spot, 127 burnout, 526 chance, research results and, 56, Civil Rights Act of 1991, A-21
blindness, inattentional, 136 Bush, George W., 269 A-14 clarification, in client-centered
blood, glucose levels in, 379 business negotiations, classical change, as source of stress, therapy, 603
blood flow, in brain, 87 conditioning in, 254–255 514–515 Clark University, 6
blood pressure (hypertension), Buspar, 611 channel factors, in persuasion, class attendance, grades and, 29
528, 535, 546 Byrd, James, Jr., 667 651 classical conditioning, 216–224
blood type, 103 bystander effect, 663, 664 charismatic leaders, A-25 in advertising, 254
Bobo doll, 245 Charles, Prince, 417–418 acquisition in, 220, 221, 230
body image, disturbed, 588 chat rooms, 63 of anxiety responses, 560,
body language, 402
C chemical senses, 154–157 606–607
body mass index (BMI), 382, 383 C fibers, 158, 159 child abuse of attitudes, 653
body position, sense of, 160 C-reactive protein, 528 multiple personality and, 565 aversion therapy and, 608
body temperature, 376 caffeine, 200, 207, 535–536 repressed memories of, 280–284 avoidance learning and, 234–235
fluctuations in, 176 calcium intake, 536 childbirth, pain in, 159 basic processes in, 220–224
body weight. See weight Cambridge Center for Behavioral childlessness, 450 in business negotiations,
Boggs, Wade, 215 Studies, 235 childrearing practices, 493 254–255
bonobo pygmy chimpanzees, 306 cancer, 511 cultural differences in, 641 discrimination in, 223, 230
boredom, job, A-24 cell phones and, 547 see also parentsw of emotions, 219
bottom-up processing, 137, 138, diet and, 536 children in everyday life, 218–220
147 exercise and, 536 aggression in, 243, 245–246 extinction in, 220–221, 230
bounded rationality, theory of, smoking and, 534 bilingual, 304–305 of food preferences, 381
318, 324 cannabinoid receptors, 202–203 cognitive development in, generalization in, 222, 230
brain cannabis, 199, 200, 201 433–439, 455–456 in politics, 255
in adolescence, 443–444 Cannon-Bard theory, 405–406 deciding whether to have, 450 observational learning and, 243
aging and, cardiovascular disease, 177, 528 environmental deprivation and, overview of, 248–249
auditory processing in, 94, 97–98 see also heart disease 358 Pavlov’s formulation of, 216
blood flow in, 87 care initiatives, 624 father absence and, 464–465 of physiological responses,
deterioration of, 452 career success, 397 food preferences of, 155, 156, 381 219–220
development of, 114 careers, in psychology, 19, fostering independence in, 500 spontaneous recovery in,
drug effects on, 202–203 A-30–A-34 gender-role socialization of, 221–222
electrical recordings of, 84 caregivers, attachment to, 427 462–463 terminology and procedures for,
electrical stimulation of, 85 caregiving styles, 645 imitation of models by, 485 217–218
gender differences, in, 461 case studies, 49–50, 51, 480 language development in, classical music, for infants, 114,
hunger and, 378–379 catastrophic thinking, 521, 542, 301–304 115
lesioning of, 85 564 media violence and, 244–247 claustrophobia, 558
lobes of, 93–94 catatonic schizophrenia, 574–575 moral development in, 439–440 client-centered therapy, 602–603,
memory and, 286–287 catecholamines, 520, 521 motor development in, 423–425 616–617, 627
number of neurons in, 81 catharsis, 522 nightmares in, 189 climate, workplace, A-25–A-26
pain processing and, 159–160 causation parental love for, 488 clinical psychologists, 50, 598
percentage “in use,” 81 correlation and, 48, 52, 55, personality development in, clinical psychology, 11, 19, 20, 21
plasticity of, 95–96 464–465, 546 431–432, 476–478 clinical social workers, 599, A-33
“pleasure centers” in, 92, 203 experimental research and, 47 physical development in, closure, as Gestalt principle, 138,
sleep and, 90 multifactorial, 23, 110, 201 408, 545–455 139
structure of, 89–96 499, 540–541, 586–587 punishment of, 236-237 Clouser, Ronald, 294
study of, 84–89 cell membrane, of neuron, 75, 76, children’s programs, federal clozapine, 612
ventricles of, 84, 86, 578 77 spending on, 422 clustering, 270
visual pathways in, 130–132 cell phones, 261, 547 Chimpanzee and Human CNS. See central nervous system
weight of, 84, 452 cells Communication Institute, 306 CNS depressants, 200, 204, 207
see also specific brain structures brain, 96 chimpanzees, 306 CNS stimulants, 80, 93, 199, 200,
brain activity, consciousness and, genetic material in, 101 China (Chinese), 348, 404, 500 201, 207
174–175 in nervous system, 73–74 chlamydia, 422 cocaine, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204,
brain-based learning, 114 in retina, 127–130 chlorpromazine, 610, 611 402
brain damage, 85, 96 cellular immune responses, 532 choices brain activity and, 87
brain-imaging procedures, 86–89 center-surround arrangement, conflict and, 514 neurotransmitters and, 80
problems with, 89 128, 157, 158 consumer, 329 prenatal development and, 421
with schizophrenia, 578 Centers for Disease Control and factors in, 318–326 cochlea, 151, 152
brain organization, gender Prevention, 537 see also decision making cocktail party phenomenon,
differences in, 461 central nervous system (CNS), 81, cholesterol, 528, 535 260–261
brain size, intelligence and, 82, 83–84 Chopin, 368 coefficient of determination, A-13
361–362 see also brain; spinal cord chromosomes, 101, 105, 418 cognition, 12, 299
brain surgery, 85–86 central tendency, measures of, chronic diseases, 511–512 cognitive abilities
brain waves, 84, 85, 174–175 52–53, A-8 chronic stressors, 513 aging and, 452–453
brainstem, 89, 91, 158, 402 centration, 434 chunks, in short-term memory, gender differences in, 33, 459
“brainedness,” 112, 113 cephalocaudal trend, 423-424 266 hemispheric specialization and,
breast size, men’s preferences for, cerebellum, 90, 91, 286, 288 cigarettes, 534 111
507 cerebral cortex, 90, 91, 93 advertising of, 254 marijuana use and, 204, 205
breeding, selective, 103 cerebral hemispheres, 93, 96, 461 see also smoking sleep deprivation and, 184–185
brightness, of colors, 124, 125, cerebral laterality, 96–99 cigars, 534 Cognitive Abilities Test, 343
133 cerebral specialization, 111–113, cingulate cortex, 402 cognitive appraisal, of stressful
Broca’s area, 96, 97 461 circadian rhythms, 175–178 events, 512, 518
brontophobia, 558 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 83, 578 circular reactions, 433 cognitive-behavioral therapy,
bulimia nervosa, 588–589 cerebrum, 90, 91, 93–95 circular reasoning, 211, 413 608–609, 616–617
SUBJECT INDEX I-19

cognitive development, 433–439, comparitors, 168–169 connotation, 301 prediction and, 54–55, A-12–A-13
454–457 compensation, 479 conscience, lack of, 581 strength of, 53, A-11
attachment style and, 429 competition conscientiousness, 471, 493, 496, correlation coefficient, 52, 53, A-11
moral development and, 440 between groups, 670 533–534 calculating, A-12
Piaget’s stage theory of, 433-436 individualism and, 641 conscious, 473 in test reliability, 338
sociocultural theory of, 436–437 competitiveness, 500 consciousness, 196–197 in test validity, 339, 340
cognitive dissonance, 654–655 complementary colors, 134 altering with drugs, 199–205 correlational research, 48–52
Cognitive Interference compliance contents of, 174 advantages of, 51
Questionnaire, 184 with authority, 657–660 defined, 174 disadvantages of, 52
cognitive maps, 241 with group, 656–657 divided, 197 types of, 48–51
cognitive perspective, 10, 12–13, with medical advice, 539–540 evolutionary roots of, 174 corticosteroids, 520, 521
299 composers, mental illness and, stream of, 5, 111, 174 co-sleeping, 182–183
on conditioning, 240–242 368, 369 study of, 3, 4, 5, 12, 173 counseling, careers in, A-30, A-33
on emotions, 399 compulsions, 558, 559 unity of, 111, 113 counseling psychology, 19, 20
on gender-role learning, 462 computerized tomography (CT) conservation, 434, 435 counselors, 599
on intelligence, 362–363 scans, 86, 87, 578 conservatives, 640 counterarguments, 412, 652
cognitive processes, 13 concepts, semantic networks of, consistency, cross-situational, 470, counterattitudinal behavior, 654,
parallel-distributed processing 271 486 655
model of, 271–272 conceptual hierarchy, 270 consolidation, of memory, counterconditioning, 607
see also decision making; conclusions, 412 186–187, 287 courtship behavior, 109–110
memory; problem solving; concordance rates constancies, perceptual, 146 crack cocaine, 200, 204
thinking for antisocial personality constraint, 471 cramming, 291
cognitive psychology, 19, 20 disorder, 581 constraints, unnecessary, 313 creative intelligence, 363
cognitive style, 113 for anxiety disorders, 560, 583 construct validity, 339 creativity, 366–369
creativity and, 369 for mood disorders, 569, 583 constructive coping, 524–525, credibility
depression and, 570–572 for schizophrenia, 576, 577 542–545 evaluating, 672–673
culture and, 316–318 concrete operational period, 433, contagious diseases, 511 of online sources, A-36–A-37
cognitive therapy, 608–609, 434–435 content validity, 339 of sources, 651, 652
616–617, 626 conditionability, 492 context crimes, violent, 444–445
cognitive vulnerability, 571 conditioned reflexes, 288 for personality development, criminal activity, antisocial
collective unconscious, 478–479 conditioned reinforcers, 230–231 479–480 personality disorder and, 581
collectivism, 499–500, 641, 664 conditioned response (CR), 217, perceptual hypotheses and, 141 criterion-related validity, 339
conformity and, 660 218, 219, 220, 223, 560, 606, context cues, 273 critical periods, 114, 115
marriage and, 647 608, 653 contingencies critical thinking, defined, 32
college admissions tests, 55 conditioned stimulus (CS), 217, conditioning and, 242 Critical Thinking Consortium,
college students 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 235, reinforcement, 244, 252 316
alcohol and, 201 238–239, 560, 606, 608, 653 continuity, as Gestalt principle, cross-cultural studies, 13–14
date rape among, 387 ecologically relevant, 239-240 139 of close relationships, 646–647
as research subjects, 57–58 predictive value of, 241 contradictory evidence, 33, 371 of emotion, 403–404
sleep deprivation in, 184–185 conditioning, 215 contrast effects, 168–169 of mate preferences, 390
colleges, psychology laboratories biological constraints on, control, as goal of scientific of motor development, 424–425
at, 3 238–240 approach, 38 of personality, 499
color blindness, 134, 135 cognitive processes in, 240–242 control group, 42–43 of social behavior, 667
color mixing, 133, 134 contingencies and, 242 control panels, airplane, A-18, cross-sectional designs, 425, 426
color solid, 133 evaluative, 254, 653 A-19, A-27–A-28 cross-situational consistency, 486
color vision, 127–128, 130, personality and, 482 conventional level, of moral crossing over, of chromosomes,
133–135 rapid, 239 development, 440 101
colors, naming of, 309 see also classical conditioning; convergence, of eyes, 142 cryptamnesia, 275
Columbia space shuttle, 506 operant conditioning convergent thinking, 367 Crystal, Billy, 595
Columbine High School, 444 cones, 127–128, 135 conversion disorder, 562–563 crystal meth, 200
commitment, 446 confidence intervals, 328 Coolidge, Calvin, 387 CT (computerized tomography)
in romantic relationships, confirmation bias, 328, 636, 666 Coolidge effect, 387 scans, 86, 87, 578
644–645, 648 conflict(s) cooperativeness, 500 Cuba, 665
psychiatric, 584–585 between groups, 670 coordination, loss of, 663, 664 Cubism, 163–164
common sense, versus scientific dreaming about, 190 Copernicus, 368 cues, to depth perception, 142–143
approach, 41–42 internal, 473–474 coping, 520–521 cultural bias, on IQ tests, 360
communication, 300 parent-adolescent, 445, 451 constructive, 524–525, 542–545 cultural differences
in animals, 306 types of, 513–514 defensive, 523–524 in attachment patterns, 429
on dates, 643 social, 533 maladaptive, 522 in attributional processes,
in groups, 663 as source of stress, 513–514 problem-focused, 533 641–642
with health providers, 539 unconscious, 599–601 cornea, 125, 126 in close relationships, 646–647
nonverbal, 402–403, 404 conformity, 633, 656-657, 660 Cornell University, 5 in depth perception, 142, 143
persuasive, 651–653 conformity pressure, 515–516 coronary arteries, 528 in dreaming, 192
communities, positive, 18 confounding of variables, 44 corporal punishment, 236–237 in food preferences, 381
community counseling, A-33 congruence, 487, 488, 602 corpus callosum, 91, 93, 97, 461 in intelligence testing, 347–348
community mental health conjunction fallacy, 322–323, 326, correlation(s), 52–55, A-11–A-12 in IQ scores, 356–360
centers, 626 591 between stress and illness, 532 in motor development, 424–425
community mental health conjunctive probabilities, 590, causation and, 48, 52, 55, in pace of life, 48–49
movement, 621–622 591 464–465, 546 in perception, 148, 161
comorbidity, 590 connectionist models, of memory, invention of concept, 341 in problem solving, 316–318
companionate love, 644 271–272 positive and negative, 52, 53, in psychological disorders,
comparative evaluations, 320 connectionist networks, 308 A-11 585–586
I-20 SUBJECT INDEX

in sleep patterns, 182–183 defensive attribution, 639–640, motor, 423–425 divergent thinking, 366–367
in taste preferences, 155, 156 670 personality, 425–427, 430–432, division of labor, 33, 461
cultural diversity, psychology and, definitions 446, 447–449, 454–457 divorce, 410, 464, 465, 544
13–14 operational, 39 physical, 423–425, 442–444, Dix, Dorothea, 622, 623
cultural influences, on behavior, power of, 210–211 454–457 dizygotic twins, 104
23–24 DeGeneres, Ellen, 394 prenatal, 418–423 DNA, 101, 105
cultural worldviews, 497–499 deinstitutionalization, 622-623 sexual, 442–443 doctoral degree, in psychology,
culture dejection, 518 developmental norms, 424, 425 A-33
archetypes and, 479 delta waves, 175, 179 developmental psychology, 19, 20 dolphins, 179
cognitive style and, 316–318 delusions, 574, 586 deviance, as criterion for dominant gene, 101, 102
defined, 23 delusions of grandeur, 574 abnormality, 551, 552 door-in-the-face technique, 168
eating disorders and, 589 delusions of persecution, 574 deviation IQ scores, 344–345 dopamine, 79, 80, 87, 90, 93, 203,
emotions and, 403–404 dementia, 452 diabetes, 531, 547 402, 611
gender differences and, 460 Demerol, 200 diagnosis, 552 dopamine hypothesis, of
language and, 308–309 demonic possession, 551, 552 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of schizophrenia, 576–577
mate preferences and, 390 dendrites, 74 Mental Disorders (DSM), 554–556 double-blind procedure, 59, 619
organizational, A-24, A-25–A-26 denial, 523 dials, A-27 double standard, in sexuality, 3
personality and, 499–501 DeNiro, Robert, 595 diazepam, 610 89
psychotherapy and, 620 denotation, 301 dichromats, 134, 135 Doublespeak (Lutz), 330
social loafing and, 664 Department of Homeland Security diet, quality of, 535–536 doubt, 432
culture-bound disorders, 586 (DHS), A-22 dietary restraint, 384 Down syndrome, 350
cumulative deprivation Department of Justice, A-21 dieting, 382, 383, 384 “downers,” 200
hypothesis, 355 dependent variables, 42, 45 Differential Aptitude Tests, 336, Doyle, Arthur Conan, 299
cumulative probabilities, 590 depression, 552–553, 566 337 dramatic/impulsive personality
cumulative recorder, 226, 227 creativity and, 368, 369 difficult children, 426 disorders, 580
curare, 79 death anxiety and, 498 diffusion of responsibility, 663, dreaming, 190–193
curriculum reform, 112 geriatric, 619 664 REM and, 173, 180
customs, culture and, 24 heart disease and, 529–531 digestive system, hunger and, 378, theories of, 192–193
cyberspace, 371 insomnia and, 187 380 dreams, 208–209
cyclothymic disorder, 568 postpartum, 451 disabilities, animal research and, common themes in, 191
cynicism, 526 self-blame and, 521 62 content of, 190, 192
smoking and, 55 disagreements, perceptions in, 39 control of, 209
stress and, 526 disasters, stress and, 526, 527 culture and, 192
D depressive disorders, 529, 566–568 discipline, parental, 236 interpretation of, 209, 283, 479,
daily cycles, 176 biological factors in, 569–570 disclosure, 543 600
Dali, Salvador, 165, 190, 502 blended therapy for, 619 disconfirmation bias, 652 links with waking life, 190–191
Dallas–Fort Worth Airport, A-28 cognitive factors in, 570–572 disconfirming evidence, 295, 328 recall for, 208–209
dark adaptation, 128 culture and, 586 discrimination shocking, 209
data analysis, 40–41, A-7–A-8 drug therapy for, 612–613 in classical conditioning, 223, symbolism in, 209
data collection, 40, A-7 etiology of, 569–572 230 drive reduction, 376
via Internet, 62–63 gender differences in, 567–568, in operant conditioning, 229, 230 drives, 90, 376
databases, online, A-36 570 discrimination (social) driving, cell phone use and, 261
date rape, 386–387 genetic vulnerability to, 569 against homosexuals, 394 drowsiness, 175, 185
dating, 643, 644 interpersonal roots of, 572 employment, A-21 drudge theory, 351
tactics in, 648 neurochemical factors in, 80, prejudice and, 668 drug companies, 613–614
day residue, 190 569–570 discriminative stimuli, 229 drug therapy
death anxiety, 497–498, 499 onset of, 567 disease effectiveness of, 613–614
decay, of memory traces, 265, 270, prevalence of, 567 biopsychosocial model of, 511 deinstitutionalization and, 622
278 stress and, 572 prenatal development and, for psychological disorders,
decentration, 434 symptoms of, 566–567 421–422 610–614
deception treatment seeking for, 597 psychosomatic, 527 drug use and abuse, 199–205, 220
in personality testing, 504 deprivation, environmental, see also illness during pregnancy, 421
in research, 60–61, 660 354–355, 358 dishabituation, 437 health effects of, 536
in romantic relationships, 648 depth cues, in paintings, 162 disinhibition, 195, 384, 581 stress and, 522, 526
decibels (dB), 150 depth perception, 142–143 disorganized schizophrenia, 575 treatment seeking for, 597
decision making, 318–326 description, as goal of scientific disorganized-disoriented see also psychoactive drugs
evidence-based, 69 approach, 37–38 attachment, 429 DSM-IV, 554–556, 580
evolutionary perspective on, descriptive statistics, 52–55, displacement, 475, 522 dual-coding theory, 262
324–325, 327 A-7–A-13 display rules, 404 dual-process theories, of decision
fast, 325–326 descriptive/correlational research, displays, visual, A-27–A-28 making, 326
in groups, 664–666 48–52 dissociation, in hypnosis, 197 Duchamp, Marcel, 164–165
health-related, 547 desensitization, systematic, dissociative amnesia, 564–565 dysthymic disorder, 567
mistakes in, 318 606–607, 616–617 dissociative disorders, 564–566
prefrontal cortex and, 94 detectability, of stimuli, 122 dissociative identity disorder
risky, 320–323, 327, 665 determinism, 481, 482 (DID), 565–566, 573
E
in signal detection, 121 reciprocal, 483 dissonance theory, 654–655 ear
stress and, 525–526 development, 418 distal stimuli, 140 auditory localization and, 153
uncertainty in, 320, 327 in adolescence, 442–447 distance learning, A-29 sensory processing in, 150–151
declarative memory system, 288 in adulthood, 447–453 distributed practice, 291 eardrum, 151
deep sleep, 175, 179 cognitive, 433–439, 454–457 distribution earlobes, detached, 101–102
defense mechanisms, 475–476, emotional, 427–430 normal, A-9–A-10, A-11 early maturation, 443
488, 523–524, 600 moral, 439–442 skewed, A-8 easy children, 426
SUBJECT INDEX I-21

eating behavior James-Lange theory of, 405 ethics, in research, 60–63, 660 experience
biological factors in, 378–380 language and, 330 ethnic groups brain structure and, 95–96
with eating disorders, 588 limbic system and, 92 IQ scores of, 356–357 perception and, 141
environmental cues to, 380–381 manipulation of, 254, 255 mental health services utilization subjectivity of, 63
neurotransmitters and, 80 motivation and, 398 by, 597 experimental group, 42–43
obesity and, 382–383 negative, 382, 399, 476, 518, prejudice against, 668 experimental psychology, 19, 20
observational learning and, 381 566 stereotypes of, 635, 668–669 experimental research, 42–47
in rats, 108 physiological component of, in U.S. population, 14 advantages of, 47
poor habits in, 535–536 399–402 ethnocentrism, 13–14 disadvantages of, 47
regulation of, 90 positive, 15, 399, 518, 542 etiology, 552 elements of, 42–43, 45
sleep and, 208 release of, 522, 543 euphoria methodological problems with,
stress and, 381–382, 522 in schizophrenia, 574 in bipolar disorders, 568 57–58, 59
eating disorders, 555, 587–589 stress and, 517–518 in drug use, 200 experimenter bias, 59
eclecticism, 620, 627 suppression of, 543 evaluative conditioning, 254, 653 experiments, 42, 51
ecologically relevant conditioned theories of, 406–407 evidence design for, 44–45
stimuli, 239–240 two-factor theory of, 406 anecdotal, 68–69 expertise, of sources, 651
ecstasy, 201, 205 words for, 404 disconfirming, 295, 328 explanations, alternative, 33, 371,
ECT. See electroconvulsive therapy emotional arousal, 518–519, 543 lack of, 370 465
educational/school psychology, emotional development., 427–430 evolutionary biology, 15 expressed emotion, 579
19, 20 emotional intelligence, 364–365, evolutionary perspective, 10, external attributions, 638, 639,
EEG. See electroencepahlograph A-25 14–15, 106–110 670
efferent nerve fibers, 82 empathy, 500 on cognitive abilities, 439 extinction
efficiency, in groups, 663 of therapist, 603, 605 on color vision, 133 in classical conditioning,
effort justification, 655 empiricism, 110, 21–22, 63 on conditioned taste aversion, 220–221, 230
egg cell, 101, 104, 418 in social psychology, 667 239 in operant conditioning,
ego, 472–473, 599 statistics and, A-7, A-14 on consciousness, 174 228–229, 230
egocentrism, 434, 436 employees criticism of, 15, 391 resistance to, 228, 235
Eichman, Adolf, 658 attitudes of, A-18 Darwin’s, 106–107 extraneous variables, 44
ejaculation, 395, 443 motivation of, A-18, A-22–A-23 on emotion, 406–407 extrapolation, 114–115
elaboration, in encoding, 262 training of, A-22 evaluating, 33 extraversion, 105, 339, 340, 410,
elaboration likelihood model, employers on fight-or-flight response, 519 470, 471, 492, 493, 496, 500
655–656 qualities sought in job on flaws in decision making, extraverts, 479
Elavil, 612 applicants, A-31 324–325, 327 eye, structure of, 125–127
election campaign ads, 255 testing by, A-19–A-20 on gender differences, 460–461 eyeblink response, 285
electrical stimulation of the brain empty nest, 451 on gender differences in taste eyewitnesses
(ESB), 85–86, 92, 267, 268 encoding, 259, 260–263 sensitivity, 156 fallibility of, 294–295
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), enriching, 262–263, 293 hindsight bias and, 507 recall of, 273
614–615 ineffective, 278 on human sexual behavior, suggestibility of, 274, 275
electrodes, 84, 85, 174, 615 self-referent, 263 387–391
electroencephalograph (EEG), 84, encoding specificity principle, 279 on interpersonal attraction,
85, 174–175, 178, 179 encounter group movement, 603 647–649
F
electromyograph (EMG), 178 endocrine system, 90, 99–100, on language, 306–307 faces, recognition of, 132
electrooculograph (EOG), 178 520 on learning, 240 facial expressions, 402–403
elimination by aspects, 319 endorphins, 79, 80, 160, 202 on motivation, 377 facial-feedback hypothesis,
elicited responses, 217 English titmouse, 244 on obesity, 382–383 402–403
emancipatory leadership, A-25 environment on person perception, 637 facial symmetry, 647
embryonic stage, 419, 420, 421 enriched, 114, 115, 355 on personality, 493, 496 factor analysis, 470, 499
emetic drugs, 607 heredity and, 24, 106, 110, 458 on sleep, 183 failure
emotion(s), 398–405 intelligence and, 354–355 exams, preparing for, 30–31, attributions for, 638, 639, 669
attitudes and, 649, 668 see also nature vs. nurture 291–292 fear of, 564
autonomic nervous system and, environmental tobacco smoke, excitatory PSPs, 77 frustration and, 513
82 534-535 excitement phase, of sexual faith, happiness and, 409
behavioral component of, Epidemiological Catchment Area response cycle, 394–395 fallacies, logical, 370, 413, 465
402–403 studies, 557 exercise, 545 false dichotomy, 413, 465
Cannon-Bard theory of, 405–406 epidemiology, 556 lack of, 383–384, 528, 536 false memory syndrome, 280–284
categorization of, 404 epilepsy, surgery for, 98 self-efficacy and, 485 False Memory Syndrome
cognitive component of, 399 episodic memory system, sleep and, 207 Foundation, 281
conditioning of, 219, 254, 653 288–289, 453 exhaustion stage, 520 family
control of, 399 Equal Employment Opportunity exorcism, 552 antisocial personality and, 584
culture and, 403–404 Commission, A-21 expectancy theory, A-23 eating disorders and, 589
decision making and, 320 equilibrium, 90, 161, 376 expectations father role in, 464–465
defined, 398–399 equipment design, A-18, in conducting research, 59 gender-role socialization by, 462
Ellis’s model of, 542 A-27–A-28 conforming to, 515–516 personality and, 493
evolutionary perspective on, erection, 395 happiness and, 411 schizophrenia and, 579
406–407 erotic materials, 385–387 for marital roles, 450 social support from, 533
expected outcomes and, 46–47 ESB. See electrical stimulation of for outcomes, 46–47 work life and, A-26
expressed, 579 the brain pain perception and, 159 see also children; marriage;
facial expressions for, 402–403 escape learning, 234 perception and, 25, 140–141 parents
fundamental, 402, 407 Escher, M. C., 165–166 person perception and, 636 family life cycle, 449–451
heart disease and, 529–531 Eskimos, 156, 309, 404 role, 661 family studies, 103
hemispheric specialization and, essay exams, 31, 277 schema-based, 271 of anxiety disorders, 560
99 estrogens, 385 expected value, 320–321 of intelligence, 352–353
I-22 SUBJECT INDEX

fantasy, as defense mechanism, measures of, 276–277 in panic disorders, 558 Go Ask Alice!, 394
523, 524 motivated, 280, 475 in response to erotic materials, goal-setting theory, A-23
farsightedness, 126, 127, 451 forgetting curve, 276, 277 386 gonadotropins, 100
fast mapping, 302 forgiving, 544 in seeking psychotherapy, 597 gonads, 100, 385
fat cells, 380 formal operational period, 433, in sexual activity, 388–389, 460 gonorrhea, 422
fatalism, 521 435–436 in sexual arousal, 88–89 Goodwin, Doris Kearns, 275
father absence, 464–465 forms, perception of, 135–141 in sexual orientation, 394 Google Scholar, A-36
fatigue, 187, 526 fovea, 128 in sleep cycle, 181 grades
fatty foods, 536 Fox, Michael J., 79 in social behavior, 459–460 class attendance and, 29
taste preferences for, 108 framing, of questions, 328–329 in somatization disorder, 562 IQ and, 346
fear, 405, 518 Francesco, S., 162 in spatial ability, 33 Graduate Record Exam (GRE),
amygdala and, 92 fraternal twins, 104, 492 in taste sensitivity, 155–156 359, A-33
conditioned, 218–219, 221, 287, free association, 600 in visual-spatial ability, 458, 461 graduate school, A-33–A-34
560, 561, 607 free will, 9, 481 gender-role socialization, 462–463 grammar, 303
neural circuits for, 401–402 free-basing, 200 gender roles, 462, 450 graphs, of data, A-7–A-8
subjectivity of, 512 frequency gender stereotypes, 459, 635, 669 grasshoppers, camouflage by,
irrational, 216, 218, 557–558 of brain waves, 174, 175 gene pool, 107, 108 108–109
fear appeals, 652 of sound waves, 149–150 general adaptation syndrome, gratification
feature analysis, 136–138, 163 frequency distribution, A-7 519–520 delayed, 397
feature detectors, 131, 137, 138, frequency polygon, A-7 generalization excessive, 476
158 frequency theory, of hearing, 152 in classical conditioning, 222, gray matter, 443
feedback, in client-centered Freudian slips, 6, 473 230 Green, Reg and Maggie, 543
therapy, 603 friendship, 533, 642, 643 in operant conditioning, 229, grief, 518
feelings frontal lobe, 94, 96, 578 230 group cohesiveness, 664, 665, 666
attitudes and, 649 frustration, 476, 513, 515 from samples, 57 group differences, 460
subjective, 399 frustration-aggression hypothesis, generalization gradients, 222–223 group intelligence tests, 342–343
see also emotion(s) 521-522 generalized anxiety disorder, 557, group norms, 641, 660, 663
femininity, 459 functional fixedness, 312 597 group polarization, 665
fetal alcohol syndrome, 421 functional magnetic resonance generational gains, in IQ, 355, 358 group size
fetal stage, 419–420, 421 imaging (fMRI), 87, 88, 89, 427 generativity versus self- conformity and, 657
fetishes, 220 functionalism, 4–5 absorption, 449 helping behavior and, 663
fiber, dietary, 535, 536 fundamental attribution error, genes, 101, 105, 418 productivity and, 664
Field, Sally, 588 638–639, 641, 670 genetic mapping, 105–106, 355 group therapy, 603–604
field dependence-independence, Futurism, 165 genetic predisposition/ groups, 633, 662–666
316–317 vulnerability communication in, 663
fight-or-flight response, 82–83, to alcoholism, 210 conflict between, 670
100, 400, 519, 520
G to antisocial personality disorder, decision making in, 664–666
figure and ground, 138 GABA (gamma-aminobutyric 581 evolutionary perspective on, 496
finches, house, 109, 387 acid), 79, 80, 183, 560 to anxiety disorders, 560, 583 identification with, 500, 641
findings, reporting, 41, 64 galvanic skin response (GSR), 400 to eating disorders, 589 productivity in, 663–664
first-borns, 479–480 gambler’s fallacy, 327 to mood disorders, 569, 583 groupthink, 665–666
fitness gambling, 231, 232, 233, 320–321 to obesity, 383 growth, personal, 489
inclusive, 108 ganglion cells, in retina, 127, 128, to schizophrenia, 106, 576, 577 growth hormone, 176
reproductive, 107 135 genetic relatedness, 101–102, 103, growth spurt, adolescent, 442
fixation, 476, 477, 507 gate-control theory, 159 104 growth trends, infant, 424, 425
fixed-interval schedules of Gates, Bill, 346 homosexuality and, 393 guilt, 432, 473, 475, 523
reinforcement, 232–233 Gathani, Nirav, 352 obesity and, 383 gustatory system, 154–156
fixed-ratio schedules of gender, 459 genetics
reinforcement, 232–233 gender differences, 459 of intelligence, 353
flashbulb memories, 267–269 in aggression, 460, 461 principles of, 101–103
H
flattery, 643–644 biological origins of, 460–462 of taste buds, 155 H. M., 286
flavor, perception of, 156 in brain organization, 461 see also heredity habituation, 437
fluoxetine, 612 in cognitive abilities, 33, 459 genital stage, 477 hair cells
fluphenazine, 611 in depressive disorder, 567–568, genius, 341, 351 as hearing receptors, 151, 152
Flynn effect, 355, 358 570 genotypes, 102–103 as vestibular receptors, 161
fMRI scans, 87, 88, 89, 427 in dream content, 190 genuineness, of therapist, 602 Haldol, 611
Fonda, Jane, 588 in eating disorders, 588–589 geographic slant, perception of, halfway houses, 623
food environmental origins of, 143–146 hallucinations, 574
incentive value of, 380 462–463 Germany, 429 under hypnosis, 195
palatability of, 380 evolutionary perspective on, 33 germinal stage, 418–419 Hallucinogenic Toreador, The (Dali),
preoccupation with, 588 in fight-or-flight response, 519 Gestalt principles, 138–139, 165
food preferences, 155, 156, 381 in generalized anxiety disorder, 164–165 hallucinogens, 199, 200, 201
foot-in-the-door technique, 673 557 giftedness, 345, 350–352 handshaking, 635
Fore (New Guinea), 404 in identifying odors, 157 glands, endocrine, 99–100 handwashing, compulsive, 559
forebrain, 82, 89, 90, 91 in insomnia, 187 glia, 74–75, 160 hangingfly, black-tipped, 109
foreplay, 395 in mate preferences, 389–391, Global Assessment of Functioning happiness, 408–411
forewarning, 255, 652 647–649 (GAF) Scale, 555, 556 measurement of, 408
forgetting, 276–280 in motivation, 377 glove anesthesia, 563 moderately good predictors of,
aging and, 452 nature versus nurture in, 460 glucuse, 379 409
causes of, 278–280 in nonverbal communication, glucostatic theory, 379 strong predictors of, 409–410
in dissociative amnesia, 564–565 460 glutamate, 577 unimportant determinants of,
of dreams, 208 in orgasm, 395–396 glycine, 80 408–409
SUBJECT INDEX I-23

haptic measures, 144, 145 herpes, 422, 531 Hughes, Howard, 558–559, 582 identity moratorium, 446
Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic hertz, 149 human factors (human identity statuses, 446–447
Susceptibility, 195 heterosexuals, 392 engineering ) psychology, A-16, identity versus confusion, 446
Harvard University, 5 heterozygous condition, 101, 102 A-18–A-19, A-26–A-29 Ifaluk, 404
hashish, 199, 200 heuristics, 313–314 Human Genome Project, 105 ignorance, appeal to, 370
hassles, everyday, 512 fast and frugal, 325–326 human immunodeficiency virus illness, 511
Head Start programs, 370–371 in judging probabilities, (HIV), 422, 536 correlates of, 546
health 321–323, 327–329 human-machine interface, hypochondriasis and, 563
biopsychosocial factors in, 541 hidden observer, 197 A-27–A-28 life changes and, 514–515
effects of stress on, 527–532 hierarchical classification, 435 human nature, optimistic view of, psychosomatic, 527, 562
happiness and, 409 hierarchy of needs, 489 10, 487, 488, 491 reactions to, 538–540
see also disease; illness higher-order conditioning, human relations movement, A-18 stress and, 527–532
health care, 615, 618 223–224 humanism, 9–10, 487 see also disease
prenatal, 422-423 highly active antiretroviral humanistic perspective, 10, illusions, visual, 146–149
health care providers, 539 therapy, 536 494–495 IllusionWorks, 147
health-impairing behavior, 322, highway hypnosis, 197 evaluation of, 490–491 illusory correlation, 636, 669
534–538 hills, steepness of, 144–146 Maslow’s, 488–490 imagery, encoding and, 262, 263
health maintenance organizations Hinckley, John, Jr., 554, 590 Rogers’s, 487–488 imagination inflation, 274–275,
(HMOs), 615, 618 hindbrain, 82, 89–90, 91 humor, as stress reducer, 542–543 282
health psychology, 512 hindsight bias, 294–295, 318, 591, humoral immune responses, 532 imitation, of models, 243, 245,
health risks 506 hunger 246, 307, 462, 485
of alcohol, 200, 210, 211, 536 hippocampus, 91, 96, 286–287, biological factors in, 378–380 immune functioning
of drug use, 201, 203–204 402, 452, 570 brain regulation of, 378–379 classical conditioning of,
of obesity, 383 hiring process, A-19–A-21 digestive regulation of, 379–380 219–220
of smoking 534–535 hiring quotas, A-21 environmental factors in, emotional disclosure and, 543
hearing, 149–154 Hispanic Americans, 14 380–382 marijuana and, 204
absolute threshold for, 121 IQ scores of, 356, 359 hormonal regulation of, 380 meditation and, 198
aging and, 451 mental health services utilization regulation of, 90 optimism and, 533
prenatal development of, 420 by, 597 hunting-and-gathering societies, prenatal, 421–422
theories of, 151–152 histogram, A-7 33, 317, 377, 461 social support and, 533
hearing damage, 150 histrionic personality, 563 Huntington’s disease, 452 stress and, 531–532
hearsay evidence, 69 HIV, 422, 536 hurricane projections, 324 immune response, 531–532
heart attack, 528, 529 hobbits and orcs problem, 311, hydrocephaly, 350 immunosuppression, 219–220
heart disease, 511, 528–529, 546 312 hydrophobia, 558 impossible figures, 147–148, 166
depression and, 529–531 holistic cognitive style, 317–318 hypnic jerks, 179 impotence, marijuana and, 204
diet and, 535 holistic thinking, 113 hypnosis, 194–197 impression formation, 634–637
personality and, 527–529 Holmes, Sherlock, 299 as altered state, 196–197 Impressionist paintings, 162, 163
smoking and, 528, 534 Holocaust, occurrence of, 672 for eyewitness recall, 273 improbable, overestimating,
Heche, Anne, 394 homelessness, 624, 640 memory and, 196, 283 327–328
hedonic adaptation, 411 homeostasis, 376 misconceptions about, 194 impulsiveness, 581
hedonic treadmill, 411 homicides, 445 as role playing, 196 inattentional blindness, 136
height homogeneity, illusion of, 670 susceptibility to, 195 incentive theories, 377
of infants, 424 homophobia, 476 theories of, 195–197 incentives, 398
success and, 50 homosexuality, 392–394, 475 hypnotic induction, 194–195 inclines, 143–146
height in plane, 142, 143 AIDS and, 537, 670 hypochondriasis, 563 inclusive fitness, 108
helping behavior, 663 biological theories of, 393–394 hypogonadism, 385 income
helplessness, learned, 521, 570 discrimination and, 394 hypothalamus, 90, 91, 93, 385, happiness and, 409
hemispheric specialization, 96–99, as a disorder, 553 520, 521 height and, 50
111–113, 304, 402 environmental theories of, endocrine system and, 100 incongruence, 487, 488, 602
Hereditary Genius (Galton), 341 392–393 in regulation of eating behavior, Incurably Ill for Animal Research,
heredity prevalence of, 392, 393 378–379 The, 62
environment and, 24, 106, 110, homozygous condition, 101, 102 sexual motivation and, 88 independent variables, 42, 43, 45
458 hopelessness, 566 hypotheses, 38 independent view of self, 500
evolutionary perspective on, hormones, 90, 99–100 formulating, 39 India, 24, 348
107–108 in adolescence, 442 perceptual, 139–141, 148 individual differences
homosexuality and, 393 aging and, 451 testing, A-13–A-14 in achievement motivation, 396
intelligence and, 341 emotions and, 400, 401, 402 in cognitive development, 436
mental retardation and, 350 hunger and, 380 measurement of, 336
mood disorders and, 569 in prenatal development, 461
I stage theories and, 432, 436
obesity and, 383 memory and, 285 “I have a friend who” syndrome, in stress modulation, 534
personality and, 105, 492–493 sexual desire and, 385 69 in taste sensitivity, 156
principles of, 101–106 stress and, 520 I/O psychology, 19, 20, A-15–A-29 individualism, 499–500, 641
schizophrenia and, 576 hospitalization, for psychological id, 472, 473, 599 conformity and, 660
see also nature versus nurture disorders, 621–622 ideas, creative, 366 marriage and, 647
heritability hostility, 528, 529 identical twins, 104, 353, 491, 492 inducing structure, problems of,
of intelligence, 354, 356–357 managing, 543-544 see also twin studies 310
of personality traits, 493 household chores, 450, 462 identification, 475–476 industrial and organizational (I/O)
heritability ratios, 354, 371, 493, How to Sleep Like a Baby (Hales), identity, social 670–671 psychology, 19, 20, A-15–A-29
496 208 identity achievement, 446, 447 industry versus inferiority, 432
Hermann grid, 130 hucksters, 672 identity diffusion, 446 infant-caregiver attachment, 645
heroin, 199, 200, 203, 421 hue, of colors, 124, 125, 133 identity foreclosure, 446 infant mortality, 422
I-24 SUBJECT INDEX

infants, 454 brain size and, 361–362 intimate relationships, 643, koro, 586
attachment in, 427-430 cognitive perspective on, 644–646 Koshima, 215
cognitive abilities of, 437–439 362–363 intravenous drug users, 204, 537 Krakauer, John, 375
cognitive development in, components of, 346–347 introspection, 4, 299 Kung San, 424
433–434 creativity and, 368 introversion, 492
language learning in, 301–302 emotional, 364–365, A-25 introverts, 479
mathematical abilities of, extremes of, 349–352 inventions, 367
L
438–439 happiness and, 409 inverted-U hypothesis, 518–519 labeling
motor development in, 423–425, heredity and environment in, involuntary commitment, as explanation, 211
454 370 584–585 effects of, 330, 331
neural development in, 114 heredity and, 105, 341, 352–354 ions, 75 of mental illness, 556
personality development in, inspection time and, 361, 362 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, 335 mental retardation and, 349
431–432 longevity and, 362 Iowa Writers Workshop, 368 labor, division of, 33, 461
sleep cycle of, 181, 182 normal distribution of, 345 IQ scores, 341–342 laboratory research, 47
temperament in, 425–427 reification of, 371 cultural differences in, 356–360 language, 300–301
infectious diseases, 511 synaptic density and, 115 deviation, 344–345 adaptive value of, 307
prenatal development and, triarchic theory of, 363 generational gains in, 355, 358 ambiguities in, 303–304
421–422 types of, 363–364 of gifted, 350 animal use of, 306
inferences, drawing, 325 intelligence quotient (IQ), job performance and, 347 brain centers for, 96, 97
inferential statistics, 56, 341–342 meaning of, 343–345 culture and, 308–309
A-13–A-14 see also IQ scores reaction range for, 355 defined, 300
inferiority, 432 intelligence tests (testing), 335, school performance and, 346 evolutionary perspective on,
inferiority complex, 479 336 vocational success and, 347 306–307
inflammation, atherosclerosis cultural bias on, 360 IQ tests. See intelligence tests manipulative, 330
and, 528 in employment hiring, 347 iris, 126, 127 second, 304–305
information group, 342–343 irony, 304 structure of, 300–301
for decision making, 319 history of, 341–343 irrational thought, 574 thought and, 309, 330
on Internet, A-35–A-39 in other cultures, 347–348 irreversibility, 434 language acquisition device
irrelevant, 311-312, 315 questions on, 343, 344 irritable bowel syndrome, 531 (LAD), 308
organization of, in memory, reliability of, 345–346 Irwin, Steve, 469 language development, 301–304
270–272 Stanford-Binet, 341-343 bilingualism and, 304–305
retention of, 277–278 validity of, 346–347 theories of, 307–308
storage of, 260, 263–272 vocational success and, 347
J latency stage, 477
information processing WAIS, 342, 344 Jamaica, 425 latent content, of dreams, 192
in nervous system, 73 what they measure, 345 James-Lange theory, 405 latent learning, 240–241
in retina, 128–130 see also IQ scores Japan ( Japanese), 182, 317, 347, lateral antagonism, 129–130
in visual cortex, 130–132, 135 interdependent view of self, 500 404, 429, 500 lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN),
model for, 259–260, 263, 264 interface, human-machine, jet lag, 176–177 130, 131, 135
information-processing strategies, A-27–A-28 Jews, in Nazi Germany, 255 lateral hypothalamus (LH), 90,
362–363 interference Jim twins, 491, 492 378, 379
infrared spectrum, 124, 125 as cause of forgetting, 278–279 JND, 121 law, psychological disorders and,
ingroup favoritism, 671 minimizing, 292 job analysis, A-19, A-22 584–585
ingroups, 637, 670 in short-term memory, 265, 270 job enrichment theory, A-23 law of effect, 224–225
inhibited temperament, 427 internal attributions, 638, 639, job performance leadership, A-25
inhibitions, 492 670 evaluation of, A-19, A-22 learned helplessness, 521, 570
loss of, 195, 384, 581 Internet IQ scores and, 347 learning
inhibitory PSPs, 77 data collection via, 62–63 job satisfaction, 410, A-23–A-24 of attitudes, 653–654
initiative versus guilt, 432 research sources on, A-35–A-39 job search, A-30–A-32 brain-based, 114
inkblot test, 504–505 Internet addiction, 522–523 JobWeb, A-32 defined, 215
insanity, defense, 584 interpersonal attraction, 633, Johns Hopkins University, 4 distance, A-29
insecure attachment, 563 642–649 joints, sensors in, 160 of gender roles, 462
insight, 313, 366 evolutionary perspective on, Jordan, Michael, 397 interference with, 278–279
insight therapies, 596, 599–605 647–649 journals of language, 301–304
client-centered, 602–603, key factors in, 642–644 finding articles in, 64–67, A-36 of maladaptive behavior, 606
616–617 physical attractiveness and, psychology, 4, 18, 41 personality and, 483, 485
effectiveness of, 604–605, 627 642–643 juries, studies of, 47 programmed, 250
group, 603–604 tactics of, 648-649 just noticeable different ( JND), 121 sleep and, 193
mechanisms of, 605 interpersonal psychotherapy (IP), sleep deprivation and, 187
studying and, 26
psychoanalysis, 596, 699–601, 619 K see also classical conditioning;
616–617 interpersonal skills, 608 Kaluli (New Guinea), 404
insomnia, 187, 208, 209, 526 interposition, 142, 143 operant conditioning;
Kanzi, 306 observational learning
inspection time, 361, 362 interpretation Kennedy, John F., 621, 665
instinctive drift, 238 in psychoanalysis, 600–601 learning aids, 29
kinesthetic system, 160 lectures, getting more from, 29–30
institutions, positive, 18 of dreams, 209, 283, 479 Kipsigis (Kenya), 424
instrumental learning, 224–225 interval schedules of left-handedness, 112
knobs, A-27 lens, 125, 126
insulin, 380 reinforcement, 232–233 knowledge
integrity tests, A-20 interviews leptin, 380
from scientific research, 42 Les Promenades d’Euclide
integrity versus despair, 449 as data collection method, 40 representation of, in memory,
intellectualization, 523 employment, A-21 (Magritte), 167
270–272 lesbians, 392, 394
intelligence intimacy, 644 tacit, 363
biological indexes of, 361 intimacy versus isolation, 449 see also homosexuality
SUBJECT INDEX I-25

lesioning, of brain, 85 magnetic resonance imaging. See medial forebrain bundle, 93, 203 mental rotation, 33
levels-of-processing theory, MRI medial temporal lobe memory mental sets, 312–313
261–262 magnocellular channel, 130 system, 287, 288 mental speed, 361, 453, 458
liberalism, 471 Magritte, René, 167 median 52, 53, A-8 mescaline, 199, 200
liberals, 640 major depressive disorder. See medical advice, adhering to, Mesmer, Franz Anton, 194
Library Use: A Handbook for depressive disorder 539–540 mesmerism, 194
Psychology (Reed & Baxter), 64 maladaptive behavior, as criterion medical decisions, 329 mesolimbic dopamine pathway,
lie detector, 400–401 for abnormality, 551 medical diagnoses, hindsight bias 203, 402
lie scale, on personality tests, 504 malnutrition, 358 and, 507 message factors, in persuasion,
life changes, 514–515 prenatal, 420, 578 medical model, of abnormal 651, 652
life cycle managed care, 615, 618 behavior, 551–552 messages, subliminal, 122–123
family, 449–451 mandalas, 478, 479 medical services, using, 539 metalinguistic awareness, 304
sleep patterns over, 181–182 manic-depressive disorder, medical statistics, 546 metaphors, 304
life expectancy, smoking and, 534 568–569 medical students’ disease, 590 methadone, 200
lifestyle, health and, 534–538 manic episodes, 567 medical treatment, seeking, methamphetamine, 200
lifetime prevalence, 556, 557 drug treatment for, 613 538–539 method of loci, 291, 293
light, as stimulus for vision, 124, manifest content, of dreams, 192 meditation, 58, 84, 197, 544 Michelle Remembers (Smith &
125, 133 mantra, 197 medulla, 89, 91 Pazder), 565
light adaptation, 128 MAO inhibitors, 612 melatonin, 176, 177, 188 microelectrodes, 75, 130
light and shadow, as depth cue, Mapping the Mind (Carter), 77–78 Mellaril, 611 midbrain, 82, 89, 91, 159, 160,
142, 143 marijuana, 199, 200, 204–205 memorization, 277–278, 291–293 183
likeability, of sources, 652 marital satisfaction, parenthood memory midlife crisis, 448–449
liking, 642, 643–644 and, 451 aging and, 453 Miller, Zell, 114
lily pond problem, 314 marital status biological basis of, 285–287 Mind Tools, 273
limbic system, 92–93, 401–402 happiness and, 410 brain areas for, 286–287 Minnesota Multiphasic
linear perspective, 142, 143, 146 mental health services utilization connectionist model of, 271–272 Personality Inventory (MMPI),
linguistic relativity, 308–309, 330 and, 597 consolidation of, 186–187, 287 503
link method, 293 marriage, 450 distortions in, 274, 282 minorities
listening, active, 29 arranged, 647 for dreams, 208–209 employment testing and, A-21
lithium, 613 cultural differences in, 647 ESB studies of, 267, 268 mental health services for, 620
Little Albert, 222 Marston, William, 400 false, 280–284 prenatal health care for, 422
Littledean Hall, 370 masculinity, 459 hypnosis and, 196, 283 socioeconomic disadvantage of,
localization, of sounds, 153–154 massed practice, 291–292 imperfection of, 284 358–359
location, for studying, 27 master’s degree, in psychology, improving, 291–293 stereotyping of, 498
longevity A-32–A-33 information processing approach in U.S. population, 14
exercise and, 536 matching hypothesis, 643 to, 259–260, 263, 264 miscarriage, 419
intelligence and, 362 matchstick problem, 313, 315 levels-of-processing theory, misinformation effect, 274, 282,
longitudinal designs, 425, 426 mate poaching, 648–649 261–262 294
long-term depression (LTD), 286 materialism, 498 limbic system and, 92 MMPI, 503
long-term memory (LTM), mathematical ability loss of, 286, 564 M’Naghten rule, 584
267–272 gender differences in, 459 marijuana use and, 204 mnemonic devices, 291, 292–293
organization of, 270–272 of infants, 438–439 prefrontal cortex and, 94 modal personality, 499
permanence of, 267 mating preferences reconstructive nature of, mode 52, 53, A-8
relation to short-term memory, attachment patterns and, 430 273–275, 294 models/modeling, 243, 245, 462,
269–270 gender differences in, 389–391, for routine tasks, 289 485, 608
long-term potentiation (LTP), 647–649 sensory, 264, 265, 269 molecular genetics, 105, 355
285–286 parental investment and, 387, 388 short-term, 264–267 Monaghan, Tom, A-29
“loosening of associations,” 574 mating strategies, in animals, for skills, 288 monamine neurotransmitters,
loss 109–110, 387 stereotypes and, 636, 669 79–80, 202
frustration and, 513 maturation, 424, 425 stress and, 526 Monet, Claude, 162, 163
posttraumatic stress disorder language learning and, 308 memory systems, 288–290 money, happiness and, 409
and, 559 sexual, 442–443 memory trace, 265, 285, 278 monocular cues to depth
loudness, 149, 150 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional menarche, 443 perception, 142–143
love, 644–646 Intelligence Test, 365 meninges, 84 monozygotic twins, 104
as attachment, 645–646 maze running, 240–241 meningitis, 84 Monroe, Marilyn, 480
components of, 644, 645 MDMA, 201, 205 menopause, 451 mood disorders, 566–572,
happiness and, 410 meals, 381 mental ability tests, 336, 341 582–583
marriage and, 647 regression toward, 628, 629 mental age, calculation of, 341, biological factors in, 569–570,
unconditional, 488 mean length of utterance (MLU), 342 583
lowball technique, 673 303 Mental Health Net, 553 cognitive factors in, 570–572,
LSD, 199, 200 mean, 52, 53, A-8 mental health services, 615, 618 583
LTM. See long-term memory meaning, memory encoding and, utilization of, 597, 620 creativity and, 368, 369
lucid dreams, 209 261, 263, 276, 292 mental hospitals, 621–622 culture and, 586
lung cancer, 534 measurement, as goal of scientific admission to, 554 drug therapy for, 612–613
lymphocytes, 531 approach, 37 commitment to, 584–585 electroconvulsive therapy for,
media inpatient population of, 622–623 614–615
portrayal of women in, 589 revolving door situation with, etiology of, 569–572, 583
M as source of gender-role 623–624 among homeless, 624
macaques, 215 socialization, 463 mental illness. See psychological interpersonal roots of, 572, 583
“Magical Number Seven, The” as source of prejudicial attitudes, disorders lifetime prevalence of, 557
(Miller), 266 670 mental retardation, 345, 349–350, prevalence of, 567, 569, 582
magnetic field, for brain study, 86 violence in, 244–247 371, 421, 555 stress and, 572
I-26 SUBJECT INDEX

treatment for, 608–609, 570 Nardil, 612 neurogenesis, 570 null hypothesis, A-13
types of, 566–569, 582 narrative methods, 292, 293 neurons, 73–74 Nun Study, 452
vulnerability to, 586–587 NASA, 506 aging and, 452 Nurture Assumption, The (Harris),
mood stabilizers, 613 Nash, John, 576 creation of new, 96, 570 507
mood swings, 568–569 National Alliance for the Mentally as feature detectors, 131, 132 nutrition
moon illusion, 147–148 Ill, 554 motor, 79, 84 poor, 535–536
moral development, 439–442, 473 National Association of Social myelination of, 443–444 prenatal development and,
morphemes, 301 Workers, A-33 number of, in brain, 81 420–421
morphine, 80, 160, 199, 200 National Center for PTSD, 559 resting potential of, 75
mortality, awareness of, 497, 499 national character, 499 structure of, 74
mortality rates, 511 National Comorbidity Study, 557 neuropeptide Y, 379, 380
O
exercise and, 545 National Institute for Neuropsychology Central, 74 obedience, 633, 657–662, 657–660
smoking and, 534, 535 Occupational Safety and Health neuroscientists, 84 obesity, 382, 536
mortality salience, 498 (NIOSH), A-29 neuroses, 599 fear of, 588
mother-infant attachment, National Institute of Mental neuroticism, 470–471, 492, 493, object permanence, 433–434, 436
427–430 Health, 558 496, 498, 532, 538, 563 object recognition, background
moths, 109 National Institute on Alcohol neurotransmitters, 76–77, 78–80 consistency and, 141
motion, illusion of, 138 Abuse and Alcoholism, 204 anxiety disorders and, 560 observation, 63
motion parallax, 142 National Institute on Drug Abuse, hormones and, 99 direct, 40
motivated forgetting, 280, 475 204 in hunger, 379 naturalistic, 48–49, 51
motivation National Sleep Foundation, 183 memory and, 285 precise, A-7
achievement, 396–398 National Television Violence monamine, 79–80 observational learning, 243–247
Adler’s view of, 479 Study, 246 mood disorders and, 569–570 of attitudes, 654
defined, 376 Native Americans, IQ scores of, psychoactive drug action and, eating behavior and, 381
drive theories of, 376–377 356 202–203 of fears, 561
emotion and, 398 nativist theories, 307–308, 439 regulating sleep and waking, 183 of gender roles, 462
employee, A-18, A-22–A-23 natural selection, 5, 14, 15, 107, in schizophrenia, 576–578 of prejudice, 670
evolutionary theories of, 377 108, 460 New England Journal of Medicine, overview of, 248–249
of hunger and eating, 378–384 of cognitive abilities, 439 613 personality and, 485
incentive theories of, 377 face recognition and, 132 New York City Police Department, observers, biases of, 638–639
observational learning and, 244 language and, 307 A-19 obsessions, 558, 559
sexual, 385–396 of personality traits, 493, 496 newborns obsessive-compulsive disorder,
motives, 376 sensory adaptation and, 124 sleep cycle of, 181, 182 558–559, 582
diversity of, 377–378 naturalistic observation, 48–49, 51 taste preferences in, 155 drug therapy for, 612
hierarchy, 489 nature versus nurture, 8, 24 see also infants etiology of, 560
motor cortex, 94, 95 in gender differences, 460 next-in-line effect, 260 prevalence of, 559
motor development, 423–425 in intelligence, 341, 352–356, nicotine, 79, 200 psychotherapy for, 626
motor neurons, 79, 84 370 night terrors, 189 occipital lobe, 93, 94, 130, 131
Mount Everest, 375 in language acquisition, 307–308 night vision, 128 occupational attainment, IQ
movement, coordination of, 90, in learning, 250 nightmares, 189, 559 scores and, 347
94, 95 see also environment; heredity nine-dot problem, 313, 315 Occupational Outlook Handbook,
Mozart effect, 115 Nazi Germany, 255, 658 noise, signal detection and, A-30, A-31
MRI (magnetic resonance nearsightedness, 125–127 121–122 occupational stereotypes, 635
imaging), 87, 88, 362, 578 Necker cube, 140–141, 166 nominal fallacy, 211 octopus, 73
Müller-Lyer illusion, 146, 148 need for achievement, 396–398 non sequitur, 413 odd/eccentric personality
multiaxial system, 555–556 need for affiliation, 397 nondeclarative memory system, disorders, 580
multicultural sensitivity, in need for self-actualization, 489 288 odors
psychotherapy, 620–621 needs non-REM (NREM) sleep, 180 adaptation to, 123
multifactorial causation, 23, 110, biological, 377–378 nonsense syllables, 276 types of, 157
201 408, 499, 540–541, 586–587 gratification of, 476 nonverbal behavior, 402–403, Oedipal complex, 477
multimodal therapy, 627 Maslow’s hierarchy of, 489 404, 634–645 offspring, parental investment in,
multiple-choice tests, 30–31, 277 negative correlation, 52, 53, A-11 nonverbal communication, 387
multiple personality disorder, negative emotionality, 471 gender differences in, 460 olanzapine, 612
565–566 negative feedback systems, 100 norepinephrine (NE), 79, 80, 202, olfactory bulb, 157
multiple sclerosis, 74 negative reinforcement, 233–234, 569, 612 olfactory cilia, 156, 157
Munch, Edvard, 582 235, 251 normal distribution, 342, olfactory system, 156–157
muscles negative self-talk, 521, 542 344–345, A-9–A-10, A-11 omega 3 fatty acids, 535
nerves and, 81 negative symptoms, of normality, versus abnormality, online resources, evaluating,
neurotransmitters and, 79 schizophrenia, 575 551–552 A-35–A-39
muscular dystrophy, 105 negative thinking, 570–572, 609 norms openness to experience, 471, 493,
mutations, 101 negligence lawsuits, 507 group, 641, 660, 663 496
myelin, 443–444 NEO Personality Inventory, 503 situational, 651 operant chamber, 226
myelin sheath, 74 nerve endings, 158 social, 472, 552 operant conditioning, 224–237
nerves, 81–82 nortriptyline, 619 acquisition in, 227–228, 230
nervous system nose, smell and, 156–157 of anxiety responses, 560
N autonomic, 82–83 note taking, during lectures, of attitudes, 653–654
naive realism, 39 organization of, 81–84 29–30 basic processes in, 227–230
name calling, 331 peripheral, 81–83 nuclear family, 449 discrimination in, 229, 230
names, remembering, 260 neural impulse, 75–76 nuclear power industry, A-26 extinction in, 228–229, 230
napping, 183, 206–207 neural networks, 77–78 nucleus accumbens, 203 of gender roles, 462
narcolepsy, 188 neurodevelopmental hypothesis, Nude Descending a Staircase generalization in, 229, 230
narcotics, 199, 200, 201, 202, 421 578–579 (Duchamp), 165 observational learning and, 243
SUBJECT INDEX I-27

operant conditioning (continued) Pappenheim, Bertha, 596 subliminal, 122–123 personality development, 425–427,
overview of, 248–249 parallel distributed processing of taste, 155 430–432, 446, 447–449, 454–457
personality and, 481, 482, 485 (PDP), 271–272 without awareness, 123 Freud’s stages of, 476–478
of prejudice, 670 parallel processing perceptual asymmetries, 98–99, Rogers’s view of, 487–488, 495
shaping in, 227–228 of auditory input, 151 112 Skinner’s view of, 482, 495
Skinner’s conception of, 225 in visual cortex, 130 perceptual constancies, 146 personality disorders, 555,
terminology and procedures for, paralysis perceptual hypotheses, 139–141, 580–581, 584
225–227 in conversion disorder, 562–563 148 diagnostic problems with,
operational definitions, 39 from spinal cord damage, 83–84 perceptual motor tasks, 288 580–581
operations, mental, 434 paranoid schizophrenia, 574 perceptual set, 136 types of, 580
opiates, 93, 200, 201 parasympathetic division, of perfectionism, 589 Personality Project, 490
opinions, 672 autonomic nervous system, 83, performance personality psychology, 19, 20
opponent process theory, of color 400 academic, 26, 55, 291, 346, 485, personality structure, 471, 499
vision, 134–135 paraventricular nucleus (PVN), 526 Eysenck’s view of, 491–492, 495
optic chiasm, 130, 131 379, 380 individual versus group, 664 Freud’s view of, 472–473
optic disk, 127, 128 parental investment, 387, 388 of a learned response, 244 Skinner’s view of, 481–482, 495
optic nerve, 127, 128, 130 parenthood, 450–451 see also task performance personality tests, 336, 502–505
optical illusions, 146–149, 166–167 happiness and, 409 performance pressure, 515–516 projective, 396, 397
optimal level of arousal, 518–519 parents periaqueductal gray (PAG), 160 personality traits, 470
optimism, 410 affection of, 602 peripheral nervous system, basic, 470–471, 492
stress reduction and, 533–534 attachment patterns and, 81–83 creativity and, 368
optimistic explanatory style, 533 427–430 peripheral vision, 128 culture and, 499
options, choosing among, 318–320 caregiving styles of, 645 persecution, delusions of, 574 eating disorders and, 589
oral stage, 477 children’s personality and, 493, person-centered theory, of evolution and, 493, 496
orders, obeying, 657–660 507 personality, 487–488, 494–495 heritability of, 493
organizational culture, A-24, conflict with adolescents, 445, person-centered therapy, 602 testing for, 336, 503, 504
A-25–A-26 451 person perception, 633, 634–637 personnel psychology, A-16,
organizational psychology, A-16, disciplinary procedures of, evolutionary perspective on, 637 A-17–A-18, A-19–A-22
A-18, A-22–A-26 236–237 expectations and, 25 persuasion, 651–653
orgasm phase, of sexual response as source of prejudicial attitudes, subjectivity in, 636–637 central route to, 655–656
cycle, 395–396 670 person-situation controversy, classical conditioning and,
ossicles, of ear, 151 unconditional love from, 488 485–486 254–255
osteoporosis, 536, 588 unresponsive, 430 personal ads, 391 peripheral route to, 655–656
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, parietal lobe, 93, 94, 158 personal distress, as criterion for resistance to, 652–653
343 Parkinsonism, 79, 90, 452, 611 abnormality, 551–552 susceptibility to, 652
outcomes paroxetine, 612 personal unconscious, 478 techniques of, 168, 672–673
alternative, 323–324 participants, in research, 40, 43, personality pessimistic explanatory style, 533,
expected, 46–47 60–61 Adler’s theory of, 479 570
outgroup derogation, 671 parvocellular channel, 130 attractiveness and, 634 PET (positron emission
outgroups, 637, 670 passion, 644, 645 behavioral perspectives on, tomography) scans, 86–87
outlining, 292 passionate love, 644, 647 481–486, 494495 phallic stage, 477
oval window, 151 patriotism, 498 biological perspectives on, pharmaceutical industry, 613–614
ovaries, 443 patterns, perception of, 135–141 491–493, 494–495, 496 phenomenological approach, 487
overcompensation, 479, 523 Pauley, Jane, 568 compliance with medical advice phenotypes, 102–103
overconfidence, 295 Pavlovian conditioning, 216 and, 540 phenylketonuria, 350
overdose, drug, 201, 203–204 Paxil, 612 consistency of, 470 phi phenomenon, 138
overeating, 381, 383, 588 PDP models, 287 culture and, 499–501 phobias, 216, 218, 558
behavior modification for, 253 peacocks, 110 distinctiveness of, 470 conditioning of, 235, 560–561
overextension, 303 peak experiences, 490 five-factor model of, 470–471 treatment for, 607, 626
overextrapolations, 115 Pearson product-moment Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of, phobic disorder, 557–558
overlearning, 291 correlation, A-12 472–478 treatment seeking for, 597
overregularization, 303 peer review process, 41 genetic basis for, 492–493 phonemes, 301
penis, 395 happiness and, 410 phonemic encoding, 261, 264,
penis envy, 477, 480 healthy, 489–490 278
P pennies, 259 heart disease and, 527–529 phonemic processing, 279–280
pace of life, culture and, 48–49 People for the Ethical Treatment heredity and, 105, 482–493 phonological loop, 266, 286, 287
Pagano, Bernard, 294 of Animals (PETA), 61 hindsight and, 506–507 physical appearance
pain percentile scores, 336–337, 341, humanistic perspectives on, attraction and, 642–642, 647
chronic, 158, 159, 160 448, A-10–A-11 487–491, 494–495 person perception and, 634–635,
endorphins and, 80 perception hypnotic susceptibility and, 195 637
perception of, 158–160 auditory, 151–152 Jung’s theory of, 478–479 physical attractiveness. See
paintings, perceptual principles defined, 119 Maslow’s view of, 488–490 attractiveness
and, 162–167 of depth, 142–143 nature of, 470–471 physical dependence, on drugs,
palatability, of food, 380 of forms and patterns, 135–141 observational learning and, 485 188, 201, 203
Panbanisha, 306 of geographic slant, 143–146 of rooms, 483–484 physical fitness, 536, 545
pancultural view, of psychological Gestalt principles of, 138–139 persuasability and, 652 physiological arousal, 82, 400–401
disorders, 585, 586 person, 633, 634–637 psychodynamic perspectives on, meditation and, 197, 198
panic disorder, 558 of pain, 158–160 472–481 physiological psychology, 19, 20
drug therapy for, 612 psychophysics of, 120–124 Rogers’s person-centered theory physiological recording, as data
etiology of, 560, 561 study of, 4 of, 487–488, 494–495 collection method, 40
treatment seeking for, 597 subjectivity of, 24–25, 136, 161, somatoform disorders and, 563 physiology, psychology and, 2–3
therapy for, 626 206, 636–637, 667 stability of, 447–448 Picasso, Pablo, 163–164
I-28 SUBJECT INDEX

pictorial depth cues, 142–143 prefrontal cortex, 94, 203, 286, problems suicide and, 49–50
pineal gland, 176 287, 402, 443 confronting, 525 testing for, 503
pinna, 150 pregnancy, 418–420 representation of, 315–316 treatment of, 595–621
pitch, 149, 150, 152 drinking during, 421 types of, 310, 311 see also specific disorders
pituitary gland, 91, 100, 385, 520, illness during, 421–422, 578 “problems in living,” 552 Psychological Screening
521 nutrition during, 420–421 procedural memory, 453 Inventory, 339, 340
place theory, of hearing, 152 stress during, 423 procrastination, 538–539 psychological tests (testing), 23,
placebo, 58 prejudice, 667–671 productivity 335, 502–505
placebo effects, 58, 158–159 cultural worldviews and, 498, aging and, 453 achievement, 336
in therapy, 628, 629 499 of employees, A-18, A-24, A-26 aptitude, 336
placenta, 419, 421 defined, 668 group, 663–664 of creativity, 367
plagiarism, 275 IQ testing and, 366 Profile of Mood States, 184 as data collection method, 40
plateau phase, of sexual response learning, 670 prognosis, 552, 554 history of, A-17
cycle, 395 premature births, 422 progressive relaxation, 208 key concepts in, 336–340
play, aggressive, 245 premises, 412 projection, 475, 476 normal distribution on, A-10
pleasure centers, in brain, 92, 203 prenatal development, 418–423 projective tests, 396, 504–505 projective, 396
pleasure principle, 472, 473 antisocial behavior and, 584 propaganda, 255, 651 reliability of, 337–338, A-19
poets, mental illness and, 368, 369 environmental factors in, prospective memory, 289 standardization of, 336–337
Poggendorff illusion, 146 420–422 protein synthesis, 285 standardized, A-19–A-20
point prevalence rates, 590 hormones in, 100, 393–394, 461 prototypes, 590, 591 types of, 336
pointillism, 162, 164 maternal drug use and, 421 provider-patient communications, validity of, 338–340, A-19–A-20
political agenda, 465 maternal illness and, 421–422, 539 see also intelligence tests,
political debates, 39 578 proximal stimuli, 140 personality tests
political ideology, 148 maternal nutrition and, 420–421 proximity, as Gestalt principle, psychologists, 598
attributions and, 640 schizophrenia and, 578–579 138, 139 settings for, 19, A-15, A-33
classical conditioning and, 255 prenatal health care, 422–423 proximodistal trend, 424 psychology major, A-30, A-32
polygenic traits, 103, 105 preoperational period, 433, 434 Prozac, 612 psychology
polygraph, 400–401 preparedness, 560 pseudoinsomnia, 187 applied, 11–12, 19–21, A-15–A-29
pons, 90, 91, 183, 208 prescriptions, drug, 596, 613 psilocybin, 199, 200 careers in, 19, A-30–A-34
Ponzo illusion, 146 pressure psyche, 2 clinical, 11
population, representative choking under, 525 psychiatric nurses, 599 defined, 18
samples from, 57, A-13, A-14 as source of stress, 515–516 psychiatrists, 596, 598 diversity of subjects in, 2
pornography, 385–387 pressure (sense), 157–158 psychiatry, 21 early origins of, 2–3
positive correlation, 52, 53, A-11 Pressure Inventory, 516 psychic reflexes, 216 early schools of, 4–5
positive emotionality, 470 presynaptic neuron, 76–77, 78 PsychINFO, 64-66, A-36 empiricism in, 21–22
positive psychology movement, prevalence PsychINFO Direct, 41 ethics in, 60–63
15, 18, 399, 490, 526–527 lifetime, 590–591 psychoactive drugs, 199–205 first formal laboratory for, 3, 3
positive symptoms, of of psychological disorders, dependence on, 201, 203 history of, 2–18
schizophrenia, 575 556–557 effects of, 199, 200, 201 origin of word, 2
positron emission tomography primary auditory cortex, 94 medical uses of, 199 positive, 15, 18
(PET), 86–87 primary colors, 134 neurochemical action of, as practical, 1
postconventional level, of moral primary motor cortex, 94, 95 202–203 as profession, 11–12, 19–21
development, 440 primary-process thinking, 472 principal types of, 199–201 professional specialties in, 19–21
posthypnotic suggestion, 195 primary sex characteristics, side effects of, 199 research areas in, 19, 20
postpartum depression, 451 442–443 sleep and, 207 scientific approach in, 37–38
postsynaptic neuron, 76–77, 78, primary somatosensory cortex, 93, psychoanalysis, 6, 472, 596, sociohistorical context for,
202 94 699–601, 616–617 22–23, 408, 501
postsynaptic potential (PSP), 77, primary visual cortex, 93, 94, 130, psychoanalytic theory, 6–7, 10, theoretical diversity in, 22
79 131, 132 472–478, 507 psychometrics psychology, 19, 20
posttraumatic stress disorder Princess Diana, 417–418 psychodynamic theories, 472–481 psychopathology, 551
(PTSD), 526, 559, 597 Principles of Psychology (James), 4 Adler’s, 479–480 psychopharmacotherapy, 610–614
potassium ions, 75 Priscilla the Fastidious Pig, 228 evaluation of, 480–481 psychophysics, 120–124
poverty, 465 prison guards, 660–662 Freud’s, 472–478, 494 psychosexual stages, 476–478
happiness and, 409 private speech, 437 Jung’s, 478–479 psychosocial crises, 431
homelessness and, 624 proactive interference, 279 psychodynamic therapies, psychosomatic diseases, 527, 562
prenatal health care and, 422 probabilities 601–602, 627 psychotherapy, 595–621
use of mental health services judging, 321-323, 327–328, Psychological Abstracts, 65 behavioral approaches to, 596,
and, 620 546–547 psychological autopsies, 49 606–610, 616–617
Power Sleep (Maas), 207 in prevalence of psychological psychological dependence, on benefits of, 605
practical intelligence, 346, 363 disorders, 590–591 drugs, 201, 203 blending approaches to, 618–620
Pragnanz, 139 reasoning about, 590–591 psychological disorders client-centered, 602–603,
preconscious, 473 research results and, 56 classification of, 554–556 616–617
preconventional level, of moral statistics and, A-14 creativity and, 368–369 clients for, 597–598
development, 440 subjective, 323 culture and, 585–586 cognitive-behavioral approaches
predators, avoiding, 108–109 problem solving, 310–318 legal aspects of, 584–585 to, 608–609, 616–617
prediction, as goal of scientific approaches to, 313–316 medical model of, 551–552 common denominators in, 605
approach, 38 barriers to, 310–313 prevalence of, 556–557, 559, 562, cost of, 626
predictions, confidence in, 328 in childhood, 434–435 567, 569, 580, 582, 590 eclecticism in, 620
preferences culture and, 316–318 prognosis for, 554 effectiveness of, 604–605,
classical conditioning of, 254 problem-solving view, of dreams, recovery from, 604–605 609–610, 626–627, 628–629
making choices about, 318–320 192–193 stereotypes of, 554 elements of, 596–599
taste, 108, 155, 156, 381 problem space, 313 stress and, 526 group, 603–604
SUBJECT INDEX I-29

psychotherapy (continued) rationality, 487 continuous, 231 research methods, 42, 110
multicultural sensitivity in, bounded, 318, 324 defined, 225 choosing, 40
620–621 rationalization, 475 of gender roles, 462 for studying heredity, 103–106
placebo effects in, 628 reaction formation, 475, 476, 507 intermittent, 231–232 see also specific methods
practitioners of, 598–599 reaction range, 355 in language learning, 307 resignation, 521
process of, 627 reaction time, intelligence and, negative, 233–234, 235, 251 resilience, 518, 527
psychoanalytic approach to, 596, 361 positive, 233, 252 resistance
699–601, 616–617 reading, improving, 28–29 response-outcome relations and, to extinction, 228
psychodynamic approaches to, Reagan, Ronald, 554, 590 242 to persuasion, 652–653
601–602 realistic group conflict theory, 670 schedules of, 229, 231–233 in psychoanalysis, 601
quack, 629 reality monitoring, 275, 282 in work settings, A-23 resistance stage, 520
settings for, 626 reality principle, 472–473 reinforcement contingencies, resolution phase, of sexual
stigma associated with, 598 reasoning 226–227, 244, 252 response cycle, 396
types of, 596 circular, 211, 413 reinforcers response-outcome relations, 242
utilization rates for, 597 errors in, 325, 327 for self-modification programs, response patterns, reinforcement
willingness to seek, 597 fallacies in, 370, 413 252 schedules and, 233
see also specific therapies; in health decisions, 547 primary, 230 response rate, operant, 227
therapists moral, 439–442 secondary, 230–231 response sets, 504
psychoticism, 492 prefrontal cortex and, 94 relative size in plane, 142, 143 response stereotype, A-28
PTC (phenylthiocarbamide), 155 reinforcement and, 242 relativistic view, of psychological response tendencies, 230, 482
puberty, 100, 442–443, 477 reassurance seeking, 646 disorders, 585, 586 responses
pubescence, 442 recall relativity, 168 conditioned, 217, 218, 219, 220,
PubMed, 40 ESB-induced, 267, 268 relaxation 223
pulmonary diseases, 534 eyewitness, 273 meditation and, 197, 198 operant, 226
punctuality, 24 recall measures of retention, 277 systematic, 208 performance versus acquisition
punishment, 235–237, 482 receiver factors, in persuasion, relaxation response, 544 of, 244
aggression in children and, 243 651, 652–653 relaxation training, 607 unconditioned, 217, 218, 219,
in behavior modification receptive field relearning measures of retention, 220, 223
programs, 253 of cells in visual cortex, 130–131 277–278 responsibility, diffusion of, 663,
physical, 236–237 of retinal cells, 128–129 reliability 664
toilet training and, 477 for skin cells, 157, 158 of IQ tests, 345–346 resting potential, 75
pupil, 126, 127 receptor sites, 77, 78, 202, 577 of psychological tests, 337–338, retention, 276–277
purity receptors A-19 improving, 291
of light, 124, 125, 133 for hearing, 151, 152 reliability coefficients, 338 visual imagery and, 263
of sound waves, 149, 150 for smell, 156–157 religious faith, 498 reticular formation, 90, 91, 183
for taste, 154 happiness and, 409 retina, 125, 126, 127–130, 135
for touch, 157 REM sleep, 179–180, 208 retinal disparity, 142
Q for vision, 127–128 deprivation of, 186 retrieval, from memory, 259, 260,
“quality of work life,” A-23 recessive genes, 101, 103 dreaming and, 190 273–276
Queer Resources Directory, 392 reciprocal determinism, 483 Rembrandt, 368 retrieval cues, 273, 289
questionnaires reciprocity effects, 643–644 remedies, quack, 629 retrieval failure, 279–280
as data collection method, 40 reciprocity norm, 255, 673 “Remembering to Do Things: retroactive interference, 278–279
problems with, 58–59 recognition heuristic, 325 A Forgotten Topic,” 289 retrograde amnesia, 286, 287
questions recognition measures of retention, Remote Associates Test (RAT), retrospective designs, 571–572
framing of, 328–329 277 367 retrospective memory, 289
on IQ tests, 343, 344 reconstructive memory, 273–275, Renaissance artists, 162, 163 reuptake, 77, 78, 202, 612
multiple choice, 30–31 294 repetition, of messages, 652 reversibility, 434
quetiapine, 612 recordkeeping, for self- replication, of research, 57 reversible figures, 135–136, 138,
Quichua (Ecuador), 404 modification program, 251 representativeness heuristic, 321, 140
recovered memories controversy, 327, 590, 591 review articles, 64
R 280–284 repression, 280, 475 revolving door, for mental
raccoons, 238 Recovered Memory Project, 284 of child abuse memories, hospitals, 623–624
race, concept of, 358 recreational drugs, 199 280–284 reward pathway, in brain, 203
racial prejudice, 668 see also psychoactive drugs repressive coping style, 476 rewards, work and, A-23
racial stereotypes, 668–669 reflex learning, 285 reproductive fitness, 240, 429, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning
racism, modern, 669 reflex responses, 608 460, 637, 647 Test, 205
radical behaviorism, 481, 486 reflexes, conditioned, 217, 288 reproductive success, 14, 107, 109, rhymes, for memorization, 293
radio-controlled rodents, 229 refractory period 377 rhythms, biological, 175–178
rage, 518 in male sexual response, 396 research Riley Guide, A-33
random assignment, 44 of neuron, 76 deception in, 60–61, 660 risk-benefit assessments, 547
rape regression, 475 ethics in, 660 risks
aggressive pornography and, regression toward the mean, 628, ethnocentrism in, 13–14 health, 546
386–387 629 evaluating, 57–59 underestimating, 538
alcohol and, 201 regret, in decision making, 320 replication of, 57 risky behavior, in adolescence,
date, 386–387 rehearsal, 291 using Internet, A-35–A-39 443
rapid eye movements, 173 behavioral, 609 see also correlational research; risky decision making, 320–323,
ratio schedules of reinforcement, in short-term memory, 264, 266 experimental research 327
232–233 reification, 371 research findings, reporting, 41, risky shift, 665
rational choice, 318, 320 reinforcement, 227, 230–231 64 rituals, 215
rational emotive behavior in behavior modification research laboratories, for RNA transfer studies, 285
therapy, 542, 608, 627 programs, 252–253 psychology, 3, 4 Robber’s Cave study, 670
I-30 SUBJECT INDEX

roborats, 229 etiology of, 576–579, 583 self-esteem sexism, 668, 669
robotics, A-28 expressed emotion and, 579, 583 attachment styles and, 646 in psychoanalytic theory, 480
rods, 127–128 genetic vulnerability to, 576, 583 collectivism and, 641–642 sexual abuse, repressed memories
role expectations, in marriage, heredity and, 103, 106 depression and, 566 of, 280–284
450 among homeless, 624 happiness and, 410 sexual appeals, in advertising,
role models, 243, 245, 462, 485 lifetime prevalence of, 557 individualism and, 641 254, 255
role playing multiple causation of, 110 social identity and, 670–671 sexual arousal, 386, 394–395
hypnosis as, 196 neurodevelopmental hypothesis terror management theory of, brain function and, 88–89
of social skills, 608 of, 578–579, 583 497, 498 classical conditioning of, 220
roles neurotransmitters and, 80 self-help tapes, 122 sexual behavior
in groups, 663 prenatal malnutrition and, 420 self-indulgence, 522–523 AIDS and, 537
social, 661 prevalence of, 573 self-modification program, casual, 388
romantic ideals, 644 prognosis for, 575 250–253 evolutionary perspective on,
romantic relationships, 644–647 relapse in, 575, 579, 611 self-perception theory, 655 387–391
break-up of, 646 stress and, 526, 579, 583 self-preservation, 497 gender differences in, 388–389,
culture and, 646–647 stress-vulnerability model of, self-referent encoding, 263 460
deception in, 648 586–587 self-regulation, A-23 sexual desire, 385–387
evolutionary perspective on, 648 subtypes of, 574–575, 582 self-report data, 58, 68–69 sexual development, 442–443
happiness and, 410 symptoms of, 573, 575 self-report inventories, 503–504 sexual disorders, 396, 526, 551,
idealization of partner in, 644 vulnerability to, 106 self-sacrifice, 108 555
love in, 644–646 school performance, IQ scores self-serving bias, 640–641, 642 sexual fantasies, 388
rooms, personality of, 483–484 and, 346 self-socialization, 462 sexual orientation, 392–394
Rorschach test, 504–505 school psychology, 19, 20 self-stimulation, of brain pleasure perception of, 634–635
Rowling, J. K., 346 school shootings, 444–445 centers, 92 sexual partners, number of, 387,
Rubin, Jerry, 447 schools self-verification, 644 388, 387
rules of thumb, 313 bilingualism in, 304 self-worth, 500 sexual response cycle, 394–396
rumination, 568, 570 hemispheric specialization and, semantic encoding, 261, 278 sexual urges, Freud’s view of, 6
Rutherford, Tom, 282 112, 113 semantic memory system, 288, sexually transmitted diseases, 422
as source of gender-role 289, 453 shame, 432
socialization, 462–463 semantic networks, 271, 272 shaping
S scientific approach semantic processing, 279 in operant conditioning,
sadness, 518 advantages of, 41–42 semantic slanting, 330 227–228
safe sex, 537–538 goals of, 37–38 semantics, 301 of social skills, 608
safety, workplace, A-29 in psychology, 37 semicircular canals, 151, 161 Shelley, Mary, 190
safety climate, A-26 steps in, 39–41 senility, 452 shift work, 177, 178
salary, for careers in psychology, scientific management, A-18 sensation(s) short-term memory (STM),
A-30, A-31 scientific method, 7, 21–22 defined, 119 264–267
salary.com, A-34 scientists, mental illness and, 368, psychophysics of, 120–124 capacity of, 266
salivation response, in dogs, 216, 369 study of, 4 durability of, 264–265
217, 221 Scirus, A-36 brain integration of, 90 as part of long-term memory,
salt sea slug, 285 memory for, 264 269–270
intake of, 535, 546, 547 Sea World, 228 senses. See specific senses as working memory, 266–267
preferences for, 381 search engines, A-36 sensorimotor period, 433–434 shuttle box, 234
sample, from population, 57, second-hand smoke, 534–535 sensory adaptation, 123–124 shyness, 427
A-13, A-14 secondary-process thinking, 473 to smells, 157 siblings
sampling, of behavior, 336 secondary sex characteristics, 442, to touch, 158 heredity and, 102, 103
sampling bias, 57–58, 69 443 sensory integration, 161 personality differences in, 493
sarcasm, 304 secure attachment, 428–429, 645, sensory memory, 264, 265, 269 see also genetic relatedness; twins
SAT scores, 55, A-10, A-11 646 sensory-specific satiety, 381 sick role, 564
saturation, of colors, 124, 125, sedatives, 187, 199, 200, 201 sentences, in English language, siesta cultures, 183
133 prenatal development and, 421 300, 301 sight. See vision
sauce béarnaise syndrome, 238 selective attention, 261 separation anxiety, 427, 429 signal-detection theory, 121–122
scaffolding, 437 selective breeding, 103 September 11 terrorist attacks, signal relations, 241
scams, 275 selective serotonin reuptake 498–499, A-22 similarity
scarcity, feigned, 673 inhibitors (SSRIs), 612 emotions associated with, 518 attraction and, 643
scare tactics, 199 self-actualization, 488–490 flashbulb memories for, as Gestalt principle, 139
scatter diagrams, A-11,A-12 self-actualizing persons, 489–490, 268–269 of persuasive sources, 652
schedule, for studying, 26–27 491 serial-position effect, 291, 292 simplicity, as Gestalt principle,
schedules of reinforcement, 229, self-blame, 518, 521 serial processing, 272 139
231–233 self-concept serotonin, 79, 80, 183, 202, 379, Simpson, O. J., 673
schemas, 270–271, 274 culture and, 500 560, 569, 570, 577, 612 singlehood, 450
social, 635 Rogers’s view of, 487–488, 490, sertraline, 612 Siriono, 192
schizophrenic disorders, 573–579, 602 set-point theory, 384 Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF)
582–583 self-confidence, 500 settling-point theory, 384 Questionnaire, 503, 504
biological factors in, 576–579, self-deception, 475, 523–524, 525 Seurat, Georges, 162, 163 skepticism, 22, 42, 63, A-37
583 self-destructive behavior, 534 sex, 459 skewed distributions, A-8
brain abnormalities and, 86, 578, self-effacing bias, 641 sex cells, 101, 104 skills
583 self-efficacy, 485, A-23 sex crimes, 386 memory for, 288
culture and, 586 reduced, 526 sex drive, 388 motor, 425
drug therapy for, 610, 611–612 self-enhancement, 500–501, 641, Freud’s view of, 474 skin, receptors in, 157
emergence of, 575 644 sex research, 394 Skinner box, 234, 226, 227
SUBJECT INDEX I-31

slant, geographic, 143–146 in workplace, A-23 stage theories, 432 chronic, 520
sleep, 178–183, 206–208 poor, 572 Erikson’s, 431–432, 446, 449 coining of term, 519
age trends in, 180–182 social skills training, 608 Freud’s, 476–478 coping with, 541-545
amount of, 182 social support Kohlberg’s, 440–442 defined, 512
awareness during, 174 adherence to medical advice and, Piaget’s, 433–436 dissociative disorders and, 565
brain centers for, 90 540 standard deviation (SD), 53, 56, eating behavior and, 381–382
culture and, 182–183 lack of, 572 344–345, A-8, A-10 emotional responses to, 517–519
evolutionary bases of, 183 providing, 533 standardized tests, 335, 336–337, as everyday effect, 512
need for, 207 stress and, 533, 542 A-19–A-20, A-21 exercise and, 536
neural bases of, 183 social workers, 599, A-33 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, factors moderating, 533–534
neurotransmitters and, 80 socialization, 378, 500 341 illness and, 532
onset of, 178–179 cultural differences in, 641 Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility immune functioning and,
quality of, 176, 177 gender-role, 462–463 Scale (SHSS), 195 531–532
stages of, 178–180 Society for Industrial and Stanford Prison Simulation, insomnia and, 187
sleep apnea, 188–189, 207 Organizational Psychology 660–662 as inevitable, 541–542
sleep deprivation, 184–187 (SIOP), A-15, A-16 statistical significance, 56, 546, mood disorders and, 572
selective, 185–187 Society for Neuroscience, 96 A-14 physiological responses to,
sleep disorders, 187–189, 207 sociocultural theory, 436–437 statistics, 40–41, 52, A-7 519–520
sleep laboratories, 178 socioeconomic status descriptive, 52–55, A-7–A-13 positive effects of, 526–527
sleep restriction, 184 achievement motive and, 397 empiricism and, A-14 psychological functioning and,
sleep spindles, 179 father absence and, 465 health-related, 546–547 525–527
sleep state misperception, 187 IQ scores and, 357 inferential, 56A-13–A-14 relaxation and, 544
sleeping pills, 187–188 mental retardation and, 350 probabilities and, 590–591 resistance to, self-efficacy and,
SleepNet, 178 sociohistorical context, 22–23, stereotaxic instrument, 85 485
SleepQuest, 181 408, 501 stereotype vulnerability, 359–360 schizophrenia and, 579
sleepwalking, 189 sodium ions, 75 stereotypes, 498, 635–636, 637 task performance and, 525–526
slippery slope, 413, 465 Soft Construction with Boiled Beans gender, 459 types of, 512–516
slips of the tongue, 6, 473 (Dali), 502 prejudice and, 668–669 work-related, A-28–A-29
slot machines, 232 soma, of neuron, 74 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 190 stress management, 541–545
slow-to-warm-up children, 426 somatic nervous system, 81–83 Stiller, Ben, 568 stress-vulnerability models,
slow-wave sleep (SWS), 179, 180, somatization disorder, 562 stimulants, 80, 93, 199, 200, 201, 586–587
181 etiology of, 563–564 207 stressful events, appraisal of, 512,
deprivation of, 186 somatoform disorders, 562–564 stimulus, 120 518, 542
smell, sense of, 121, 156–157 somatosensory cortex, 93, 94, 95, aversive, 233–234, 235 string problem, 311, 312
smoking, 79, 322, 534–535 158, 159 for color vision, 133 stroke, 511
behavior modification for, 252 somnambulism, 189 conditioned, 217, 218, 219, 220, structural encoding, 261
depression and, 55 sound, 149, 150 221, 223, 235, 238–239, structuralism, 4
heart disease and, 528, 534 localization of, 153–154 239–240, 241 study habits, 26–27, 291–292
during pregnancy, 421 source factors, in persuasion, discriminative, 229 subgoals, in problem solving,
prevalence of, 534 651–652, 672 distal, 140 313
quitting, 535 source monitoring, 275 for hearing, 149 subjective contours, 137–138
self-efficacy and, 485 source-monitoring error, 275, neutral, 216, 217, 218 subjective utility, 321
stress and, 522 294 proximal, 140 subjective well-being, 408–411
snoring, 189, 207 Spain, 183 for sense of touch, 157 subjectivity
social activity happiness and, 409 spanking, 236–237 subliminal, 122–123 of experience, 63, 201, 290, 541
social class spatial ability, gender differences unconditioned, 217, 218, 219, of perception, 24–25, 136, 161,
IQ scores and, 358–359 in, 33 220, 221, 223, 238–239, 241 206, 636–637
mental retardation and, 350 specialization, in psychology, stimulus contiguity, 220 of person perception, 667, 669
social cognitive theory, 483–485, 19–21 stimulus control, 229–230 subjects
486 species, evolution of, 107 stimulus discrimination, 223, 230 deception of, 60–61
social desirability bias, 58, 68, 504 spectrum, visible, 124, 125, 133 stimulus generalization, 222, 230 random assignment of, 44
social identity, 670–671 speech, brain centers for, 96112 stimulus intensity, 120–121 research, 13, 14, 40, 43, 57–58
social influence Spencer, Diana, 417 stimulus-response (S-R) subliminal perception, 122–123
conformity, 633, 656–657 sperm, 101, 104, 418 psychology, 8 substance abuse treatment, self-
obedience to authority, 657–660 sperm production, 204 Sting, 568 efficacy and, 485
persuasion,651–653 sperm release, classical STM. See short-term memory substance use disorders, 555, 556,
strategies of, 673 conditioning of, 220 stomach contractions, hunger 557
social intelligence, 346 spermarche, 443 and, 378, 380 subtractive color mixing, 133, 134
social learning theory, 483, 485 spinal cord, 82, 83–84, 91, 160 storage, memory, 259, 260, success
social loafing, 664 split-brain research, 97–98, 113 263–272 attributions for, 638, 639, 641,
social mobility, 397 split personality, 573 stotting, 109 669, 670
social motives, 377, 378 spokespeople, advertising, 653 strategies height and, 50
social norms, 472 spontaneous recovery, in classical decision making, 318–320, incentive value of, 398
deviation from, 552 conditioning, 221–222 325–326 sudden infant death syndrome,
social pressure, 656–662 spontaneous remission, 604 problem solving, 313–316 421
social psychology, 19, 20, 633 sports, competitive, 545 stream of consciousness, 5, 111, suggestibility, of eyewitnesses,
Social Readjustment Rating Scale spotlight effect, 636–637 174 274, 275
(SRRS), 514–515 spreading activation, in semantic stress suggestion, power of, 280
social roles, 661 networks, 271 autonomic arousal and, 83 suicide
social schemas, 635 SQ3R, 28–29 behavioral response to, 520–525 case studies of, 49–50
social skills SRRRS, 514–515 brain-body pathways in, 520 SSRIs and, 612–613
group therapy for, 604 SSRIs, 612 burnout and, 526 suicide rates, 444, 445
I-32 SUBJECT INDEX

Sunday Afternoon on the Island of television sexual exploitation by, 626 see also posttraumatic stress
La Grande Jatte (Seurat), as optical illusion, 148 types of, 598–599 syndrome
162–163, 164 as source of gender-role therapy. See psychotherapy treatment, seeking, 538–539
superego, 473, 599 socialization, 463 theta waves, 175, 179, 197 trial and error, 313, 435
superior colliculus, 130, 131 temperament, 493 thinking trials, in classical conditioning,
superiority, striving for, 479 heart disease and, 529 abstract, 435 217–218
superstition, 215 in infants, 425–427 analytic versus synethic, 113 triarchic theory of intelligence,
supertasters, 155 temperature, body, 176 catastrophic, 521, 542, 564 363
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), temperature regulation, 376 convergent, 367 trichromatic theory, of color
176 Temple-Wisconsin Cognitive critical, 32 vision, 133–134, 135
Surgeon General’s Report, 556 Vulnerability to Depression divergent, 366–367 tricyclics, 612, 619
Surrealism, 165, 502 Project, 571 eating disorders and, 589 trust versus mistrust, 431
surrogate mothers, 428 temporal lobe, 94, 96, 132, 151, intuitive, 326 trustworthiness, of sources,
survey research, 40, 50–51 267 irrational, 609 651–652
problems with, 57–59 “tend and befriend” response, 519 modes of, 111–112, 113 truth, lie detector and, 401
susceptibility, to persuasion, 652 terminal buttons, 74, 76, 77 negative, 570–572, 609 Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 60
Sybil (Schreiber), 565 terror management theory, see also decision making; 20/20 hindsight, 507
symbolism, in dreams, 209, 600 497–499 problem solving twin studies, 104–105, 491,
symbols terrorist attacks, probability of, thioridazine, 611 492–493
archetypes and, 479 328 Thomson’s gazelles, 109 of antisocial personality disorder,
language as, 300, 301 terrycloth mothers, 428 Thorazine, 611 581
sympathetic division, of test anxiety, 359–360 thought of anxiety disorders, 560
autonomic nervous system, 83, test norms, 336, 337 emotion and, 406 of homosexuality, 393
400, 519, 521 test performance, differential, distorted, 589 of intelligence, 353
sympathy, sick role and, 564 A-21 disturbed, 573, 574 of mood disorders, 569
symptoms, interpretation of, 538 test-retest reliability, 338 language and, 309, 330 of obesity, 383
synapse(s), 74, 76–78, 79 test taking, strategies for, 30–31 see also thinking of schizophrenia, 576, 577
creation of new, 78 testes, 443 Thought and Language (Vygotsky), twins, 102
density of, 115 testimonials, for remedies, 629 436 two-factor theory, of emotion,
dopamine, 577 testimony, eyewitness, 294–295 threats 406
drug effects at, 202–203, 612 testing, 23 implied, 331 Type A personality, 528
formation of, 114, 115 personnel, A-17–A-18 interpretation of, 561 Type B personality, 528
for memory, 285, 286 see also psychological tests Three Faces of Eve, 565
number of, in brain, 81 testosterone, 204, 385, 452 threshold, absolute, 120–121
in visual cells, 129 tests. See psychological tests timbre, 149, 150
U
synaptic cleft, 76, 77, 78 testwiseness, 30 time management, 27, 28 ultraviolet spectrum, 124, 125
synaptic pruning, 78, 115, 443 textbooks, reading, 29 time zones, jet lag and, 176–177 uncertainty
synaptic vesicles, 77, 78 texture gradient, 142, 143 tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, decision making and, 320, 327
syntax, 301, 307 thalamus, 90, 91 259, 273, 279 reducing, 547
synthetic thinking, 113 auditory processing and, 151 TMS, 86 unconditional positive regard, 602
systematic desensitization, emotions and, 401, 402 toilet training, 432, 477 unconditioned response (UCR),
606–607, 616–617, 626, 627 sense of touch and, 158, 159 tolerance, to drugs, 188, 201 217, 218, 219, 220, 223, 560,
systems approach, to I/O vision and, 130, 131 tongue, 155 606, 608, 653
psychology, A-16–A-17, A-29 THC, 199, 200, 202 top-down processing, 137, 138 unconditioned stimulus (UCS),
Thematic Apperception Test touch 157–160 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223,
(TAT), 396, 397, 504, 505 absolute threshold for, 121 238–239, 241, 560, 606, 608,
T theoretical diversity, 22, 161, 206, adaptation to, 123 653
tactile stimulation, 157 290, 501, 624 tower of Hanoi problem, 314 unconscious
Tahiti, 404 theories, 22, 38 toys, gender roles and, 462 Freud’s conception of, 6, 280,
talent, development of, 352 behaviorial, 7–8, 13 traffic accidents 473, 599, 600
tardive dyskinesia, 611–612 biological, 10, 13 drug use and, 204 Jung’s view of, 478–479
task performance cognitive, 10, 12–13 sleep deprivation and, 185, 186 underextension, 303
achievement motivation and, constructing, 38 traits understanding, as goal of
397 evolutionary, 10, 14-15 genetic, 101–103 scientific approach, 38
arousal and, 518–519 functionalism, 4–5 positive, 15 undifferentiated schizophrenia,
stress and, 525–526 humanistic, 9–10 see also personality traits 575
tasks, habitual, 289 psychoanalytic, 6, 13 tranquilizers, 610 undoing, 523
taste, 154–156 structuralism, 4 transcendental meditation (TM), unemployment, 410
absolute threshold for, 121 therapist(s) 197 uninhibited temperament, 427
taste aversion, conditioned, approach of, 626–627 transcranial magnetic stimulation unipolar disorder. See depressive
238–239 in behavior therapy, 606–607 (TMS), 86 disorder
taste buds, 154 in client-centered therapy, transfer-appropriate processing, universalistic view, of
taste preferences, 108, 155, 156, 602–603 279 psychological disorders, 585
381 dissociative identity disorder transference, in psychoanalysis, universities, psychology
taste sensitivity, 155–156 and, 565 601 laboratories at, 3
tastes, primary, 154–155 finding, 625–627 transformation, problems of, University of Leipzig, 3
TAT. See Thematic Apperception in group therapy, 603–604 310 University of Minnesota Center
Test minority patients and, 620–621 transformational leaders, A-25 for Twin and Adoption
teachers, as source of gender-role professional background of, 626 transvestic fetishism, 551 Research, 491, 492
socialization, 462–463 questions for, 627 traumatic events, 559 unresponsive care, 430
teams, work, A-24–A-25 recovered memories controversy multiple personality and, 565 upside-down T, 146
telegraphic speech, 303 and, 280–284 repressed memories of, 280–284 URLs, A-37
SUBJECT INDEX I-33

V victims, blaming of, 640, 670 W children’s first, 302

vacillation, 514 Victorian era, 472, 501 Wain, Louis, 582 emotionally laden, 330–331
vagus nerve, 378 video games, 246 waist-to-hip ratio, 647 meaning of, 301
validation, of tests, A-19–A-20 Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, walking speed, 48 work
validity 479 Washoe, 306 happiness and, 410
of IQ tests, 346–347 violence water jar problem, 311, 312, 315 nighttime, 185
of psychological tests, 338–340, alcohol and, 201 Waterfall (Escher), 165–166 work-family balance, A-26
A-19–A-20 in adolescence, 444–445 Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking work shifts, rotating, 177, 178
validity effect, 652 in media, 244–247 Appraisal, 184 work teams, A-24–A-25
Valium, 560, 610, 611, 613 mental illness and, 554 wavelength workaholics, 528
valproate, 613 against women, 386–387 of light waves, 124, 125, 133 workers. See employees
value, expected, 320–321 Violin and Grapes (Picasso), 164 of sound waves, 149, 150 working backward, in problem
van Gogh, Vincent, 582 virtual teams, A-25 wealth, happiness and, 409 solving, 314
variability, in data, 53, 56, A-8 vision weaverbird, 387 working memory, 94, 266–267,
variable-interval schedules of absolute threshold for, 121 Web of Addictions, 202 287, 453, 578
reinforcement, 232–233 aging and, 451 Weber’s law, 121 workplace
variable-ratio schedules of color, 127–128, 130, 133–135 websites, research using, burnout in, 526
reinforcement, 232–233 night, 128 A-35–A-39 safety in, A-29
variables, 38, 39 perceptual constancies in, 146 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale World War I, 12, A-17
confounding of, 44 peripheral, 128 (WAIS), 342, 344 World War II, 11–12, 22–23A-17,
correlations between, 52–55 A-11 stimulus for, 124, 125 weight, 382–384 A-18
in experiments, 42–43 Vision Science, 125 of infants, 424 worldviews, cultural, 497–498
extraneous, 44 visual acuity, 127–128 preoccupation with, 587–588 worrying, 557
Vasarely, Victor, 166–167 visual agnosia, 119 well-being, subjective, 408–411 writers, mental illness and, 369
vasocongestion, 395 visual cortex, 93, 94, 130–132, 135 Wellesley College, 5
visual fields, in brain, 97, 98, 131
Vega-Tek (Vasarely), 167
visual illusions, 146–149, 166–167
Wernicke’s area, 96, 97 XYZ
vengefulness, 544 what and where pathways, 132 X rays, of brain, 86, 87
ventricles, of brain, 84, 86, 578 visual imagery, encoding and, white blood cells, 531
262, 263, 293 Xanax, 610, 611
ventromedial nucleus of the Whole Child, The, 422 Yale University, 658
hypothalamus (VMH), 378–379 visual processing, in brain, 93 Whorfian hypothesis, 309
visual-spatial skills, 33 yawning, 207
Verbal Behavior (Skinner), 307 windigo, 586 Yoruba (Nigeria), 404
verbal intelligence, 346 gender differences in, 459, 461 wine tasting, 154, 156
visuospatial sketchpad, 266, 287 Zollner illusion, 146
verbal material, brain Winfrey, Oprah, 346 Zoloft, 612
hemispheres and, 111–112 vocabulary, children’s, 302–303 wish fulfillment, dreams as, 192,
vocabulary spurt, 302, 303 zolpidem, 188
verbal mnemonics, 292–293 193 zone of proximal development
verbal skills, gender differences in, vocalizations, of infants, 302, 307 withdrawal illness, 203, 220
vocational success, IQ scores and, (ZPD), 437
459 women Zulu, 148, 149
verifiability, of scientific claims, 7 347 in history of psychology, 5
volley principle, 152 zygote, 101, 104, 418
vestibular system, 160–161 violence against, 386–387
Veterans Administration (VA), 11 voltage, in neuron, 75, 77 see also gender differences
viability, age of, 420 vomiting, 588 words
I-34 SUBJECT INDEX

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Psychology: Themes and Variations, Seventh Edition

Executive Editor, Psychology: Michele Sordi Production Service: Tom Dorsaneo

© 2007 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of The Thomson Thomson Higher Education

© 2007 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005930919

Student Edition: ISBN 0-495-09303-3

Loose-leaf Edition: ISBN 0-495-17040-2

About the Author

iv ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Unifying Themes Highlighted in Each Chapter

2. The Research Enterprise

3. The Biological Bases

8. Language and Thought

10. Motivation and Emotion

11. Human Development

12. Personality: Theory,

13. Stress, Coping, and Health

14. Psychological Disorders

15. Treatment of Psychological

16. Social Behavior

TO THE INSTRUCTOR vii

viii TO THE INSTRUCTOR

Taxonomy of Skills Covered in the Critical Thinking Applications

Verbal Reasoning Skills

Identifying the source of definitions Chapter 5

Understanding the way language can influence thought Chapter 8

Recognizing semantic slanting Chapter 8

Recognizing name calling and anticipatory name calling Chapter 8

Recognizing and avoiding reification Chapter 9

Argument/Persuasion Analysis Skills

Understanding the elements of an argument Chapter 10

Evaluating arguments systematically Chapter 10

Recognizing and avoiding appeals to ignorance Chapter 9

Understanding how Pavlovian conditioning can be used to manipulate emotions Chapter 6

Recognizing social influence strategies Chapter 16

Judging the credibility of an information source Chapter 16

Skills in Thinking as Hypothesis Testing

Looking for contradictory evidence Chapters 1, 3, and 9

Recognizing the limitations of anecdotal evidence Chapters 2 and 15

Understanding the need to seek disconfirming evidence Chapter 7

Understanding the limitations of correlational evidence Chapters 11 and 13

Understanding the limitations of statistical significance Chapter 13

Recognizing situations in which placebo effects might occur Chapter 15

Skills in Working with Likelihood and Uncertainty

Utilizing base rates in making predictions and evaluating probabilities Chapter 13

Understanding cumulative probabilities Chapter 14

Understanding conjunctive probabilities Chapter 14

Understanding the limitations of the representativeness heuristic Chapter 14

Understanding the limitations of the availability heuristic Chapter 14

Understanding the limits of extrapolation Chapter 3

Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills

Using evidence-based decision making Chapter 2

Recognizing the bias in hindsight analysis Chapters 7 and 12

Seeking information to reduce uncertainty Chapter 13

Making risk-benefit assessments Chapter 13

Generating and evaluating alternative courses of action Chapter 13

Recognizing overconfidence in human cognition Chapter 7

Understanding the limitations and fallibility of human memory Chapter 7

Recognizing when extreme comparitors are being used Chapter 4

xii TO THE INSTRUCTOR

TO THE INSTRUCTOR xiii