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08 Material Removal Kalpi
08 Material Removal Kalpi
08 Material Removal Kalpi
Chip morphology
• Type of chips produced influences surface finish, integrity
and machining operation.
• The tool side of the chip surface is shiny which caused by
rubbing of the chip.
• Basic types of chips produced in metal-cutting:
1. Continuous chips ➔ formed at high cutting speeds
2. Built-up-edge chips ➔form at tip of tool
3. Serrated chips ➔chips with low and high shear strain
4. Discontinuous chips ➔chip firmly / loosely attached
6
Chip morphology
Chip curl
Factors contributing are:
• distribution of stresses
• thermal gradients
• work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
• geometry of rake face of the tool
7
• Cutting force is
wt 0 cos( − )
Fc = R cos( − ) =
sin cos( + − )
• Coefficient of friction is
Ft + Fc tan
= tan =
Fc − Ft tan
10
Shear-angle relationships
• Shear stress in the shear plane is defined as
Fs Fc sec( − ) cos( + − )sin
= =
As wt 0
Specific energy
• Total power input in cutting is Power = FcV
• Total energy per unit volume of material removed is
FcV F
ut = = c
wt 0V wt 0
uf =
(Fc sin + Ft cos )r
• In terms of specific energy for friction, wt
FsVs 0
Friction% =
(32.18)(0.555) = 0.315 32% and Shear% = 68%
Thus, (56.699)
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Temperature
• As temperature increases, it will
1. affect the properties of the cutting tool.
2. affect dimensional accuracy.
3. induce thermal damage to the machined surface.
Variables affecting temperature
• There are severe temperature gradients in the cutting
zone.
• Mean temperature for
1.2Y f Vt0
orthogonal cutting is T = 3
c K
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Temperature
Variables affecting temperature
• From experimental measurements of temperature in
turning on a lathe,
1. max temperature should be away from the tool tip.
2. temperature increases with cutting speed.
Another expression for the mean temperature is T V a f b
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Flank wear
• Flank wear is due to:
a) sliding of the tool along the machined surface
b) temperature rise
• Tool-wear relationship for cutting various steels is
VT n = C
V = cutting speed
T = time (min)
n = exponent depends on cutting conditions
C = constant.
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Flank wear
Tool-life curves
• Experimental data obtained in machining tests, note
that:
1. a tool life decreases as cutting speed increases
2. influences the condition of the workpiece material
3. difference in tool life for different microstructures of
the workpiece
20
Flank wear
Tool-life curves
• Tool-wear relationship is modified as
VT n d x f y = C d = depth of cut
f = feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning
T C 7V −7 d −1 f −4
Example 8.3
Increasing tool life by reducing the cutting speed
Using the Taylor equation for tool life and letting n=0.5 and C=400, calculate the
percentage increase in tool life when the cutting speed is reduced by 50%.
Solution
Taylor equation can be rewritten V T = 400
T2
0.5V1 T2 = V1 T1 = 4.0
As C is a constant, T1
T2 − T1 T2
Tool-life change is = − 1 = 3 , or increased by 300%.
T1 T1
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Machinability
• Machinability of a material is defined in terms of:
1. surface finish and integrity of the machined part
2. tool life obtained
3. force and power requirements
4. chip control
25
Cutting-Tool Materials
• A cutting tool has the following characteristics:
1. Hardness
2. Toughness
3. Wear resistance
4. Chemical stability or inertness
26
Cutting Fluids
• Also called lubricants and coolants, cutting fluids.
• Used extensively in machining operations to:
1. Cool the cutting zone
2. Reduce friction and wear
3. Reduce forces and energy consumption
4. Wash away chips
5. Protect surfaces from any environmental attack
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High-Speed Machining
• An approximate range of the different types of cutting
speeds are:
1. High speed: 600–1800 m/min.
2. Very high speed: 1800–18,000 m/min.
3. Ultrahigh speed: >18,000 m/min.
• Spindles for high rotational speeds require high stiffness
and accuracy.
• Cutting time is significant in overall machining
operation.
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High-Speed Machining
• Important machine-tool characteristics in high speed
machining are:
1. spindle design for high stiffness, accuracy and balance
2. fast feed drives and bearing characteristics
3. appropriate cutting tools
4. effective chip removal systems
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Turning parameters
• Turning operations involve single-point cutting tools.
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Turning parameters
2. Material-removal rate (MMR)
• MRR is the volume of material removed per unit time.
MMR = Davg dfN
where Davg = (D0 + D f ) / 2
N = rotational speed
Turning parameters
3. Forces in turning
• 3 principal forces acting on a cutting tool: N, f and F.
Turning parameters
4. Tool materials, feeds, and cutting speeds
• Characteristics of cutting-tool materials gives a range of
cutting speeds and feeds for different applications.
Example 8.4
Material-removal rate and cutting force in turning
Solution
Maximum cutting speed is V = D0 N = (1.27)(400) = 15.959 m/min
Solution
Material-removal rate is
MMR = ( )(1.2445)(0.0255)(0.0508)(400) = 2.02586cm3 / min
15.24
Actual time taken to cut is t= = 0.75 min
(0.0508)(400)
(4)(103 )
Amount of power dissipated is Power = (2.02586) = 135 W
60
Milling operations
• Milling cutter produces a number of chips per
revolution to machine a wide variety of part geometries.
• Basic types of milling operations are:
1. Slab milling
• Axis of the cutter rotation is parallel to the surface of
workpiece.
• In conventional milling, max chip thickness is at the end
of cut.
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Milling operations
1. Slab milling (continued)
• Cutting speed in milling is V = DN
where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter
l + lc lwd
• Cutting time and MMR is t= and MMR = = wdv
v t
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Milling operations
2. Face milling
• Cutter is mounted with an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
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2. Self-excitation vibration
• Caused by interaction of chip-removal process with the
structure of the machine tool.
• Controlled by increasing dynamic stiffness of system
and damping.
46
Damping
• Defined as the rate at which vibrations decay.
• Damping results from the energy loss within materials
during vibration.
• Bolted joints in structure of a machine tool are also a
source of damping.
Factors influencing chatter
• Due to cutting forces and the depth and width of cut.
• Cutting forces increase with strength and hardness.
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Machine-Tool Structures
Economics of Machining