NAME: RAGIB AKHTER

ENROLLMENT NO.: 40414807418

SEMESTER: 6TH

GROUP: 4

BRANCH: MECHANICAL AND AUTOMATION ENGG.

COURSE: SOLAR ENERGY

NAME 0F ORGANIZATION: COURSERA

INTERSHIP PERIOD: 11TH MAY TO 20TH JUNE

ABOUT THE COURSE: -

How do solar cells work, why do we need, and how can we measure their
efficiency? These are just some of the questions Introduction to solar
cells tackles. Whether you are looking for general insight in this green
technology or your ambition is to pursue a career in solar, “Introduction
to Solar Cells” is an excellent starting point.
The course is a tour through the fundamental disciplines including solar
cell history, why we need solar energy, how solar cells produce power,
and how they work. During the course we cover mono- and multi-
crystalline solar cells, thin film solar cells, and new emerging
technologies. The course includes hands-on exercises using virtual
instruments, interviews with field experts, and a comprehensive collection
of material on solar cells.
At the end of the course you will have gained a fundamental understanding
of the field. This will allow you to identify the most interesting or relevant
aspects to be pursued in your future studies or in your professional
career.
WEEK: 1

SOLAR ENERGY: -
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed
using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating,
photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power
plants and artificial photosynthesis.
It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its technologies are
broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on
how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar
power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power, and solar water heating to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting
materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
SOLAR CELL: -
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell,
defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell
devices can be combined to form modules, otherwise known as solar
panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether

the source is sunlight or an artificial light. In addition to producing energy,
they can be used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors),
detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range,
or measuring light intensity.
HISTORY OF SOLAR CELLS: -
The first milestone that I want to mention is Alexander Edmond Becquerel.
Who, as a 19 year old discovered the photovoltaic effect and thus, he
created the first photovoltaic solar cell. He used liquid electrolyte, and for
that reason his cell was not that practical, it was also not that efficient.
Our next milestone in our list is William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans
Day. They observed the photovoltaic effect in solidified selenium. And this
was the first solid state solar cell ever. After this, just a few years later,
Charles Fritz installed the first ray in New York. It had an efficiency of
almost 1%, and this was actually a major achievement at the time. And at
this time, it's important to know the electricity was still quite new. And this
meant there is a huge optimism about solar cells. Because it seemed we
could generate the power we would need using this. However, after this
development got really slow. And within a few years, electricity became
much more common, power generators sprung up everywhere. And,
suddenly, 1% efficiency from a solar cell was not impressive at all. And it
was a way too expensive way to produce electricity.
So not a lot happened until the 1950s. And in the 1950s, we got the next big
development. This was the invention of the Silicon solar cell. So this was
pioneered at the laboratories by Calvin Fuller, Gerard Pierson, and Daryl-
Chapin. And what they created was the first truly useable solar cell. With
that work, efficiencies increased greatly, and this lead to the modern
silicon solar cells of today. I can show you here what a modern silicon
solar cell looks like. So on top, we have the printed electrodes, and it's a
quite thin device. But it's still rigid and really, really brittle.
After the development of the silicon solar cells, optimism again started
equipping people within the field. So now we suddenly had 6, 7, 8%
efficiencies, and things looked really bright. The problem was prices was
still exorbitantly high.

Figure 1. From left to right: Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, Willoughby Smith,

and William Grylls Adams.
While experimenting in his father’s laboratory, 19-year-old Alexandre
Edmond Becquerel created the world's first photovoltaic cell and thereby
discovered the photovoltaic effect. In his experiment, carried out in 1839,
Becquerel placed two platinum electrodes in a container with silver
chloride in an acidic solution. When illuminated voltage and current were
generated over the electrodes and Becquerel found that the strength of
the current changed with illumination. Because of this work, the
photovoltaic effect has also been known as the "Becquerel effect".
The next significant photovoltaic development arose from the interest in
the photoconductive effect in selenium after Willoughby Smith found that
selenium shows photoconductivity in 1873. In 1877 William Grylls Adams
and his student Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in
solidified selenium by illuminating a junction between selenium and
platinum. This was the first demonstration of the photovoltaic effect in an
all solid-state system, proving that electricity could be produced from
light without moving parts. In 1884 the first rooftop solar array was
installed in New York, demonstrating an efficiency of almost 1%. The solar
array used selenium solar cells invented the year before by an American
inventor Charles Fritts, demonstrating that meaningful power could be
extracted from solar cells. The invention impressed Werner von Siemens
who stated: “The direct conversion of light into electricity has been shown
for the first time”. At this early stage of solar cell history optimism
gripped the inventors. Fritts optimistically predicted that “we may ere
long see the photoelectric plate competing with [coal-fired electrical-
generating plants]”. The first fossil-fueled power plants had only been
built three years before Fritts announced his intentions by Thomas Edison.
At the time the technology seemed poised to gain importance in a world
discovering the wonders of electricity. James Clerk Maxwell praised the
study of photoelectricity as “a very valuable contribution to science.” But
neither Maxwell nor Siemens had a clue as to how the phenomenon of
photoelectricity worked. Maxwell wondered, “Is the radiation the
immediate cause or does it act by producing some change in the chemical
state?” Siemens urged a “thorough investigation to determine upon what
the electromotive light-action of [the] selenium depends.”

In subsequent years, the physical understanding of the phenomenon was

improved with contributions from the likes of Heinrich Hertz who
investigated ultraviolet light photoconductivity and discovered the
photoelectric effect. In 1905 Albert Einstein publishes a paper explaining
the photoelectric effect on a quantum basis later earning him a Nobel
prize in physics.

The progress towards practical solar cells proved slow despite the
breakthroughs in understanding. Bruno Lange, a German scientist whose
1931 solar panel resembled Fritts’s design, predicted that, “in the not
distant future, huge plants will employ thousands of these plates to
transform sunlight into electric power...that can compete with
hydroelectric and steam-driven generators in running factories and
lighting homes.” But Lange’s solar cell worked no better than Fritts’s.
Power from early solar cells
To put into perspective the power produced by these early solar cells, we
can make a simple calculation of the power produced by a 1 m2 solar
panel. With 1000 W/m2 (σAM1.5G) and a known area, we can
calculate that a 1% efficient solar cell can produce 10 W.
σAM1.5G is the incoming energy density (1000 W/m2), A
is the area (1 m2), and η is the efficiency (1%). Therefore

P=σAM1.5G⋅A⋅η=1000[Wm2]⋅1[m2]⋅0.01=10W
If you check the units, you will see that the square meter terms (m2)
cancels out, and since the efficiency is unit less, we are left with a result
in watts (W).

Where a 10 W power source was impressive at the time of Charles Fritts,

it seemed less impressive as time went along. With no breakthroughs on
the horizon and the contemporary rapid development of electric
generators leading to large scale electricity produced by coal-fired steam
or hydro power, the head of Westinghouse’s photoelectricity division could
only conclude: “The photovoltaic cells will not prove interesting to the
practical engineer until the efficiency has increased at least fifty times.”
The pessimistic prognosis was elaborated by the authors of
Photoelectricity and Its Applications, writing in 1949: “It must be left to the
future whether the discovery of materially more efficient cells will reopen
the possibility of harnessing solar energy for useful purposes.”
INVENTION OF MODERN SOLAR CELL: -
The birth of the modern solar cell occurred along with that of the silicon
transistor. Two scientists, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson of the famous
Bell Laboratories, led the pioneering effort that took the silicon transistor
from theory to working device. During their work, they made silicon
containing a small concentration of gallium making the silicon p-doped.
When a rod of the material was dipped into a hot lithium bath the portion
of the silicon immersed in the lithium became n-doped. Where the
positively and negatively doped silicon met, a permanent electrical field
developed. This is the p-n junction, the heart of the transistor and solar
cell, where all electronic activity occurs. Illuminating the junction by
lamplight an ammeter connected to the sample recorded a significant
electrical current. In week 3 we will venture to explain and understand
semiconductors and the pn-junction.
Figure 1. Calvin Fuller, Daryl Chapin, and Gerald Pearson, inventors of the
silicon solar cell (left photo). The first silicon solar module, an eight-cell
device (second photo from the left). Repairman adjusts the Bell Solar
Battery (third photo from the left). Vanguard 1, the first satellite partially
powered by solar cells (fourth photo from the left).

While Fuller and Pearson continued the work on improving the transistor,
Daryl Chapin, another Bell Scientist, had been looking at providing small
amounts of intermittent power in remote humid locations. Chapin included
solar cells in the investigation of viable options. Measuring a commercial
selenium cell, Chapin recorded that the cell produced 4.9 watts per
square meter. We can calculate efficiency of this device using the formula
from above
Pearson got word of Chapin’s disappointing results and told Chapin, “Don’t
waste another moment on selenium,” and gave him a silicon solar cell that
he had made. Chapin conducted tests in strong sunlight and showed that
the silicon solar cell had an efficiency of 2.3 percent. Chapin immediately
dropped selenium research and dedicated his research to improving the
silicon solar cell. Working with several strategies to improve the initial
results Chapin optimized the silicon solar cells and achieved a solar cell
with a 6% efficiency. The resulting product, the Bell Solar Battery (figure
1), was unveiled to the press on April 25, 1954.
In the history of Bell Laboratories, few inventions come close to the
excitement and contemporary media attention of the unveiling of the
silicon solar cell. A 1954 U.S. News & World Report speculated, “The
[silicon] strips may provide more power than all the world’s coal, oil, and
uranium… The future is limitless.” While this statement may be true in
theory, commercial success eluded solar cells despite technological
breakthroughs. In fact, a prohibitive price tag limited solar cells. In 1956 a
one-watt cell had a cost of $286, meaning that a homeowner would have
to pay $1,430,000 for a solar cell array of sufficient power. This lead to a
sober statement from Chapin: “However exciting the prospect is of using
silicon solar converters for power … clearly, we have not advanced to
where we can compete … commercial[ly].”
The application that would ensure adaptation of the technology would soon
reveal itself as the world was entering the age of the space race. The
launch of Sputnik the world’s first satellite occurred in 1957 and the
launch of Vanguard 1 in 1958 saw the first use of solar cells on a satellite.
SPACE APPLICATION: -
The first use of solar cells for space applications closely follow the age of
space exploration as the first solar cells were flown on the fourth
satellite, the Vanguard 1, in 1958. The solar cells provided an alternative
power source to the primary battery extending the mission time with no
major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. The solar panels
produced 1 W using a 100 cm² area.
If we wish to know the efficiency of this solar cell, we must know how
much input power the solar panel receives. This we can calculate since we
know the power output / luminosity of the sun (3.828·1026 W) and the
distance from the Sun to the Earth (1 AU = 1.496·1011 m). The solar constant
(σ) can then be calculated as the ratio between the power output of the
sun and the surface area of a sphere with the Sun/Earth distance as its
radius, see figure 1 for a graphical representation.
σ=Psun4πr2=3.828⋅1026[W]4π(1.496⋅1011[m])2=1361[W/m2]
To calculate the efficiency of the solar cell on Vanguard we know both the
area of the solar cells, the incoming power, and the power output.
η=PoutPin=Poutσ⋅A=1[W]1361[W/m2]⋅0.01[m2]=7.35%

We remember from the last section that Bell labs invented the silicon
solar cell in 1951. While Bell Labs worked on improving their invention
several other manufactures joined the development race and the
efficiency and fragility was improved. Leslie Hoffman made great strides
in making the solar cell a practical and useful source of renewable energy.
From 1957 to 1960, he improved its efficiency from 4.5 to 14 percent and
lowered the production cost to make it a marketable item. The solar cells
used for Vanguard 1 were made by Hoffman, as were the 9600 solar cells
mounted on Explorer 6, launched in 1959. This satellite had large wing-
shaped solar arrays, which became a common feature in satellites.
Figure 2. From the left Vanguard 1, Explorer 6, Telstar, and Skylab.
MOVE FROM SILICON:-
In the early 1990s the technology used for space solar cells began to
diverge from the silicon technology, which at this point had become
prevalent for terrestrial applications, and starting to shift to gallium
arsenide based technology. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) single-crystalline
solar cells enable thin film solar cells and multi-junction solar cells
leading to both lower weight and higher efficiency compared to silicon
solar cells. We will look at why crystalline silicon solar cells cannot be
made into thin film solar cells and what the advantage of multi junctions
are in week 3. The first GaAs heterostructure solar cells were created by
a team led by Zhores Alferov in the USSR in 1970. In the early 1980s, the
efficiency of the best GaAs solar cells surpassed that of conventional
crystalline silicon-based solar cells. In figure 3, you can see the
development of reported efficiencies of various solar cell technologies.
GaAs-based devices hold the world record for the highest-efficiency
single-junction solar cell at 28.8%. The most efficient solar cells currently
in production are multi-junction photovoltaic cells. These use a
combination of several layers of gallium arsenide, indium gallium
phosphide, and germanium to capture more energy from the solar
spectrum. Leading edge multi-junction cells are capable of exceeding
38.8% under non-concentrated AM1.5G illumination and 46% using
concentrated AM1.5G illumination (We will introduce the concept of AM1.5G
later in the course). These efficient triple junction solar cells are
increasingly used for space applications with one example being the
rovers Spirit and Opportunity, which are exploring the surface of Mars.
Solar cells for planetary exploration: -
At 586 watts the Mars solar constant is roughly 43% of that at Earth. This
puts extra tough requirements on solar cells powering space probes or
rovers at Mars. In the last reading section we mentioned the Spirit and
Opportunity rovers, the two Mars Exploration Rovers launched in 2003
and landed in 2004. The Spirit was active until 2010 and the Opportunity
rover is still active (Opportunity entered hibernation on June 12, 2018,
check the status of the rover on Wikipedia). Each rover was equipped with
a 1.4 m2 solar array generating about 140 watts for up to four hours per
Martian day. Let us calculate the efficiency of these solar cells

η=PoutPin=PoutσMars⋅A=140[W]586[W/m2]⋅1.4[m2]=17%
17% efficiency is an impressive number, but we are forgetting to consider
the Martian atmosphere with its suspended dust particles, the actual
efficiency is significantly higher as we are overestimating the illumination
in the calculation. The use of these highly efficient triple junction solar
cells on Martian rovers were a major step forward as compared for
example to the solar arrays providing 16 watts of power to the Sojourner
rover from the 1997 Pathfinder mission.
Figure 4. From left the Sojourner rover, the Spirit rover, the Galileo
orbiter (notice the lack of solar panels), and the solar panels for the Juno
spacecraft.
To date, solar power, other than for propulsion, has been practical for
spacecraft operating no farther from the Sun than the orbit of Jupiter
(5.25 AU). The Rosetta space probe, launched in 2004, used 64 square
meters of solar panels and was the first spacecraft to fly close to Jupiter
using solar cells as its main power source. In 2016 Juno became the
second spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, after the nuclear powered Galileo
orbiter, which orbited from 1995 to 2003. Unlike all earlier spacecraft to
the outer planets, Juno is powered only by solar arrays, as opposed to
radioisotope thermoelectric generators commonly used for missions to
the outer Solar System and beyond. Juno is fitted with the largest solar
array wings ever deployed on a planetary probe measuring 72 square
meters generating about 486 watts when Juno is orbiting Jupiter.
Energy sources: -
Energy is indisputably a resource on which humanity has become
dependent. Without energy, our society will not function. Without energy,
we cannot find or administer medicine to cure disease, prepare food,
purify water, drive our cars, operate computers, study at night, etc. The
current energy need is roughly 15 TW (15·1012 W) and this number is
projected to increase. Historically fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, and natural
gas) have enabled our energy consumption for the past century, and
continues to dominate our energy production. Today roughly 81% of our
energy is supplied by fossil fuel, 2.7% is being supplied by nuclear energy,
and the remaining share is renewable sources, with biomass being the
largest source of energy at roughly 12%. You can see a breakdown of our
energy consumption in figure 1.
Fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes such as
anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms fueled by
photosynthesis. They are, however, generally considered non-renewable
resources because fossil fuels take millions of years to form and the
known viable reserves are being depleted faster than new ones are being
made. Even if fossil fuels can cover the energy consumption for many
years to come, there are many other reasons to look for alternatives. CO2
pollution is probably the strongest arguments against fossil fuels, but
combustion of fossil fuels also produces other air pollutants, such as
nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and heavy
metals. Harvesting, processing, and distributing fossil fuels create their
own environmental concerns. Coal mining methods, particularly
mountaintop removal and strip mining, have negative environmental
impacts, and offshore oil drilling pose a hazard to aquatic organisms.
Hydraulic fracturing used to extract natural gas entail its own suit of local
environmental concerns.
When we are looking for energy sources available that can replace fossil
fuels, it is useful to consider how much energy each process can deliver.
Below you can see estimates of the available power from each energy
process:
Tide: 0.3 TW
Earth heat: 2 TW
Hydro power: 4 TW
Wind: 75 TW
Biomass: 6 TW
Direct radiation: 26,000 TW
Coal: 900 TWy
Petroleum: 240 TWy
Natural gas: 215 TWy
Uranium: 300 TWy
Notice that numbers for fossil fuel and uranium are in total energy, the
remaining numbers are given as resources available per year (the
resources could be given as TWy/y to emphasize that they are a yearly
resource, however they are shown in TW for simplicity). While the specific
numbers may vary from source to source, the magnitude of the numbers
are reasonably accurate.
Available energy:-
Let us do a calculation of the direct radiation from the sun ourselves. We
know the luminosity of the sun to be 3.828·1026 W, and the distance from
the sun is one astronomical unit or 1.496·1011 m. In the last section, we
learned how to calculate the solar constant (the radiation power per
square meter or irradiance outside the Earth’s atmosphere), by dividing
the luminosity of the sun with the area of a sphere of radius 1 AU. Now we
want the direct radiation over the entire earth, so we will need to multiply
this number with the area of a disc with radius equals the radius of Earth
(6.371·106 m).
PEarth=PSunAsphere⋅AEarth=PSun4⋅π⋅r2SE⋅π⋅r2E=3.828⋅1026[W]4⋅π⋅(
1.496⋅1011[m])2⋅π⋅(6.371⋅106[m])2=1.75⋅1017W
Notice that the units become W since the two meter terms cancel out. This
number represents the total energy received from the sun, however, we
would like to calculate a technical potential. Therefore, we must consider
the amount of energy lost to atmospheric scattering and absorption, we
assume that 51% will be transmitted through the atmosphere. Further we
would like to only count the landmass, so we consider the water to
landmass ratio on Earth of 29%. The total technical potential of direct
radiation therefore becomes
PTechnical=1.75⋅1017⋅0.51⋅0.29=2.6⋅1016W=26,000TW.
26,000 TW is a strikingly big number and to provide a visual reference you
can look at figure 2, where the available energy is plotted for all
renewable energy sources plus fossil and uranium.
Diagram of energy sources by available resources. Notice that while all
renewable sources are given per year, the fossil and uranium sources are
complete available resources.
The direct radiation contribution dwarfs all other resources including the
total available reserve of fossil fuel. This should, however, not come as a
surprise, as direct radiation is the primary energy source behind almost
all the energy sources listed. Let us take a step backwards and look at the
processes and primary energy sources behind the energy sources on
which we rely. If we consider the primary energy source behind all the
energy technologies we use, they fall under four categories: movement of
the planets, earth heat, solar radiation, and supernova.
Looking back at the energy mix, it is remarkable that only about 16% of the
world consumption is based on renewable energy sources. Wikipedia hosts
an interesting list of countries by electricity production from renewable
sources. Some countries have an energy mix dominated by renewable
sources even going up to 100% of the electricity production. In all cases
these high numbers arise because of fortunate geographical conditions
making hydropower a dominant solution. The country scoring highest
when disregarding hydropower is Denmark with 56.58 percent of its
electricity being generated from renewable sources mainly wind, biomass,
and solar. These numbers demonstrate that renewable energy sources
can generate a much larger share of our energy, however, we must also
remember that renewable electricity production, from sources such as
wind power and solar power can be criticized for being variable or
intermittent, as weather and day/night cycles dictate. In countries, such
as Denmark, this problem is solved by importing energy from neighboring
countries when production is low. A complete switch to renewable energy
will not be easy, and many solutions need to be implemented. I hope that
your takeaway point from this text is that renewable sources are fully
capable of delivering all the energy we can ever need. We need to deploy
and develop renewable technology to optimally use the resources
available to us and at the same time evolve our electrical grid and energy
storage options.
So far, we have discussed the various energy sources available to us
without going into depth with any of them. Since the subject of the course
is solar cells, let us now turn our attention to solar energy. The Sun itself
is a massive fusion reactor in which hydrogen atoms is fused into helium.
The energy from this fusion reaction is released into Space in the form of
radiation. We have already encountered the value for the radiation power
of the sun (3.828·1026 W), which we used to calculate the solar constant
(1,367 W/m2). The number we calculated is the value as measured outside
Earth’s atmosphere. In figure 1 you can see the spectrum both inside and
outside the atmosphere. We designate the light as measured outside the
atmosphere Air Mass 0 (AM0) since this light has not passed through the
atmosphere. The irradiance of this light is the already mentioned 1,367
W/m2, the solar constant.

Solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of Earth's
atmosphere (yellow area) and at sea level (red area). As light passes
through the atmosphere, some is absorbed by gases with specific
absorption bands.
When we sum the energy according to the AM1.5 spectrum in figure 1 we
find that only 835 W/m2 is received. Thus only 61% of the originally
available 1367 W/m2 is received at Earth as direct radiation. However, it
is important to note the we are now forgetting a large portion of radiation,
namely the diffuse radiation caused by the scattering of the light in the
atmosphere. To account for this, we use the AM1.5G spectrum, where G
stands for global radiation and is a summation of the direct and diffuse
radiation. This is the reason we use 1000 W/m2 as the total irradiance
when we determine the peak power of a solar module.
Area need
Let us move on to the specific topic of the course and see how well solar
cells would be able to cover our energy needs. Let us therefore calculate
the area needed to cover the Earths energy consumption (15 TW) with
solar cells at 10% efficiency. Since we know the solar constant to be: 1000
W/m2,
In this calculation η is the efficiency, while σ is the solar constant. To
calculate a realistic area on Earth needed to cover our energy
consumption we need to add some assumptions to cOnsider the day/night
cycle, as well as atmospheric conditions. If we assume eight hours of
average daylight and that 70% of all days have sunshine, we can calculate
a realistic area needed to supply the world with solar power.
This is a big area, in fact it is roughly size of France. But remember this is
a realistic number. We assumed 10% efficiency which is well within reach
of current technology. If we place all the solar panels in the Sahara desert
in Africa with its area of 9,200,000 square kilometers, we can find space
for our world energy producing solar park 14 times. Realistically we would
need to distribute the solar panels all over the world to produce power
matching demand. We will also need to find solutions to store energy when
the sun is not shining.
Apart from the question of whether we can find space for all the solar
cells we would need to power the world, the next obvious question is: Can
we make enough solar cells? We are not ready to fully answer this
question yet, but just to get an idea of the scale, let us look at something
else we produce in large areas: newspapers. Let us imagine that we
gathered up all the issues of the most widely circulated newspapers from
every day in 2016. When we lay the pages next to each other we would find
that the issues of the 10 most circulated newspapers corresponds to the
area of solar cells we need (assuming all papers are in Broadsheet and
100 pages per issue). What we have just demonstrated is that our current
technology and production capacity is not in itself a hindrance for us to
produce 640,000 square kilometers of surface area. We will leave the
question of whether todays solar technology can be scaled to this task for
the remainder of the course as we need a specific discussion based on
each solar cell technology.