1.

0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Urban areas should be designed to ensure the comfort, health and safety of their inhabitants
and users. A study by Tolley, Lumsdon, & Bickerstaff (2001) indicated that walking for
health is a trend that is becoming increasingly popular, and this popularity is likely to
continue to increase. In the hot and humid climate, outdoor thermal comfort is considered one
of the environmental factors affecting such activity.

Due to the abundant solar radiation and the relatively high air temperature and relative
humidity levels in the tropics, long periods of outdoor thermal discomfort are common
(Ahmed, 2003; Niu et al., 2015). Considering also the impact of urban heat island (UHI)
effects in the urban areas, the need for designing outdoor spaces for outdoor comfortable
criteria is critical (Aflaki et al., 2017; O’Malley, Piroozfar, Farr, & Pomponi, 2015; Salata,
Golasi, de Lieto Vollaro, & de Lieto Vollaro, 2016; Sharmin, Steemers, & Matzarakis, 2017;
Wang, Berardi, & Akbari, 2016).

According to recent studies (Aflaki et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2017; Salata et al., 2017),
factors contributing to the UHI phenomenon and outdoor thermal discomfort include vast
surface grounds with low albedo and high admittance materials such as concrete and asphalt;
minimized green areas and permeable surfaces, which reduce chances of shade and
evapotranspiration; highly elevated building blocks and narrow-sized streets/sidewalks that
increase the total wind velocity but also trap the heat; and anthropogenic of heat-producing
factors such as cars and HVAC systems. To overcome this, the efficient use of shading,
greeneries and water bodies has the potential to significantly reduce the radiant air
temperature in outdoor urban spaces (Berardi, 2016; Berkovic, Yezioro, & Bitan, 2012;
Fabbri, Canuti, & Ugolini, 2017; Ghaffarianhoseini, Berardi, & Ghaffarianhoseini, 2015;
Lobaccaro & Acero, 2015; Makaremi, Salleh, Jaafar, & GhaffarianHoseini, 2012; Taleghani,
Tenpierik, van den Dobbelsteen, & Sailor, 2014).

The UHI in hot climates has distinctive challenges as a result of its critical impacts on
users' health, outdoor thermal discomfort, air quality and building energy consumption
(Gartland, 2012; Martins et al., 2016; Sailor & Dietsch, 2007; Santamouris et al., 2017). In
this regard, design and development of thermally comfortable urban spaces with large green
areas and sufficient shading potentials are common UHI mitigation strategies (Santamouris,
2014; Taleghani, Sailor, Tenpierik, & van den Dobbelsteen, 2014).
 Understanding the factors that allow a comfortable outdoor space is fundamental for
urban designers (Brown, Vanos, Kenny, & Lenzholzer, 2015; Chatzidimitriou & Yannas,
2016; Morckel, 2015; Piselli, Castaldo, Pigliautile, Pisello, & Cotana, 2018; Villena Del
Carpio, Marinoski, Trichês, Lamberts, & de Melo, 2016; Zinzi, 2016). Designing climate-
responsive urban outdoor spaces can provide thermally comfortable conditions, enhance
satisfaction, and improve human health for users (Jamei, Rajagopalan, Seyedmahmoudian, &
Jamei, 2016). Likewise, the efficient use of outdoor spaces helps to decrease the building
energy demand too (Berardi, 2016; Niu et al., 2015).

In order to obtain comfort conditions for pedestrians around the building environment,
it is essential to know the exterior microclimate parameter behaviour very well and to analyse
them thoroughly. Within the scope of this information, it is important to check the form of the
building or buildings as well as the campus design which will be created by the building
community.

Campus clusters include various types of elements that meet the needs of teaching
management and create an environment of wellbeing in the outdoor environment of tropical
urban areas. For example, pilotis are used to avoid direct solar radiation and take advantage
of high wind velocity, whereas distributor squares are necessary around teaching building
blocks to evacuate students during rush hour at the end of classes. Lawns and man-made
lakes are also commonly designed elements in campus clusters. These various elements are
expected to create different outdoor thermal environments in campus clusters in cities located
in the tropical climate zone.

1.2 Problem Statement

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Wind

Urban areas have reduced wind speeds compared to rural areas due to the blockage effects of
urban structures (Chen & Norford, 2017; Ng, 2009; Oke, 2002; Yim, Fung, Lau, & Kot,
2009). Although wind speed reduction is favourable during winters or cold days in temperate
climates (Shui et al., 2018; Stathopoulos, 2006), the opposite is true for tropical climates.
Cities in the tropics rarely suffer from thermal discomfort due to wind chill (de Dear & Kim,
2016; Roth & Chow, 2012). Increasing wind speed can improve outdoor thermal comfort by
increasing convective heat transfer from human bodies. For example, a field study in
Singapore concluded that increasing the wind speed is the most effective method to improve
thermal comfort in shaded outdoor areas (Yang, Wong, & Jusuf, 2013). Another field survey
in Hong Kong found that respondents who felt warm desired stronger winds, as expected (Li,
Niu, Mak, Huang, & Xie, 2018). Besides thermal comfort improvement, stronger winds also
help urban areas to self-ventilate and remove pollutants (Buccolieri, Sandberg, & Di
Sabatino, 2010; Hang, Li, Buccolieri, Sandberg, & Di Sabatino, 2012).