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QuartJEngGeol v10 1977 DescriçãoMaciçosUsosEngenharia WorkingGroup
QuartJEngGeol v10 1977 DescriçãoMaciçosUsosEngenharia WorkingGroup
QuartJEngGeol v10 1977 DescriçãoMaciçosUsosEngenharia WorkingGroup
I. Terms of reference
The Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party on the Description of Rock
Masses for Engineering Purposes was established to produce a report which would provide
a format for the collection of descriptive data from the rock mass to permit assessment and
hence rational design and construction of structures or excavations, on, or within, that mass.
It was further intended that the report should facilitate communication in the description of
rock masses betweent the various branches of geology concerned with mining and civil
engineering.
2. Introduction
It is very necessary that standardisation should be achieved in the description and assess-
ment of rock masses to facilitate the communication of facts between interested parties. It is
thus essential that any system recommended should find wide acceptance.
Only the description of rock masses is considered in this report; assessment of the
engineering properties and behaviour of rock masses is beyond the terms of reference. These
aspects are specifically excluded both because of their wide range and because the type and
scale of the engineering operation has considerable bearing on the way the mass should be
assessed. As description forms the first step in the process of assessment it is essential that
uniformity and consistency of description should be introduced into the subsequent process
of rock mass assessment. It is recognised, however, that it may be possible to reduce this
process of description by considering fewer parameters in an endeavour to produce a rock
mass 'rating' as a quick guide to particular engineering performance.
For many years the discipline of soil mechanics has utilised the concept of index
properties for discriminating between different types of soil in any given category, and
classification tests for determining those index properties (Terzaghi & Peck 1967); this is
now considered to be a fundamental procedure in soil mechanics. It is considered that it is
equally necessary that a similar system should be introduced into the description of rock
masses. This report proposes a system of rock mass description in which the rock mass
'indices' or parameters, analogous to the soil indices, are identified and described. Where
possible a system of classification tests by which the indices may be determined is recom-
mended. Some indices may only be indirectly quantified by testing, and others (e.g. colour)
are amenable to description alone.
A rock mass may be considered as in situ rock material which has been made discon-
tinuous by planes of weakness generally of natural origin such as joints, faults and bedding
planes, which may be broadly referred to as discontinuities. The mass can therefore only be
fully described by the use of various indices which define aspects of the rock mass together
with indices which define the rock material. Many rock mass and material indices may be
quantified either directly or indirectly by carrying out classification tests.
It is recommended that the description of a rock mass should aim to assemble data in a
form amenable to subsequent processing and analysis. From this point onwards the data
THE DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 357
may be selected, collated, weighted or treated in any other way in order to establish new
classifications or methods of assessment for the particular end-use required. If only selected
indices are defined initially, as in the case of some rock mass rating systems, this greatly
restricts the subsequent use of the data. The precise use to which the rock mass data might
be put cannot always be established early on in the life of a project.
3. Previous work
There is a broad division between those authors who have considered rock mass description
from the largely geological point of view and those authors who have been stimulated by
practical need to rationalise the description of rock masses. Indeed, in recent years, the
greatest stimulus has come from those rock mechanics engineers involved in underground
problems. A long and continuing need to determine the ability of rocks to stand unsupported
and to determine the type and degree of support needed, has produced many different
schemes for rock mass classification.
Terzaghi (1946) was the first to attempt any type of rock classification for engineering
purposes. He recognised the significance of discontinuities, their spacing and their filling
materials, and used this information to define certain types of ground which would influence
the load imposed on steel arches in tunnels. Stini (1950) and Lauffer (1958) carried on this
work and related the 'stand-up' time in tunnels to rock quality. John (1962), Coates (1965)
and Coates & Parsons (1966) further developed rock classifications and although these were
useful it is considered that they placed insufficient importance on the geological aspects.
In 1964 Deere endeavoured to produce the first rock mass rating based on his 'Rock
Quality Designation' index. This index determined from rock cores found wide practical
application especially when considered along with other rock properties, although limita-
tions on its use are recognised.
Detailed studies of rock material and rock mass parameters were made in the U.S.A. by
Deere & Miller (1966) and Deere, Merritt & Coon (1969) with the particular purpose of rock
assessment for military installations. Although more geological factors were taken into
account than in previous studies they were less concerned with recording the total description
of the rock than in recording the parameters most relevant to their engineering problems.
These authors were the first to make extensive use of correlations between parameters.
Work has been carried out by several authors to obtain easily identifiable rock para-
meters from simple tests (Duncan 1966, Franklin 1970, Cottiss et al. 1971, Franklin et al.
1971, 1972). Correlations have been obtained between the test results and rock properties
determined by more complex methods.
Piteau (1970) has described the significant factors in rock mass description for the
stability of slopes cut in rock.
The search for rock classifications useful for underground work has continued with
Bieniawski (1973, 1975) and Barton et al. (1974). These authors have tried to obtain classifi-
cations of jointed rock masses which depend on various weighted aspects of both the rock
material and the rock mass. As their objective has been to obtain rock mass ratings which
could be used for design, their classifications should be truly regarded as assessments.
358 REPORT BY E N G I N E E R I N G GROUP WORKING PARTY
Dearman (1974a, b) has considered rock mass description and has recommended a
system largely based on that produced by the Geological Society of London Engineering
Group (Anon. 1972). He has introduced a useful rock material classification as an aid to
identification and has endeavoured to distinguish between different types of weathering. His
paper represents the most extensive attempt to date to provide a multi-functional rock
classification for engineering purposes and this report is in agreement with his approach in
many respects.
The International Society for Rock Mechnaics has set up a series of working parties to
report on the classification and characterisation of rocks and engineering design tests as
part of their standardisation of laboratory and field tests. Draft copies of relevant sections
(Category 1, 9 and 10, rock mass field observations) are currently available. Similar studies
are also being made by the Institution of Civil Engineers in their revision of the British
Standard Code of Practice CP 2001.
The rock mass may be considered as a discontinuum consisting of rock material rendered
discontinuous by planes of weakness (or discontinuities). Parameters which could be in-
cluded in a description of the rock mass relate to the nature and distribution in space of its
structure (e.g. bedding, lamination) and discontinuities, as well as its strength, deformation
modulus, secondary permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) and seismic velocity.
Whilst these studies result in a rock description, it is recommended that arbitrary
distinctions between rock and soil should be disregarded and the system of description could
be used for any discontinuous material, whether it be a jointed granite or cleaved slate, a
fissured London Clay or a jointed glacial till. The generally accepted engineering distinctions
between soil and rock--'soil is a natural aggregate of mineral grains that can be separated by
such gentle mechanical means as agitation in water. Rock is a natural aggregate of minerals
connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces'--(Terzaghi & Peck 1967) have no par-
ticular relevance in this context. The grades of compressive strength have therefore been
continued below the arbitrarily accepted limit on rocks of 1.25MN/m ~ (MPa).
engineering index properties which can be easily determined. However, this report recom-
mends that full material descriptions should be obtained rather than the few chosen by
Deere & Miller.
Group 1
Rock type
Colour
Grain size
Texture and fabric Descriptive indices
Weathering
Alteration
Strength
Group 2
Hardness
Durability
Indices which can be determined by classifi-
Porosity
cation tests requiring little or no sample
Density
preparation
Strength
Sonic velocity
Group 3
Young's modulus of elasticity Indices for design normally only determined
Poisson's ratio by complex testing or requiring extensive
Primary permeability sample preparation, or both
broad petrographic name for the rock. Each major rock type has been given an identification
number for use in recording on the data sheets.
5.2.3. Colour. The overall rock colour is difficult to quantify and unaided assessments
can be very misleading. It is, however, a property which can be significant and therefore
should be given due importance. A rock colour chart has been produced by the Geological
Society of America (1963); the Munsell Soil Color Chart is obtainable from Tintometer
Ltd., Waterloo Road, Salisbury, England. Colours are based on the choice of three diagnostic
parameters: hue, chroma, and value. A simplified scheme (Anon. 1972) is shown in Table 2
and its use is recommended. A colour from Column 3 may be supplemented if necessary by
a term from Column 2 or Column 1, or both.
5.2.4 Grain size. The grain sizes used in the description of rocks should be the same as
those in widespread use for the description of soils as shown in Table 3.
5.2.5 Texture and fabric. The texture of a rock refers to the geometrical aspects of,
and the mutual relationship among the component particles or crystals. Examples of these
aspects are the size, shape and arrangement of the constituent elements of a sedimentary
rock; the crystallinity and granularity of the constituent elements of an igneous rock.
The texture of a rock, therefore, refers to individual grains. The arrangement of grains
is referred to as the rock fabric, which may show a preferred orientation. In sedimentary
rocks, fabric is the orientation (or lack of it) in space of the elements (discrete particles,
crystals, cement) comprising the rock. The term is used in igneous and other crystalline
rocks for the pattern produced by the shapes and orientation of the crystalline and non-
crystalline parts of the rock. It is dependent on the relative sizes and shapes of the parts and
their positions with respect to one another and to the groundmass (which may be glassy)
when present (Gary et al. 1972).
Terms frequently used include porphyritic, crystalline, crypto-crystalline, granular,
amorphous and glassy.
Examination of the rock texture may require the use of a hand lens, or the microscopic
examination of a thin slice of the rock.
5.2.6 Weathered and altered state. Weathering refers to those destructive processes,
caused by atmospheric agents at or near the surface, that produce an in situ mantle of waste
that has undergone little or no transport (saprolite). The effects may be separated into
mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition including solution (Dearman 1974a).
Mechanical weathering results in the opening of discontinuities, the formation of new
discontinuities by rock fracture, the opening of grain boundaries, and the fracture or cleavage
of individual mineral grains. Chemical weathering leads eventually to chemical changes in
the original minerals, often to form clay minerals; some minerals resist this action and
survive unchanged. Early stages of chemical weathering result in discoloration of the rock
material.
Alteration comprises those changes in the chemical or mineralogical composition of a
rock produced by the action of hydrothermal fluids. Typical forms of alteration would be
kaolinisation or mineralisation. It may be difficult to distinguish between the effects of
weathering and alteration in some rocks, although the effects of weathering invariably die out
in depth whereas alteration may have originated at very considerable depths within the rock
mass.
Rock material tends to deteriorate in quality due to the effects of weathering and/or
362 REPORT BY ENGINEERING GROUP WORKING PARTY
GENETIC CHEMICAL/
GROUP DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY PYROCLASTIC ORGANIC
0.06
Fine-grained T U F F (34) CHERT (44)
Fine I~ M U D S T O N E (15)
grained ;u~ SHALE (16): fissile m u d s t o n e
SILTSTONE (17): 50% fine-grained CALCi-
~ particles SILTITE F L I N T (45)
0.002 O CLAYSTONE (18): 50% very fine- (23)
Very ~ grained particles Very fine-grained
fine ~ C A L C A R E O U S M U D S T O N E (19) T U F F (35) COAL (46)
grained 2~ CALCI-
9< ,d LUTITE (24)
OTHERS (47)
GLASSY
THE DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 363
great accuracy as the strength of the mass is largely governed by the discontinuities within
the mass. However, it is useful to know the rock material strength in assessing the shear
strength of discontinuities (Barton 1974), and is essential when describing massive rocks
without discontinuities.
Estimation of the mechanical strength of the rock material in a rock mass will generally
require some form of laboratory or in situ test usually involving determination of the un-
confined compression strength or point load strength, possibly supplemented by the Schmidt
METAMORPHIC IGNEOUS
SERPENTINE
(03)
PHYLLITE (54)
AMPHIBOLITE (65)
SLATE (55)
Retained on B.S.
Particle Sieve No. (approx. Equivalent
Term Size equivalent Soil Grade
Very coarse-grained > 60 mm 2 in Boulders and Cobbles
Coarse-grained 2-60 mm 8 Gravel
Medium-grained 60 microns-2 mm 200 Sand
Fine-grained 2-60 microns Silt
Very fine-grained < 2 microns Clay
Note: grains > 60 microns diameter are visible to the naked eye
Unconfined
compressive
strength
Term MN/m 2 (MPa) Field estimation of hardness
Very strong > 100 Very hard rock--more than one blow of geological hammer required to
break specimen.
Strong 50-100 Hard rock--hand held specimen can be broken with single blow of
geological hammer.
Moderately 12.5-50 Soft rock--5 mm indentations with sharp end of pick.
strong
Moderately
weak 5.0-12.5 Too hard to cut by hand into a triaxial specimen.
Weak 1.25-5.0 Very soft rock--material crumbles under firm blows with the sharp end
of a geological pick.
Very weak rock
or hard soil 0.60-1.25 Brittle or tough, may be broken in the hand with difficulty.
Very stiff 0.30-0.60* Soil can be indented by the finger nail.
Stiff 0.15-0.30 Soil cannot be moulded in fingers.
Firm 0.08-0.15 Soil can be moulded only by strong pressure of fingers.
Soft 0.04-0.08 Soil easily moulded with fingers.
Very soft <0.04 Soil exudes between fingers when squeezed in the hand.
* The compressive strengths for soils given above are double the unconfined shear strengths.
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 365
rebound value. The point load test is very useful in this respect and has been correlated with
compressive strength (7.3). The strength of rock material determined in unconfined com-
pression is dependent on moisture content of the specimen, anisotropy of the material, and
the test procedure used. Where rock strengths are not measured, they can be estimated by
following the modified scheme of Piteau (1970) given in Table 4. Such field estimates can
only be very approximate and the actual criteria used must be established on the basis of
individual experience.
Group 1
Discontinuities
type
number of discontinuity orientations
location and orientation
frequency of spacing between discontinuities
aperture or separation of discontinuity surfaces Descriptive indices
persistence and extent
in filling
nature of surfaces
additional information
Weathered and altered state
366 REPORT BY E N G I N E E R I N G GROUP WORKING PARTY
Group 2
Permeability (secondary)* Indices which can be deter-
Seismic velocity* mined by relatively simple
Shear strength* classification tests
Group 3
Modulus of deformability Indices for design normally
Permeability (secondary)* only determinable by complex
Seismic velocity* testing.
Shear strength*
* Where indices have been included in both Groups 2 and 3 it is because at the design stage tests may be
repeated by an alternative m e t h o d to gain more reliable data on the same index.
6.2 Discontinuities
6.2.1 Definition. A discontinuity is considered to be a plane of weakness within the rock
across which the rock material is structurally discontinuous and has zero or low tensile
strength, or a tensile strength lower than the rock material under the stress levels generally
applicable in engineering. Thus a discontinuity is not necessarily a plane of separation.
6.2.2 Types. Discontinuities may have a wide variety of origins and forms but they tend
to fall into two basic types; those that occur in sets or systems, e.g. joints, cleavages, bedding
planes, and which are amenable to statistical analysis; and those that are unique, e.g. faults,
and have to be considered on an individual basis. Where possible it is desirable to differentiate
between the origins of the various types of discontinuity because the engineering properties
may be strongly related to the genesis. Goodman & Duncan (1971) stress the importance of
this especially in respect of those planes formed by extension and those by shear. The major
types of discontinuity are faults, joints, fissures, cleavages, schistosity, shear planes, tension
cracks, foliations, bedding planes, lamination and veins.
6.2.3 Number of discontinuity sets. The presence of discontinuities within a rock mass is
likely to change its properties,e.g, reduce its strength or increase its deformability or per-
meability. The degree to which this occurs depends not only on the direction of the disconti-
nuities but also on the number of sets present and their spacing. The number and orientations
of intersecting sets or unique discontinuities govern the ability of the rock to deform or fail
without involving fracture of rock material.
Discrete orientations of discontinuities, or sets of discontinuities, may be recognised
visually in the field, or alternatively may only be apparent when later plotted out onto a
stereogram.
6.2.4 Location and orientation. Sufficient information is required to locate each dis-
continuity in space. This may consist of ground co-ordinates plus elevation or the relative
position along a fixed datum line. Information should preferably be recorded visually on a
map or plan.
The orientation of each discontinuity surface should be expressed in terms of its dip and
dip direction. The use of strike rather than dip direction should be discouraged.
Dip and dip direction is normally measured with a clinometer and compass and should
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES F O R E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 367
be expressed to the nearest degree. Since the majority of natural discontinuity surfaces are
rough, a significant amount of scatter may be expected to occur in the measurements if
these are made over a small area of the discontinuity surface. Some of this scatter can be
avoided if desired by using a 200 mm diameter aluminium measuring plate laid on the dis-
continuity before any measurements are made. Particular care is required in measuring the
orientation of discontinuities which dip at a low angle.
6.2.5 Spacing between adjacent discontinuities. The spacing between adjacent dis-
continuities should be measured by counting the number of discontinuities which cut a
traverse line of known length and expressed as a mean fracture spacing in metres or milli-
metres (as in core logging). The mean and range of spacings between discontinuities in each
set should also be measured and recorded. In order to allow for sampling bias resulting from
measurements along a single line, measurements should ideally be made along three mutually
perpendicular axes.
The descriptive terms for discontinuity spacing in Table 5 are recommended. Although
a separate set of terms for bedding spacing has generally been used, it is felt that there
should be one common set of terms for both bedding and all other forms of discontinuity
spacing.
6.2.7 InfiHing. The infilling between discontinuity surfaces may be gouge or breccia in
the case of faults, or materials introduced into the opening, for example clay and other soils,
368 REPORT BY E N G I N E E R I N G GROUP WORKING PARTY
calcite and other mineral matter. The resistance to sliding along a discontinuity can be
either increased or decreased depending on such factors as the degree of separation, the
thickness of the infilling, the nature (type and hardness/consistency) and the character of
the discontinuity walls. If, for example, the infilling is sufficiently thick, the discontinuity
walls will not touch and the strength of the discontinuity will be that of the infiUing material.
The thickness of the infilling is taken as the width of the material separating the host
rock surfaces. Measurements are made in the same way as for discontinuity aperture (Table
6). H o e k & Bray (1974) suggest that the influence of the infilling is a function of the relation-
ship between its thickness and the amplitude of the asperities on the discontinuity walls. The
influence of the wall rock on the strength of the discontinuity may not become insignificant
until the infilling is over 100 mm thick.
The nature of the infilling material should be identified and a complete engineering
geological description given according to the recommended system for the description of
rock and soil.
The unconfined compressive strength of the infilling material should be either assessed
visually according to the system described in Anon. 1972, or should be measured using a
pocket penetrometer or pocket vane tester in the case of soils and a point load tester or
Schmidt Hammer in the case of rocks.
6.2.8 Persistence or extent. Persistence is an expression of the extent to which any
particular discontinuity can be traced. It may thus give some measure of the percentage of
the rock material which would have to be sheared during failure along a surface. Alterna-
tively it may demonstrate the degree to which failure would have to take place along en
echelon joints, or stepped surfaces.
Persistence is one of the most important factors in discontinuity description and is also
one of the most difficult to quantify. Often, particularly in the case of major joints, the planes
are continuous beyond the confines of the rock exposure and it may be impossible to
estimate their actual persistence. It is recommended that the maximum trace length should
be measured. Some comment may be made on the data sheet to indicate whether the total
trace length can be seen, and whether the discontinuity terminates in solid rock or against
another discontinuity.
6.2.9 Nature o f surfaces. The nature of a discontinuity surface may be considered to
have three aspects, viz. waviness, roughness and condition of the walls. Waviness and rough-
ness differ from each other in terms of scale and their effect on the shear strength of the dis-
continuity or the characteristics of the discontinuity during shearing (Piteau 1970) and will
depend to a large degree upon the normal stress across the plane. Waviness refers to those
first order wall asperities which appear as undulations of the plane and would be unlikely
to shear off during movement. Roughness refers to second order asperities of the plane
which because they are sufficiently small would be sheared off during movement.
The effects of waviness do not change with displacements along the discontinuity
surface since no shearing takes place through the asperities. Waviness therefore modifies the
apparent angle of dip but not the frictional properties of the discontinuity. On the other
hand, increased roughness of the discontinuity walls results in an increased effective friction
angle along the discontinuity; however these effects are found to diminish or disappear in
the presence of infilling.
Waviness may be measured by means of a standard tape or rule placed on the exposed
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MA S S ES F O R E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 369
discontinuity surface in a direction normal to the trend of the waves and this direction should
be recorded. In this way the mean wave length and maximum amplitude are determined.
Fecker & Rengers (1971) have described an alternative method in which a large number of
dip angle and dip direction measurements are made. The mean scatter of these measure-
ments gives a measure of the waviness angle.
A variety of techniques are used to measure roughness. A seven point visual classification
modified from the table given by Piteau (1970) is recommended (Table 7) for use when quan-
titative measurements are not made.
It should be stressed that such a table is meaningful only when the direction of the
irregularities in the surface is in the least favourable direction to resist sliding. It can be en-
visaged that the angle of frictional resistance along a surface being sheared normal to the
axis of slickensiding would be higher than along a surface with defined ridges where the
movement was parallel to the ridges. It is therefore necessary to specify the trend of
the lineation on the surface of the discontinuity in relation to the direction of shearing.
The orientation of the long or short dimensions should be specified in tabular and columnar
blocks respectively. Additionally it may be helpful to state the ratio of the orthogonal
dimensions, e.g. 1 vertical: 2 north: 6 east. The block size may be described using the terms
in Table. 9.
Dispers;on MN/m=
/;r/
o +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
t /,
/ Z,
200 i!
e-
100
/ "/// / X . ~-
9C
8g
7O J/HI'l,."
E 60
o
50 L :
9",,.5, I
I
1
I
I
20 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Schmidt Hardness, R (L - H a m m e r )
FIG. 1. Rock strength chart based on Schmidt hardness using the L. Hammer (after Deere & Miller 1966).
Note, hammer vertical downwards, and dispersion limits defined for 75% confidence.
compressive strengths ~c~ using the empirical conversion factor which varies with the length
of the axis loaded during the test (Fig. 2) for the range shown. The method of testing and
the source of the correlation factor should, however, be quoted.
A significant strength reduction is sometimes observed with increasing moisture content.
Except in special circumstances, such as when dealing with rocks from an arid environment,
or with argillaceous specimens which have previously been dried, tests should be carried out
as far as practicable with water saturated specimens. In practice, however, there is usually
relatively little strength difference between fully and partially saturated specimens.
It is envisaged that this test would be used for the majority of cases when only the
compressive or tensile uniaxial strength of the rock material is required.
O~ '
20 0 0 60
Length of Loaded A x i s d (ram)
FIG. 2. Size correlation chart for point load strength to unconfined compressive strength
conversion (Oc should read acs).
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR E N G I N E E R I N G PURPOSES 375
kugeon unit (or approximately a permeability of 10 -7 m/sec). The standard size of hole is
NX but it has been shown that, within the limits of accuracy of the test, the size of hole is
not critical.
The test has wide application for providing an initial indication of permeability. The
main constraints are as follows: only clean water must be used; allowance must be made for
the static head applied by the water column above the water table; a correction should be
made for head losses in the pipes; the test must be carried out in stages utilising increasing
and decreasing pressures because of silting up, or washing out, of the filling in discontinu-
ities; pressures must not be so high as to cause hydraulic fracture.
Because hydraulic fracture may occur when the applied water pressure exceeds the
weight of overburden, pressures lower than those implied by the definition of the Lugeon
test must be used at shallow depths. Extrapolation of the results permits the Lugeon value
to be determined.
7.6.2 Other permeability tests. Rising, falling or constant head permeability tests, al-
though generally used to determine the permeability of soils, may also be used for the
determination of rock mass permeabilities. Specific testing for aquifer properties are con-
sidered to be beyond the scope of this report.
Rising and falling head tests involve adding water to a hole or bailing out water from
the standing water column in a hole, and measuring the change of level with time. In the
case of the constant head test (more suitable for measurement in formations of low per-
meability) an applied static head of water is kept constant by means of the addition of a
measured flow of water using a floating ball valve arrangement.
Although generally quick and cheap to carry out, the tests have a number of inherent
disadvantages: they are unable to apply the pressures to the rock mass similar to those which
may subsequently be applied by the engineering structure; they may test only a small volume
of rock; they depend on the casing to seal off the upper sections of the drillhole, often in-
effectively; and the formation may silt up with the falling head test, or internal erosion may
occur with the rising head test. However, their advantage is that many tests can be carried
out within a short time and an approximate order of magnitude of rock mass permeability
can be obtained.
The theories developed for the different conditions of flow in the above tests are based
upon the various assumed geometries of the borehole, casing and formation (Cedergren
1967). Thus the results may not be representative of the in situ conditions. The calculated
results therefore require careful consideration.
typical case, a falling weight is used to generate an acoustic pulse, which is detected by a 12-
geophone receiving array coupled to a seismograph, producing a direct print of the received
signals. These records may be used to pick out the direct and refracted arrivals and from
these results travel time graphs can be constructed. In the ideal case, the travel time graph
will consist of a number of straight line sections; the slope of each section corresponds to a
velocity of sound characteristic of one particular stratum. From the graph it is possible to
compute the depth to each stratum using standard intercept theory. More complex analysis
may be required; for example a model having a smooth increase of velocity with depth may
be used to investigate certain weathering profiles.
Simplified surveys in which only the first compression wave arrival is recorded are often
utilised for determining the velocity of the overburden or depth to bedrock. More complex
surveys utilising explosives or multi-geophone arrangements are not covered in this report.
When required for use in conjunction with the sonic velocity in the rock mass, the sonic
velocity in the rock material is normally determined by measuring the travel time of an
acoustic pulse through a machined rock specimen. In a typical laboratory test, the sample
has a nominal diameter of 40 mm and a length of approximately 80 mm with the sample ends
ground flat and parallel. The acoustic pulse transmitted through the sample is detected by a
receiver, the transmission time recorded and the velocity calculated from the time and
length of the specimen. The sample should first be tested in a dry state and then water-
saturated. The temperature of the sample should also be recorded.
Coon 1969). However some correlations, especially those interrelating RQD, seismic
velocity and rock quality, should be treated with caution. Nevertheless the measurement of
RQD can represent a rapid method of zoning a rock mass so that subsequent area observa-
tions can be made. Although RQD is generally measured on core it has also been adapted to
surface outcrops and tunnel exposures by using the correlation between discontinuity
spacing and RQD (Deere, Merritt & Coon 1969). Based upon a mean discontinuity fre-
quency per metre (A), Priest & Hudson (1976) derived a relationship giving a theoretical
equivalent value of the RQD (RQD*)
viz. RQD* ~ 100e -~ (0.1A + 1).
of stretching a measuring tape at waist height along the exposed face and recording the
location and features of interest of every discontinuity that intersected the tape. Measuring
distances of 30 m were used and it was suggested that to ensure complete representation the
survey should be continuous, i.e. should not be terminated at intervals.
The line sampling approach appears superior to other types of sampling techniques and
gives more detail than other methods on the discontinuity intensity and attitude variability.
It is also indiscriminate in that all discontinuities that intersect the tape, whether large or
small, are recorded. To ensure that all discontinuity sets are recorded, line sampling on
three approximately mutually perpendicular axes would be necessary, but this is rarely
possible in practice.
When sampling is undertaken on a single line only, or on a planar rock face, errors
associated with non-random sampling may arise due to the fact that the frequency of dis-
continuities lying in approximately the same plane as the face may be under estimated. In
such cases it is possible to apply corrections to compensate for the sampling bias (Terzaghi
1965, Robertson 1970). However, these corrections, because they assume the rock face on
which the measurements are carried out is planar, tend to over-correct the results since
natural and artificial rock faces are invariably somewhat irregular. It is therefore recom-
mended that where non-random sampling is believed to occur, all data should be presented
uncorrected, but that measurements made on differently orientated faces should be com-
pared to determine whether there is any sampling bias in the results.
Any completely objective approach to sampling suffers from the major disadvantage
that it is time-consuming, and without some form of automatic data processing system is
very difficult to analyse effectively. Usually, therefore, discontinuity surveys tend to be
conducted in a somewhat subjective manner. This is particularly the case in the early stages
of any investigation where the object is to reveal the major structural trends at a site
quickly.
Prokopovich (1972) has compared the two approaches and concluded that a subjective
approach is adequate to define regional discontinuity trends providing that a sufficient
number of observations are made to ensure statistical reliability. A similar conclusion was
reached by Broadbent & Rippere (1970) who concluded that a subjective approach saved
time and effort and also revealed all discontinuity systems subsequently found by more
objective sampling techniques. They do, however, suggest that a subjective set of data does
not constitute an adequate input for mechanical stability analyses. John (1968), in contrast,
suggests that a discontinuity survey should be limited to absolutely necessary data with the
incorporation of comments on the data collection sheets to help identify those features of
particular relevance.
With regard to the number of measurements that are necessary to ensure statistical
reliability, although opinion seems to differ, a minimum of 200 readings per locality is
recommended.
It is concluded that in most cases a subjective survey carried out by a trained and
competent engineering geologist or engineer will furnish the necessary data for an adequate
rock mass description provided that an adequate number of measurements are made. In
particularly complex areas, or where trained staff are not available, objective methods will
tend to be used. An optimum method of survey would perhaps consist of the measurement
of the apparent discontinuity sets in all natural and artificial exposures, together with detailed
380 REPORT BY E N G I N E E R I N G GROUP WORKING PARTY
objective surveys in a limited number of more critical areas, to ensure that all discontinuity
systems have been identified.
8.2.3 Measurements from drillholes. A limited amount of information can be obtained
on discontinuity characteristics and patterns from drillhole cores, thus providing data from
otherwise inaccessible areas within the rock mass. The major limitations with such methods
are that they are dependent on the quality of the core recovered, the poor quality rock and
gouge being most likely to be lost during drilling. Unless orientated core is obtained only
information on the dip and not the dip-direction of discontinuities can be obtained from
any single vertical hole and it is difficult or impossible to assess the persistence, separation,
thickness of infilling or to determine the waviness of the discontinuity faces.
8.2.3.1 Core orientation. Various commercial methods of core orientation are available
including the Craelius core orientator and the Rocha integral sampler (Rocha 1971). In the
former method the instrument is lowered to the bottom of the hole at the start of a core run
and a series of prongs takes up the shape of the core-stub. As the orientation of the instru-
ment can be determined and the upper end of the core on the next drill-run can be related to
the instrument, the core can often be orientated on recovery from the hole but this may be
difficult or impossible in some cases, for example with fragmented rock. With the Rocha
method a pilot hole is drilled and an orientated rigid dowel is grouted into place. Overcoring
then permits recovery of the dowel and core as an intact and orientated cylinder. Other
methods involve the use of compasses grouted into the base of the hole and the inscribing of
reference marks on the core during drillings. No method is fully satisfactory. They all suffer
from being inconvenient during the drilling operation; some leave room for doubt in the
results and others are expensive.
8.2.3.2 Down-hole methods. Various techniques for borehole inspection and photography
have been utilised for discontinuity observations and commented upon by various authors
including Broadbent & Rippere (1970), Knill (1971), Hock & Bray (1974); they may form a
valuable adjunct to core logging. Problems may arise in connection with turbidity which
exists in some holes below the water table. The main methods are as follows:
The borehole periscope consists of a rigid tube which supports a system of lenses and
prisms. It is probably the most successful instrument for borehole examination in that it is
rapid to use, involves direct inspection and the equipment is simple. A major advantage of
the system is that it is orientated from outside the hole but it has the disadvantage that
currently it is only effective to depths of approximately 30 m.
A number of borehole cameras have been developed (Le Roy 1951, Burwell & Nesbitt
1954, Hock & Pentz 1968). The orientation of the camera is recorded and an illuminated
conical mirror enables a photograph to be taken of a length of the borehole wall. By pro-
jecting back over a conical mirror it is possible to obtain a view of the actual borehole wall.
The television camera has the advantage over conventional photography that a direct
view of the borehole is obtained and a videotape recording may be made. Although Broad-
bent & Rippere (1970) achieved only limited success with such a camera, further advances in
technology are likely to render this a much more important tool in the future.
Devices such as the Televiewer reported by Zemanek (1968) produce an acoustic
picture of the borehole wall and present information similar to that provided by a borehole
camera. One advantage of the acoustic method is that boreholes do not need to be flushed
before surveying.
THE DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 381
how m u c h data are to be gained from direct measurements in comparison with other
methods. It is strongly recommended that every discontinuity survey should include at least
some direct measurements, possibly supplemented by measurements carried out by other
techniques.
Two types of data sheet are recommended for recording data on rock mass description,
the rock mass description sheet and the discontinuity survey data sheet (Figs. 3 and 4). All
the data considered in the previous sections of the report, using the nomenclature recom-
mended, can be plotted on to one or other of these forms. The forms are simple and have
been designed to facilitate the subsequent production of punched-cards. It is not suggested
that the forms have to be fully completed. In many cases it will be necessary to collect only
a certain amount of the information shown. However, the fact that the complete range of
rock mass indices is specified should ensure that no parameter is overlooked.
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386 REPORT BY ENGINEERING GROUP WORKING PARTY
symbols. The data can also be plotted and contoured automatically if required either from
the basic data sheets or from punched cards produced from them. However, where only small
quantities of data are involved, or the results are needed in the field, it is preferable to plot
manually.
I0. Conclusion
In conclusion, it is emphasised that the necessity for the introduction of clear, concise and
uniform methods in rock mass description is long overdue. Whilst it will never be possible
to produce terminology which is acceptable to all branches of geotechnical engineering in
various parts of the world, standardisation of accepted practice in Britain should go a long
way to help in this respect. It is thus hoped that the foregoing recommendations will be used
in practice.
Acknowledgements: The working party wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance and advice which they
have received from individuals and organisations during the preparation of this report.
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