energies

Article
Comparative Analysis of the Results of Diagnostic
Measurements with an Internal Inspection of
Oil-Filled Power Transformers
Tomasz Piotrowski 1 , Pawel Rozga 1, * and Ryszard Kozak 2
1 Institute of Electrical Power Engineering, Lodz University of Technology, 90-924 Lodz, Poland;
tomasz.piotrowski@p.lodz.pl
2 Zrew Transformers S.A., 92-412 Lodz, Poland; ryszard.kozak@zrew-tr.pl
* Correspondence: pawel.rozga@p.lodz.pl; Tel.: +48-42-631-2676




Received: 27 March 2019; Accepted: 3 June 2019; Published: 5 June 2019


Abstract: This article presents a description of four independent case studies concerning situations
when power transformers were directed to internal inspection. This inspection was the result of
a specific case of a routine diagnostic procedure that was carried out and, where the transformer
was switched off by a Buchholz gas relay. The case studies described were selected such that they
represented situations when availability of historical data on the previous measurements was limited
and a quick diagnosis had to be made on the basis of the results from the last measurement. In all
of the cases presented here, the analysis of the gases dissolved in oil had played an important
role in the detection of the defects that turned out to be dangerous for further exploitation of the
transformers considered. The first signal about a possible developing defect was elicited solely
from the measurements of the oil samples taken from the transformer in service. However, more
detailed recognition and initial localization of the defect was possible after additional supplementary
measurements (winding resistance, sweep frequency response analysis, etc.), which required the
transformer to be switched off. The conducted sequence of actions, based on the developed diagnostic
procedure, indicated the possibility of effective and early withdrawal of the transformer from
operation, before it underwent a serious failure.

Keywords: oil power transformers; diagnostic methods; DGA; internal inspection

1. Introduction
Each unexpected outage of power transformer is associated with financial losses for its owner,
as well as the energy consumers who are supplied through this transformer. Additionally, when unsealing
the transformer tank, a fire might break out or a leakage of mineral oil (still the dominant insulation
and cooling medium in power transformers) might occur, causing soil and water contamination [1,2].
Hence, it is important to detect at an early stage, all signals that might indicate a potential defect in a
transformer. Then, on the basis of a proper diagnostic procedure, an effective and rational decision
for the further exploitation of a given transformer unit might be made up. One of such decisions is
timely de-energizing power transformers from service and forwarding it to an internal inspection.
It should also be understood that, in addition to the technical condition of the transformer, decision
about its de-energizing might be forced by the age of the transformer, its service condition, place
of installation, and the ability to replace it by a reserve unit. The proper selection of a diagnostic
procedure and correct interpretation of the results obtained from different types of measurements are
valid, no matter the place of the transformer installation [3–14]. In the case of wind and solar farms,
appropriate procedures become even more important due to the accumulation of stresses that affect

Energies 2019, 12, 2155; doi:10.3390/en12112155 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 2155 2 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 2 of 19

both the insulation

stresses result, among and anothers,
active part from of transformer.
a high variabilityThese stresses result,frequent
of loads, among others, from a high
de-energizing of
variability
transformers, environmental impact (lightning, large daily fluctuations in ambient temperature,large
of loads, frequent de-energizing of transformers, environmental impact (lightning, and
daily fluctuations
sea climate), in ambient temperature,
and requirements to stay operationaland sea climate),
during and requirements
significant voltage dipsto[15]. stayThe
operational
analyses
during significant voltage dips [15]. The analyses carried out have
carried out have indicated that transformer failures might occur mainly in the insulation system indicated that transformer failuresof
might occur mainly in the insulation system of the transformer,
the transformer, transformer windings, bushings, and on-load tap changers (OLTC). Hence, transformer windings, bushings, and
on-load
appropriate tap changers
methods(OLTC). Hence, appropriate
and diagnostic procedures methodsmust be and diagnostic
chosen, in order procedures
to allow the must be chosen,
detection of
in order to allow the detection of defects occurring solely in
defects occurring solely in these parts of the transformer. The best option seems to be thethese parts of the transformer. Theuse best
of
option
methods seems
that to
arebenon-invasive,
the use of methods easy tothat are and
apply, non-invasive, easy toview
give an intuitive apply, and give
about an intuitive
the initial selection viewof
about the initial selection of transformers on healthy units and
transformers on healthy units and units with suspected or developed defect [5,10,16–19]. Among units with suspected or developed
defect [5,10,16–19].
these methods, one of Among
the most these methods,
important is one of the most
the analysis of theimportant is the analysis
gases dissolved of the which
in oil (DGA), gases
dissolved
constitutesinaoil part(DGA),
of thewhich constitutes
fundamental a part of the fundamental
measurements within the firstmeasurements within theprocedure
level of a diagnostic first level
of a diagnostic procedure of a transformer in service [9]. DGA
of a transformer in service [9]. DGA is a commonly used method that allows for the detectionis a commonly used method that allows of
for the detection of thermal or electrical defects that occur in oil–paper
thermal or electrical defects that occur in oil–paper insulation. The distinctive defects (breakdowns, insulation. The distinctive
defects (breakdowns,
partial discharges, and partial
thermal discharges, and thermal
faults) might generate faults) might generate
a characteristic a characteristic
pattern pattern
of gases. Electrical
of
discharges in oil generate large amounts of hydrogen (H2) and acetylene (C2H2 2). In the case of (C
gases. Electrical discharges in oil generate large amounts of hydrogen (H ) and acetylene 2 H2 ).
defects
In
of the case ofinsulation,
cellulose defects of cellulose
carbon monoxide insulation,(CO) carbonandmonoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (COcarbon dioxide (CO2 ) are
2) are also generated. Inalso
the
generated. In the case of partial discharges in oil, large quantities
case of partial discharges in oil, large quantities of hydrogen and methane (CH 4) are formed. of hydrogen and methane (CH4 )
are formed. partial
Concerning Concerning partialindischarges
discharges in oil-impregnated
oil-impregnated cellulosesmall
cellulose insulation, insulation,
amounts small
of COamounts
and CO of2
CO
mightandbeCO 2 might beHowever,
measured. measured.the However,
type and the type and
amount of amount of gases generated
gases generated as a resultasofa result of the
the thermal
thermal degradation of oil, depend on the temperature. With an increase
degradation of oil, depend on the temperature. With an increase in temperature, hydrocarbons are in temperature, hydrocarbons
are generated
generated in the
in the following
following sequence,methane–ethane–ethylene–acetylene,
sequence, methane–ethane–ethylene–acetylene,but but H H22 concentration
concentration is is
low in this case. Thermal decomposition of cellulose is associated
low in this case. Thermal decomposition of cellulose is associated with the generation with the generation of large amounts
of large
of carbonofmonoxide
amounts carbon monoxideand lesser and amounts of carbon
lesser amounts of dioxide [4,5,9,13,16–20].
carbon dioxide The conclusions
[4,5,9,13,16–20]. about
The conclusions
the
abouttransformer’s
the transformer’s technical condition,
technical based on
condition, basedthe on
results of the chromatographic
the results of the chromatographic analysis of the oil
analysis of
sample
the oil sample taken from the transformer, is typically carried out in accordance with the scheme
taken from the transformer, is typically carried out in accordance with the general general
presented in Figurein1Figure
scheme presented [20]. 1 [20].

Figure 1.
Figure 1. General
General scheme
scheme used
used for
for the
the assessment
assessment of
of transformer
transformer technical
technical conditions,
conditions, based
based on
on the
the
analysis of the gases dissolved in oil.
analysis of the gases dissolved in oil.

The exceedance
exceedance ofof the
thetypically
typicallyassumed
assumedvalues
values(the
(thesecond
secondblock from
block thethe
from top)
top)could be be
could used as
used
an indicator
as an in in
indicator thethe
assessment
assessment ofof
the
thetransformer
transformerasasa aunit
unitofofnormal
normalcondition
conditionoror one
one suspected
suspected of
defects. However, it is important to point out that the differences might be a result of the methods
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 3 of 18

defects. However, it is important to point out that the differences might be a result of the methods
applied for determining the nature of the defect. This is especially apparent when the availability of
historical measurement data is limited [9,16–18,21].
In Poland, the typical values of gas concentrations in oil are described separately for the generator
step-up and the network power transformers [16]. These are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Typical gas concentrations in ppm according to [16].

Gas Generator Step-Up Transformer Network Transformer

H2 (hydrogen) 260 350
CH4 (methane) 250 200
C2 H6 (ethane) 160 170
C2 H4 (ethylene) 250 260
C2 H2 (acetylene) 20 70
C3 H8 (propane) 40 30
C3 H6 (propylene) 40 40
CO (carbon oxide) 280 260
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 3500 4000

Acceptable gas concentration increase refers to the total amount of combustible gases. For the
generator step-up power transformers and the network power transformers, these are 35 ppm/month
and 40 ppm/month, respectively. The level of defect development is evaluated on the basis of the sum of
combustible gases. It is assumed that in the case of generator step-up transformers, a slowly-developing
defect evolves when the mentioned sum is in the range of 2200–3700 ppm, while for the network
transformers, this sum is between 2500 and 3700 ppm. However danger state occurs, when the sum of
combustible gases, independent of the transformer type, is in the range of 3700 and 7500 ppm and is in
an emergency state, when the sum exceeds 7500 ppm. The character of the defect is determined on the
basis of the ratio method recommended by the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) 60599
Standard [22]. The distinctive limits describing the type of defect are set as a reminder in Table 2.

Table 2. Defect types recognized in the ratio method as per IEC 60599 Standard [22].

C2 H2 /C2 H4 CH4 /H2 C2 H4 /C2 H6

Partial discharges Not significant <0.1 <0.2
Discharges of low energy >1 0.1–0.5 >1
Discharges of high energy 0.6–2.5 0.1–1 >2
Thermal defect at T < 300 ◦ C Not significant >1 <1
Thermal defect at 300 ◦ C < T < 700 ◦ C <0.1 >1 1–4
Thermal defect at T > 700 ◦ C <0.2 >1 >4

Additionally, the determined value of CO2 /CO ratio, which is lower than 3, might indicate that
cellulose insulation is a subject of abnormal decomposition (fault involves cellulose insulation). In the
case of the defect of a thermal origin, the criteria quoted in Table 3 are used for determining the
overheating temperature [16]. For obtaining a diagnosis or when one cannot be obtained from the
ratio method based on the IEC 60599 Standard, the Duval Triangle Method is applied (the triangles are
called 1, 4, and 5) [18,23].

Table 3. Additional criteria for determining the temperature of thermal defect [16].

Temperature Range [◦ C]
Gas Ratios
150–300 300–700 >700
C3 H6 /C3 H8 <2 2–6 <6
C2 H4 /C3 H8 <3 3–15 <15
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 4 of 18

A quantity considered in the assessment of the technical condition of transformers is the winding
resistance measurement, which belongs to the fundamental electrical measurements and is performed
typically when the first level of diagnostic procedure gives information of the potential defect [9]. It is
carried out for the de-energized transformer and with the terminals disconnected from the network.
Winding resistance is measured between all line terminals of transformers, both at a high voltage
(HV) and a medium voltage (MV) or low voltage (LV) site [16,24,25]. An important aspect is that the
measured and calculated values of resistances must be given in relation to the reference temperature,
which commonly equals to 20 ◦ C. So, if they are measured in another value of temperature, they must
be recalculated with simultaneous consideration of the materials of the windings (cooper or aluminum).
According to the recommendation of [25], the values of the resistances should not differ by more than 1%
from the values given by the transformer manufacturer. In turn, the differences between the resistances
corresponding to the distinctive phases, should not be higher than 3%. The measurements of the
resistances between the external terminals of the transformer, allow for detection of gaps between the
contacts, short circuits, or the conditions of the mechanical and welded connections. These problems
might concern the windings and bushings, as well as the de-energized tap changers (DETC) and the
on-load tap changers (OLTC). This is because all of these components affect the measured values of
resistances. The measurement of winding resistance might be helpful in determining the place of
failure, when the dissolved gas analysis indicate local overheating.
Together with the winding resistance measurement, the method of sweep frequency response
analysis (SFRA) is widely applied in the diagnostic procedures, when the DGA results (as well as other
oil parameters) give information about the suspected defect. The SFRA method is based on applying
the frequency modulated AC voltage to one of the terminals of the transformer and performing
the measurements of voltage/current (typically voltage) occurring on another transformer terminal.
For diagnostic purposes, both amplitude-based observations and angle-based observations in terms
of the transfer function in a given range of frequency are used. In practice, the amplitude-based
observation is commonly applied [25–32]. According to [16,27] as a useful range of frequencies from the
diagnostic point-of-view, the following ranges might be quoted−5 kHz ÷ 1 MHz for power transformers
of a rated voltage >100 kV and 5 kHz ÷ 2 MHz for power transformers of a rated voltage <100 kV.
The frequencies above 1–2 MHz and below 5 kHz are not used in practical applications of the SFRA
method because for frequencies f < 5 kHz, the magnetic residue in the core makes the interpretation of
results difficult, and for frequency f > 1–2 MHz, problems with repeatability of the results might appear.
The measurements are commonly performed for the windings of each side in typical connection
systems—open, short-circuited, with capacitive coupling, and inductive coupling. For each of these
systems, the shape of the transfer function is different. The studies carried out till date and experiences
from interpreting the results [28–32] have showed that the shape of the transfer function in some ranges
of frequencies, might be connected with the given types of defects. These defects have been defined
below by taking into account that the frequency limits have not been defined precisely:

• for f < 20 kHz—residual magnetism, problems with core, open circuits, shorted turns,
• for 20 kHz < f < 100 kHz—bulk winding movement,
• for 100 kHz < f < 500 kHz—radial and axial winding deformation,
• for f > 500 kHz—taps leads, measurement leads, winding connections.

In general, SFRA is a method of comparative character, which means that the actual shape of the
transfer function is related to the results obtained in the previous measurement, for the same winding of
the same transformer, the measurements performed for other windings of the same transformer, or the
measurements carried out for the sister units. For this reason, extensive experience in interpreting
the observed transfer functions is required. Additionally, the SFRA measurements are burdened with
a large degree of subjectivity of assessment. Attempts have been undertaken for an elaboration of
objective criteria and indicators that underline the importance of the changes, but so far these attempts
have not been successful.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 5 of 18

Taking into account the description presented above, in this paper the authors have decided
to present the results of practical use of the mentioned diagnostic measurements in assessment of
the technical conditions of the transformers in service, in the form of case studies. The case studies
described were specially selected as they represent the situations when availability of historical data
about the previous measurements was limited and a quick diagnosis had to be made on the basis of
the results from the last measurements. Such situations occur quite often, when the transformer units
are taken over from a given management company, without any operating documentation. In such a
scenario, the latest measurements are decisive and decisions about diagnostic actions are made on
the basis of their results. In the second case only the most recent measurements were considered
in the diagnostic procedure as the previous measurements were obtained from different diagnostic
companies and were performed by different measurement instruments. This is a common situation in
Poland because a transformer management company, due to the applicable law, is obligated to choose
a company that performs the measurements on the basis of auction, as a result there is a high frequency
of change in companies. Considering this state of affairs, having a diagnostic procedure becomes
difficult, as it is a known fact that the differences appear in the results obtained from the measurements
made by different laboratories [21]. Additionally, all case studies presented concerned situations where
after diagnostic procedure the transformer units were withdrawn from service and directed to the
internal inspection. The emphasis was placed on the presentation of the technical reasons that led to
such a decision. Then, these reasons were set with the defects identified and the reasonableness of the
decision taken was assessed.
The case studies were also chosen from the point-of-view of their importance for researchers,
considering the condition monitoring and diagnosis of the transformers in service and the scientists
who developed the diagnostic methods that were especially based on DGA.
However, existing methods that recognize the nature of the defect occurring in transformers,
on the basis of measured concentrations of gases dissolved in oil have been developed as a result of
the analysis of a large number of data derived from real transformer units, or that obtained during
experiments carried out in the laboratories where oil is subjected to specific thermal or electrical stresses.
An example of a database that was used to develop new diagnostic methods is provided in [33].
In turn, the method of using the sets of gas concentrations dissolved in oil to develop a diagnostic tool
is presented in [34]. Thus, the case studies presented, herein, might interest scientists planning the
development of methods for interpreting the concentrations of gases dissolved in oil or supplementing
the databases with new case studies, where a defect identified on the basis of DGA (using the IEC
60599 Standard and the Duval Triangle Method) has been confirmed by internal inspection.
On the other hand, the presented case studies are important due to the fact that they showed a
mutual complementation of various diagnostic methods that required the withdrawal of the transformer
from service (such as with the DGA method) with ones that did not require such a withdrawal. Thus,
these case studies might be interesting for practitioners who want to confirm the type of damage
reported by the DGA.
The presented cases were also consistent due to the fact that the DGA results solely indicated the
need to precisely analyze those units in which a certain type of defect might have occurred.
Finally, the data provided herein might also be used later to verify the effectiveness of the
diagnostic methods or to develop the computer tools made for interpreting the diagnostic results,
e.g., in the process of training and validation of artificial neural networks.

2. Analysis of the Measurement Results and Their Comparison with the Internal Inspection
The four case studies of free-breathing mineral-oil-filled transformers have been analyzed herein.
They concern the generator step-up transformer (case Study 1), two network transformers (case
Studies 2 and 3), and transformers working in connection with wind turbines (case Study 4). In the first
case, the diagnostic procedure was performed in order to switch off the transformer by the Buchholz gas
relay. In the rest of the cases, the diagnostic measurements were performed within the routine control.
Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 6 of 19

Buchholz gas relay. In the rest of the cases, the diagnostic measurements were performed within the
routine2019,
Energies control.
12, 2155 6 of 18

2.1. Case Study 1

2.1. Case Study 1
Case Study 1 concerned a generator step-up transformer manufactured in 2004 with a rated
Case
power of 30 Study
MVA,1 concerned a generator
a voltage ratio step-up
of 110/10.5 kV, transformer
and a vectormanufactured
group YNd11.inThe 2004 with a of
analysis rated
the
power of 30 MVA, a voltage ratio of 110/10.5 kV, and a vector group YNd11. The
results of the routine measurement of gas concentrations dissolved in oil, performed in accordance analysis of the
results
with theofIECthe60559
routine measurement
Standard of supplemented
[22], and gas concentrations
with dissolved
analysis ofinpropane
oil, performed
(C 3H6) andin accordance
propylene
with
(C3H8) concentrations [16], indicated the appearance of local overheating, in the propylene
the IEC 60559 Standard [22], and supplemented with analysis of propane (C 3 H 6 ) and range of
(C 3 H8 ) concentrations
temperatures between[16],
150 indicated
°C and 300 the°C.
appearance of local overheating,
Such a diagnosis was confirmed in the range
by the of temperatures
analysis using the
between 150 ◦ C 1,
Duval Triangle and 300 ◦indicated
which C. Such a adiagnosis was confirmed
T2-type thermal fault inby
thethe analysis using
temperature rangetheofDuval Triangle
300 °C to 700
1, which indicated a T2-type thermal fault in the temperature range of 300 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C (Figure 2).
°C (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Defect
Defectindicated
indicatedby
bythe
theDuval
DuvalTriangle
TriangleMethod
Methodperformed
performedasas
routine measurement
routine forfor
measurement a 30
a
30 MVA,
MVA, 110/10.5
110/10.5 kVkV power
power transformer.
transformer.

Due
Due to to the
theimportance
importanceofofthe theunit
unitconsidered
considered forfor
thethe operation
operation of electrical
of an an electrical powerpower system,
system, the
the transformer
transformer analyzed
analyzed was was left
left in in service,
service, with with recommendation
recommendation of moreof more
frequentfrequent
analysisanalysis of
of gases
gases
dissolveddissolved
in oil,inasoil,
wellas well
as a as a detailed
detailed monitoring
monitoring of itsofload.
its load. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, afterafter
fivefive months
months of
of operation, the transformer was switched off by the 1st and 2nd levels of
operation, the transformer was switched off by the 1st and 2nd levels of the Buchholz gas relay. This the Buchholz gas relay.
This situation
situation forcedforced the diagnostic
the diagnostic actions.actions.
An oil An oil sample
sample was taken wasfrom
taken thefrom the transformer
transformer and sentand for
sent for checking the typical oil parameters and gas concentrations. The
checking the typical oil parameters and gas concentrations. The results obtained from these results obtained from these
measurements
measurements are areshown
shown in in
Table 4 (basic
Table oil parameters)
4 (basic and Table
oil parameters) and5 Table
(concentrations of gases dissolved
5 (concentrations of gases
in oil; the results
dissolved marked
in oil; the as 2nd
results markedin Table 5), respectively.
as 2nd Additionally,Additionally,
in Table 5), respectively. in Table 5 theinresultsTable of
5 the
first chromatographic analysis mentioned above, which indicated the appearance
results of the first chromatographic analysis mentioned above, which indicated the appearance of of local overheating
(marked in this table
local overheating as 1st),in
(marked have
thisbeen
tablequoted.
as 1st),The
havemeasured valuesThe
been quoted. of the oil parameters
measured values (shown in
of the oil
Table 4) fulfilled
parameters (shownall requirements
in Table 4) of the national
fulfilled transformer operation
all requirements instructions
of the national [16] andoperation
transformer they did
not arouse any
instructions [16]suspicions.
and they did not arouse any suspicions.

Table 4.4.Results
Table Resultsof of
thethe
measurements of oilof
measurements sample taken from
oil sample 30 MVA,
taken 110/10.5
from 30 MVA, kV110/10.5
power transformer.
kV power
transformer. Value
Parameter
Measured Value
Required [16]
Parameter
Appearance Measured
fulfill criteria Required
clear, no separated water [16]
and solid particles
Fire point (◦ C) 144 ≥130
clear, no separated
Appearance
Acid number (mg KOH/g) 0.01fulfill criteria ≤0.25
Moisture content (ppm) 10.2 water≤25
and solid particles
Dielectric dissipation
Fire point (°C)at 50 ◦ C
factor 0.004 144 <0.07 ≥130
Resistivity at 50 ◦ C (Ωm) 67.8 × 109 >5 × 109
Acid number (mg KOH/g) 0.01 ≤0.25
AC breakdown voltage (kV) 66.0 ≥45
 Moisture content (ppm) 10.2 ≤25
Dielectric dissipation factor at 50 °C 0.004 <0.07
Resistivity at 50 °C (Ωm) 67.8 × 109 >5 × 109
AC breakdown voltage (kV) 66.0 ≥45
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 7 of 18
Table 5. Gas concentrations measured for the oil samples taken from 30 MVA, 110/10.5 kV power
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked in bold font).
Table 5. Gas concentrations measured for the oil samples taken from 30 MVA, 110/10.5 kV power
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked Gas Concentrations
in bold font). Gas
Gas 1st 2nd [16] Increase
Gas Concentrations
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
Gas Increase
Gas 1st 2nd [16]
H2 (hydrogen) 10.6 319.2 260 308.6
CH4 (methane) (ppm) 24.0(ppm) 60.5(ppm) 250 (ppm) 36.5
HC22H 6 (ethane)
(hydrogen) 10.6 55.2 319.2 52.1 260 160 308.6 -
CH (methane)
C2H4 (ethylene)
4 24.0 13.2 60.5 47.1 250 250 36.5 33.9
C2 H6 (ethane) 55.2 52.1 160 -
C2H2 (acetylene) 0.0 139.9 20 139.9
C2 H4 (ethylene) 13.2 47.1 250 33.9
C 3H8 (propane)
C2 H2 (acetylene) 0.0 81.8 139.9 48.9 20 40 139.9 -
CC33H
H68 (propylene)
(propane) 81.8 52.1 48.9 42.1 40 40 - -
CO
C3 H(carbon oxide)
6 (propylene) 52.1 385.4 42.1 569.3 40 280 - 183.9
COCO (carbon oxide)
2 (carbon dioxide)
385.4 6539.2569.3 1644.9280 3500 183.9 -
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 6539.2 1644.9 3500 -
Sum of total combustion gases TCG 622.3 1279.1 - 656.8
Sum of total combustion gases TCG 622.3 1279.1 - 656.8
1st—refers to the data from the 1st chromatographic analysis identifying the local overheating;
1st—refers to the data from the 1st chromatographic analysis identifying the local overheating; 2nd—refers to
2nd—refers
the data fromtothe
the data
2nd from the 2nd chromatographic
chromatographic analysis made afteranalysis
switchingmade after switching
the transformer off by the
the transformer
Buchholz gas
off by[16]—refers
relay; the Buchholz gas
to the relay;gas
typical [16]—refers to the
concentrations typicaltogas
according [16].concentrations according to [16].

However, the
However, theanalysis
analysiscarried out out
carried for the
forgases dissolved
the gases in oil sample
dissolved in oiltaken
samplefromtaken
the transformer
from the
after an emergency shutdown, indicated an exceedance of the typical values
transformer after an emergency shutdown, indicated an exceedance of the typical values of of concentrations of
hydrogen, acetylene, propane, propylene, and carbon oxide. It was also stated that, in relation
concentrations of hydrogen, acetylene, propane, propylene, and carbon oxide. It was also stated that, to the
previous
in measurement,
relation the increase
to the previous in total the
measurement, combustion
increase gases (TCG)
in total was 656.8gases
combustion ppm. (TCG)
The ratio
wasmethod
656.8
applied in accordance to the IEC 60599 Standard indicated discharge occurrence.
ppm. The ratio method applied in accordance to the IEC 60599 Standard indicated discharge This diagnosis was
again confirmed by the Duval Triangle Method, which indicated a defect of type
occurrence. This diagnosis was again confirmed by the Duval Triangle Method, which indicated a D1 (low energy
discharges),
defect of typeon
D1the basis
(low of Duval
energy Triangle on
discharges), 1 (Figure 3). of Duval Triangle 1 (Figure 3).
the basis

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Defect
Defectindicated
indicatedby
bythe
theDuval
DuvalTriangle
TriangleMethod
Methodfor
for30
30MVA,
MVA,110/10.5
110/10.5 kV
kVpower
powertransformer
transformer
performed after an emergency
performed after an emergency shutdown of the transformer.

As the level of exceedance of the required values was significant, a decision for internal inspection
was made. After untanking the transformer, the defects were identified (presented in Figure 4).
Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 8 of 19

As the level of exceedance of the required values was significant, a decision for internal
inspection
Energies 2019, was made. After untanking the transformer, the defects were identified (presented
12, 2155 8 of in
18
Figure 4).

Figure 4.
Figure The damages
4. The damages identified
identified during
during the
the internal
internal inspection
inspection ofof 30
30 MVA,
MVA, 110/10.5
110/10.5 kVkV step-up
step-up
generator transformer.
generator transformer. (a)
(a) Loose
Loose and
and damaged
damaged clamping
clamping elements,
elements, (b)
(b) turn
turn short
short circuits
circuits in
in primary
primary
(high voltage)
(high voltage) windings,
windings, and
and (c)
(c) traces
traces from
from the
the electric
electric arc
arc (acting
(acting the
the electro-dynamic
electro-dynamic forces)
forces) inin the
the
secondary windings.
secondary windings.

First of
First of all,
all,the
thedefect
defectidentified
identifiedwas
wasthethe
loose andand
loose damaged
damaged clamping
clamping elements on phase
elements A. Then,
on phase A.
during the process of removing the windings from the core, the damage of
Then, during the process of removing the windings from the core, the damage of both primary both primary (110 kV side)
(110
andside)
kV secondary (10.5 kV side)
and secondary (10.5 windings of phase Aofwere
kV side) windings phaseidentified. The traces The
A were identified. fromtraces
the electric arc
from the
(acting of electro-dynamic forces) in the secondary windings and the turn short-circuits
electric arc (acting of electro-dynamic forces) in the secondary windings and the turn short-circuits in the primary
windings
in werewindings
the primary also disclosed
were on the
also same phase.
disclosed The
on the internal
same phase. inspection
The internalcarried out, confirmed
inspection the
carried out,
initial diagnosis
confirmed regarding
the initial the occurrence
diagnosis regarding theof discharges
occurrenceinofthe transformer
discharges insulation,
in the transformerwhich resulted
insulation,
in the carbonization of the paper insulation visible in Figure 4c, and a failure of the
which resulted in the carbonization of the paper insulation visible in Figure 4c, and a failure of the phase A winding,
due to A
phase a short circuit.
winding, dueSince
to a the windings
short of transformer
circuit. Since phaseofBtransformer
the windings and C were not phase destroyed,
B and Cawere
decision
not
was made to
destroyed, a rewind
decisionphase A and to
was made after performing
rewind phase the factory
A and aftertests, the transformer
performing was tests,
the factory returned
the
to service. was returned to service.
transformer
2.2. Case Study 2
2.2. Case Study 2
During the exploitation of the three winding network power transformers with a rated power
During the exploitation of the three winding network power transformers with a rated power
of 40/20/20 MVA, a voltage ratio of 115/16.5/16.5 kV, and the vector group YNd11d11 manufactured
of 40/20/20 MVA, a voltage ratio of 115/16.5/16.5 kV, and the vector group YNd11d11 manufactured
in 1985, the complex measurements were performed in accordance to the diagnostic system
in 1985, the complex measurements were performed in accordance to the diagnostic system applied
applied in the distribution company [9]. These covered the measurements of the magnetization
in the distribution company [9]. These covered the measurements of the magnetization currents, the
currents, the measurements of the dielectric dissipation factor of winding insulation and bushings,
measurements of the dielectric dissipation factor of winding insulation and bushings, the
the measurements of core and winding deformation using the SFRA method, the measurement of
measurements of core and winding deformation using the SFRA method, the measurement of
moisture levels of paper insulation using Frequency Domain Spectroscopy (FDS), the measurement of
moisture levels of paper insulation using Frequency Domain Spectroscopy (FDS), the measurement
insulation resistance, and the measurement of windings resistance. As a routine procedure, the oil
of insulation resistance, and the measurement of windings resistance. As a routine procedure, the oil
samples were also taken from the transformer in order to measure the oil parameters and to analyze
samples were also taken from the transformer in order to measure the oil parameters and to analyze
the concentrations of gases dissolved in oil. The results concerning the oil parameters measured are
the concentrations of gases dissolved in oil. The results concerning the oil parameters measured are
shown in Table 6. They fulfilled the requirements and indicated a good condition of oil.
shown in Table 6. They fulfilled the requirements and indicated a good condition of oil.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 9 of 18

Table 6. Results of the measurements of oil sample taken from a 40/20/20 MVA, 115/16.5/16.5 kV
power transformer.

Value
Parameter
Measured Required [16]
Appearance fulfill criteria clear, no separated water and solid particles
Fire point (◦ C) 135 ≥130
Acid number (mg KOH/g) 0.071 ≤0.25
Moisture content (ppm) 18.0 ≤25
Dielectric dissipation factor at 50 ◦ C 0.0044 <0.07
Resistivity at 50 ◦ C (Ωm) 50.8 × 109 >5 × 109
AC breakdown voltage (kV) 72.4 ≥45

In turn, the results of the measurements of concentrations of gases dissolved in oil are shown in
Table 7. In order to show a short trend (earlier data were not available), the results obtained 14 months
before the considered diagnostic actions have also been quoted.

Table 7. Gas concentrations measured for oil samples taken from a 30 MVA, 110/10.5 kV power
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked in bold font).

Gas Concentrations
Gas Increase
Gas 1st 2nd [16]
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
H2 (hydrogen) 164.0 742.0 350 578.0
CH4 (methane) 48.6 148.0 200 99.4
C2 H6 (ethane) 52.1 237.0 170 184.9
C2 H4 (ethylene) 13.9 30.0 260 16.1
C2 H2 (acetylene) 7.5 5.0 70 -
C3 H8 (propane) 10.9 251.0 30 240.1
C3 H6 (propylene) 17.1 22.0 40 4.9
CO (carbon oxide) 500.9 88.0 260 -
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 1889.5 1692.0 4000 -
Sum of total combustion gases TCG 975.7 1555.0 - 579.3
1st—refers to the data from the 1st chromatographic analysis made 14 months before the considered diagnostic
actions; 2nd—refers to the data from 2nd chromatographic analysis; [16]—refers to the typical gas concentrations
according to [16].

As can be seen, a significant increase of hydrogen, methane, ethane, and propane, and consequently,
an increase in TCG were identified. It was stated that hydrogen, ethane and propane exceeded the
typical values in accordance to the [16]. As the adopted procedure required the interpretation of
the results, the analysis was also done in accordance with the IEC 60559 Standard using the ratio
method and was supported by the Duval Triangle Method. The ratio method indicated that the local
overheating did not exceed 300 ◦ C. The defect diagnosed by this method as well as the temperature
of overheating were confirmed by a simple calculation based on the concentration of propane and
propylene (C3 H6 /C3 H8 = 0.09 and C2 H4 /C3 H8 = 0.12), which, in accordance with the data from
Table 3, quoted above, indicated the overheating temperature within the range of 150–300 ◦ C. In turn,
the diagnosis obtained after the application of the Duval Triangle Method was a T1 type thermal fault,
therefore, the obtained fault was in the same temperature range. The result of the analysis using Duval
Triangle 1 is shown in Figure 5.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 10 of 18
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Energies2016,
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10of
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19

Figure
Figure 5.5.
5.Defect
Defect
Defectindicated
indicatedby
bythe
indicated theDuval
by Duval
the Triangle
Triangle
Duval Method
Method
Triangle for
for40/20/20
Method 40/20/20 MVA,
MVA,115/16.5/16.5
for 40/20/20 115/16.5/16.5
MVA, kV
kVpower
power
115/16.5/16.5 kV
transformer.
transformer.
power transformer.

Since
Since the
the other
other measurements
measurements were were made
made in
in the
the considered
considered transformer,
transformer, the
the anomalies
anomalies were
anomalies were
identified
identified on on the
the basis
basis of
of the
the results obtained
obtained using
using the SFRA method. These
These anomalies
anomalies concerned
basis of the results obtained using the SFRA method. These anomalies concernedconcerned
the
the tertiary
tertiary windings
windings and
and the
the frequency
frequency range
range between
between60
between 60and
60 and100
and 100kHz,
100 kHz,as
kHz, asshown
as shownin
shown inFigure
in Figure6.
Figure 6.In
6. In this
this
range
range ofof frequency
frequency the
the windings
windings deformation
deformationmight
deformation mightbe
might betreated
treatedas
asthe
theadopted
adoptedcause
causeofoffailure.
failure.

Figure Results
Resultsofof
Figure 6.6.Results thethe
of the sweep
sweep frequency
frequency
sweep response
response
frequency analysis
analysis
response (SFRA)(SFRA)
analysis measurements
measurements
(SFRA) for
for tertiary
measurements tertiary
forwindings
tertiary
windings
in in an open
an openinsystem.
windings system.
an open system.

On
On the
On the basis
basisof
basis ofthe
of theDGA
the DGA
DGA data and
data
data thethe
and
and SFRA
the results,
SFRA
SFRA decision
results,
results, for an
decision
decision forinternal
for an inspection
an internal
internal was made.
inspection
inspection was
was
As a
made. result of this inspection, the following defects were identified—loose and damaged
made. As a result of this inspection, the following defects were identified—loose and damaged of
As a result of this inspection, the following defects were identified—loose and of clamping
damaged of
elements,
clamping windings
elements, deformation,
clamping elements, windings and gaps inand
windings deformation,
deformation, thegaps
and elements
gaps in ofelements
in the
the solid insulation
elements of
of solid(pictorially
solid insulationpresented
insulation in
(pictorially
(pictorially
Figure 7). in
presented
presented inFigure
Figure7).
7).
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 11 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 11 of 19

Figure 7. The
The damages
damages identified
identified during
during an
an internal
internal inspection
inspection of
ofthe
the40/20/20
40/20/20 MVA,
MVA, 115/16.5/16.5 kV
power transformer: (a)
(a) Loose
Loose and damaged
damaged clamping
clamping elements,
elements, (b)
(b) windings deformation,
deformation, and
and (c)
(c)
gaps in the elements solid insulation.

As
As inin the
the case
case Study
Study1,1,thetheinternal
internalinspection
inspectionmademadepossible
possible thethe recognition
recognition of of
thethe defect,
defect, in
in accordance
accordance with
with thethe results
results ofof the
the diagnosis,based
diagnosis, basedononthe
theresults
resultsofofthe
theDGA
DGAandandthe
theSFRA
SFRAmethod.
method.
Local
Local overheating clearly resulted
overheating clearly resulted from
from the
the deformations that occurred,
deformations that occurred, causing
causing aa local
local increase
increase in
in
temperatures, as a result of the limitations of an effective cooling. In turn, the deformations
temperatures, as a result of the limitations of an effective cooling. In turn, the deformations themselves
were reflected
themselves in the
were resultsinofthe
reflected theresults
SFRA ofmeasurements.
the SFRA measurements.
After properly repairing the area
After properly repairing the area of the of thedamaged
damagedwindings,
windings,the the transformer
transformer was
was returned
returned to
to service.
service.

2.3. Case Study

2.3. Case Study 33
During the exploitation
During the exploitation of
of the
the network
network power
power transformer
transformer with
with aa rated
rated power
power 10 10 MVA,
MVA, voltage
voltage
ratio
ratio 110/6 kV, and the vector group YNd11 manufactured in 1973, complex measurements were
110/6 kV, and the vector group YNd11 manufactured in 1973, complex measurements were
performed
performed as as the
the 2nd
2nd level
level of
of the
the adopted
adopted diagnostic
diagnostic system
system [9]. The measurements
[9]. The measurements covered,
covered, among
among
others,
others, the
themeasurement
measurement of magnetization currents,
of magnetization measurement
currents, of insulation
measurement ofresistance,
insulation measurement
resistance,
of windings resistance, measurement of basic parameters of oil sample taken from
measurement of windings resistance, measurement of basic parameters of oil sample taken from thethe transformer,
as well as a dissolved
transformer, as well asgas analysis. gas
a dissolved Theanalysis.
oil parameters
The oil measured
parameters(shown in Table
measured 8) fulfilled
(shown in Tablethe
8)
required criteria and indicated a good condition of oil.
fulfilled the required criteria and indicated a good condition of oil.

Table 8. Results of the measurements of oil sample taken from a 10 MVA, 110/6 kV power transformer.
Table 8. Results of the measurements of oil sample taken from a 10 MVA, 110/6 kV power
transformer. Value
Parameter
Measured Required [16]
Value
Parameter
Appearance Measured
fulfill criteria clear, no separated Required [16] particles
water and solid
Fire point (◦ C) 146 clear, ≥130
no separated water
Acid numberAppearance
(mg KOH/g) 0.12fulfill criteria ≤0.25
and solid particles
Moisture content (ppm) 6.0 ≤25
Fire point (°C)
Dielectric dissipation factor at 50 ◦ C 0.012
146 <0.07
≥130
Resistivity at 50 ◦(mg
Acid number KOH/g)
C (Ωm) 17.0 × 10 9 0.12 ≤0.25
>5 × 109
Moisture content
AC breakdown (ppm)
voltage (kV) 79.0 6.0 ≥45 ≤25
Dielectric dissipation factor at 50 °C 0.012 <0.07
Resistivity at 50 °C (Ωm) 17.0 × 109 >5 × 109
AC breakdown voltage (kV) 79.0 ≥45
Energies 2019,
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18

However, an analysis of the measured concentrations of the gases dissolved in oil (Table 9)
However,
indicated an analysis
that methane, of theethylene,
ethane, measured concentrations
acetylene, ofand
propane, the propylene
gases dissolved in oil
exceeded the(Table 9)
typical
indicated that methane,
values as per [16]. ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propane, and propylene exceeded the typical
values as per [16].
Table 9. The gas concentrations measured for oil samples taken from 10 MVA, 110/6 kV power
Table 9. The gas concentrations measured for oil samples taken from 10 MVA, 110/6 kV power
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked in bold font).
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked in bold font).
Gas Concentrations
Gas Gas Concentrations
Gas Measured (ppm) Typical (ppm)
H2 (hydrogen) Measured
132(ppm) Typical350
(ppm)
CHH24 (hydrogen)
(methane) 132
713 350
200
C2H46 (methane)
CH (ethane) 713
807 200
170
C H6 (ethane) 807 170
C2H24 (ethylene) 1089 260
C2 H4 (ethylene) 1089 260
CC2HH2 (acetylene) 51 7070
2 2 (acetylene) 51
CC3H3H 8 8(propane)
(propane) 638
638 3030
CC3H H
3 6
6 (propylene)
(propylene) 2191
2191 4040
COCO(carbon
(carbon oxide)
oxide) 480
480 260
260
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 3000 4000
CO2 (carbon dioxide) 3000 4000
Sum of total combustion gases TCG 6101 -
Sum of total combustion gases TCG 6101 -

Taking this
Taking this into
into account,
account, the
theevaluation
evaluationofofaapotential
potentialdefect
defecttype
typewas
was carried
carried out
out onon
thethe basis
basis of
of the recommendations described in the IEC 60559 Standard [22], with simultaneous
the recommendations described in the IEC 60559 Standard [22], with simultaneous consideration of consideration
of the
the obtained
obtained concentrations
concentrations of ofpropane
propane(C(C 3H
3H
) and propylene (C3 H
6) 6and propylene (C3H
) [16] and the results of the
8) 8[16] and the results of the
analysis of
analysis of the
the Duval
Duval Triangle
Triangle Method
Method (Figure
(Figure 8). In the
8). In the first
first two cases, the
two cases, the analysis
analysis showed
showed that
that the
the
potential defect was a thermal one, in the range of temperatures 300–700 ◦ C and in one case (Duval
potential defect was a thermal one, in the range of temperatures 300–700 °C and in one case (Duval
Triangle ◦ C.
Triangle 1)
1) the
the defect
defect concerned
concerned aa temperature
temperature above above 700
700 °C.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Defect
Defectindicated
indicatedby
bythe
theDuval
DuvalTriangle
Triangle Method
Method for
for 10
10 MVA, 110/6 kV
MVA, 110/6 kV power
power transformer.
transformer.

In turn,
turn, the
theresults
resultsofofthe winding
the windingresistance measurement
resistance measurementperformed for the
performed for HV
the windings
HV windings(110
kV) for
(110 kV)all
forpositions of the
all positions oftap
thechanger are shown
tap changer in Figure
are shown 9. The
in Figure observed
9. The increase
observed of resistance
increase for
of resistance
phase C is clearly visible, in comparison to the other phases.
for phase C is clearly visible, in comparison to the other phases.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 13 of 18
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19

Figure
Figure 9.
Figure Resistance
9. Resistance
9. of
Resistance of the
of the high
the high voltage
high voltage (HV)
voltage (HV) windings
(HV) windings (110 kV
windings (110 kV side)
side) of
of 10
10 MVA,
MVA,
MVA, 110/6
110/6 kV
110/6 kVnetwork
kV network
network
power transformer.
power transformer.
power transformer.

On
On the the basis
basis of
of the
the measurement
measurement results
results obtained,
obtained, the
the decision
decision for
for an
an internal
internal inspection
inspection was
was
On the basis of the measurement results obtained, the decision for an internal inspection was
made.
made. It
It led
led to
to the
the identification
identification of
of the
the burnt
burnt lead
lead in
in phase
phase CC of
of the
the HV
HV winding.
winding. The
The defect
defect has
has been
been
made. It led to the identification of the burnt lead in phase C of the HV winding. The defect has been
pictorially
pictoriallypresented
presentedin inFigure
Figure10.
10.
pictorially presented in Figure 10.

Figure 10.
Figure
Figure 10. Damage
10. Damage identified
Damage identified during internal
identified during
during internal inspection
internal inspection of
inspection of aaa 10
of 10 MVA,
10 MVA,110/6
MVA, 110/6kV
110/6 kVpower
kV powertransformer.
power transformer.
transformer.

As was
As was clearly
clearly noticed,
noticed, the
noticed, the local
the local overheating
local overheating
overheatingwas was
wasaaaresult
result of the
result of
of the identified
the identified burnt
identified burnt lead
burnt lead in
in phase
phase CC
of the
of theHV
the HVwinding,
HV winding,
winding, which
which
which was
was
was also
also
also apparent
apparent
apparent in measurement
in
in the the measurement
the measurement ofwinding
of theof the winding
the winding resistance.
resistance.
resistance. An
An
An action
action
action
was was
was
taken taken
andtaken and the
andin the
the lead phase lead
lead
C was in phase
in repaired. C
phase C The was repaired.
wastransformer The
repaired. then transformer
The passed
transformer then passed
then passed tests
the comprehensive the
the
comprehensive
comprehensive
and was returned tests
tests and was
to and was returned
service. returned to to service.
service.

2.4. Case
2.4.
2.4. Case Study
Study 444
Case Study
The
The 4th case
The 4th casestudy
case studyconcerned
study concerned
concerned the
the the transformer,
transformer,
transformer, which
which
which waswas
was selected
selected
selected fromfrom
from a group
aa group
group of several
of several
of several wind
wind
wind
turbine turbine generator
generator (WTG) (WTG) step-up
step-up transformers
transformers with with
a a
ratedrated
powerpower
turbine generator (WTG) step-up transformers with a rated power of 2.7 MVA, a voltage ratio of of
2.7 2.7
MVA, MVA, a a voltage
voltage ratio
ratio of
of
of 30/0.66
30/0.66
30/0.66 kV,
kV, kV,
and
andandof
ofofthe
theDyn5
the Dyn5vector
Dyn5 vectorgroup.
vector group.All
group. Allunits
All unitswere
units weremanufactured
were manufacturedin
manufactured in 2008
in 2008 byby the
the
the same
same
same
manufacturer
manufacturer and
and they
they were
werecharacterized
characterized by aluminum
by aluminum windings. In
windings. all
manufacturer and they were characterized by aluminum windings. In all cases, after a relatively In cases,
all after
cases, a relatively
after a short
relatively
period
short of operation
short period
period of (5–8 years),
of operation
operation (5–8 the DGA-based
(5–8 years),
years), problems
the DGA-based
the DGA-based were identified.
problems
problems The transformer
were identified.
were identified. owner,
The transformer
The transformer
after
owner,
owner, five years
after
after fiveofyears
five operation
years of of the selected
of operation
operation of the
of unit, decided
the selected
selected to perform
unit, decided
unit, decided the firstthe
to perform
to perform DGA
the test.
first
first DGA
DGA The results
test.
test. The
The
of this
results test
of have
this testbeen
have shown
been in
shown Table
in 10
Tableas measurement
10 as measurementnumber 1
number and
results of this test have been shown in Table 10 as measurement number 1 and have been designated 1 have
and been
have designated
been designated as
aas“routine
as aa “routine
“routine test”. As
test”.
test”. the
As
As thetypical
the typicalconcentrations
typical concentrationsof
concentrations ofthe
of thedistinctive
the distinctivegases
distinctive gases(hydrogen,
gases (hydrogen, ethylene,
(hydrogen, ethane,
ethylene, ethane,
ethane,
methane, propylene and
methane, propylene and carbon
carbon dioxide)
dioxide) had had exceeded,
exceeded, an an attempt
attempt toto identify
identify aa potential
potential defect
defect was
was
made. Interpretation of the results obtained, made in accordance with
made. Interpretation of the results obtained, made in accordance with recommendations of the IEC recommendations of the IEC
60559 standard
60559 standard [22],
[22], indicated
indicated aa thermal
thermal defect
defect in in the
the temperature
temperature range range of of 300–700
300–700 °C. °C.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 14 of 18

made. Interpretation of the results obtained, made in accordance with recommendations of the IEC
60559 standard [22], indicated a thermal defect in the temperature range of 300–700 ◦ C. Simultaneously,
following the recommendations of [16], exceedance of a temperature of 700 ◦ C could not be excluded
(C3 H6 /C3 H8 = 85.57 and C2 H4 /C3 H8 = 15.06), as shown in Table 3. The latter was also confirmed
by the diagnosis based on the Duval Triangle Method, where the T3 type of the thermal defect was
identified [9,16,18,21,23]. The results of the analysis using Duval Triangle 1 have been presented in
Figure 11.

Table 10. Gas concentrations measured for the oil samples taken from a 2.7 MVA, 30/0.66 kV power
transformer (exceedance of the typical values is marked in bold font).

Gas Concentrations
Measured (ppm)
Gas 1 2 3 4 5 6 Typical
Routine After 1 Month After 1 Year 2 Years (ppm)
Test Degassing Later Repairing Later Later
H2 (hydrogen) 881.0 1.5 1464.1 4.8 19.9 16.4 350
Energies 2016,
CH9,(methane)
x; doi:10.3390/ 1183.4 0.6 202.4 2.5 24.1 20.3 200 14 of 19
4
C2 H6 (ethane) 1141.3 1.1 63.6 5.5 23.7 16.9 170
C2 H4 (ethylene)
Simultaneously, following the 4445.9 1.3
recommendations 179.1 2.3
of [16], exceedance of5.6a temperature
5.4 260°C could
of 700
C2 H2 (acetylene) 26.8 0.0 486.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 70
not be excluded (C3H6/C3H829.6
C3 H8 (propane) = 85.57 and0.0C2H4/C3H 5.68 = 15.06),1.3
as shown5.4 in Table 3.6.8The latter
30 was also
C 3 H 6 (propylene) 2532.9 0.0 23.8 0.0 0.4
confirmed by the diagnosis based on the Duval Triangle Method, where the T3 type of the thermal 1.2 40
CO (carbon oxide) 122.7 8.4 24.4 132.8 232.1 192.5 260
defect CO
was identified
2 (carbon dioxide) [9,16,18,21,23].
4419.2 The
556.6 results840.9
of the analysis
1389.0 using
1122.4 Duval 1268.4
Triangle 14000
have been
TCG 10,363.6 12.9 2449.4 149.2 311.2 259.5 -
presented in Figure 11.

11.Defect
Figure 11. Defectindicated
indicated
by by the Duval
the Duval Triangle
Triangle MethodMethod
for a 2.7for a 2.7
MVA, MVA,
30/0.66 kV 30/0.66 kV power
power transformer
transformer
for for a 1st measurement
a 1st measurement designated asdesignated as “routine test”.
“routine test”.

Since there were no previous measurements of the gases dissolved in oil, the owner of the
transformer decided to degas the oil, immediately
immediately perform a chromatographic
chromatographic analysis
analysis after
after this,
this,
and repeat
repeatit after oneone
it after month. The results
month. obtained
The results in this field
obtained in are
thisshown
field in
areTable 10—the
shown measurements
in Table 10—the
have been marked
measurements haveby numbers
been marked2 and by
3 and have been
numbers designated
2 and 3 and as “after
have degassing”
been and “1
designated as month
“after
later”, respectively. As can be seen in this table, the measurements performed
degassing” and “1 month later”, respectively. As can be seen in this table, the measurements one month after oil
degassing
performed revealed
one month a significant increaserevealed
after oil degassing in the gas concentrations.
a significant increaseThe exceedance
in the of the typical
gas concentrations. The
values by the
exceedance ofgases such as
the typical hydrogen,
values by the ethylene,
gases suchmethane, and acetylene
as hydrogen, ethylene,was noticed
methane, andunambiguously.
acetylene was
Interpretation of the resultsInterpretation
noticed unambiguously. obtained, made ofinthe
accordance
results with the recommendations
obtained, made in accordance of the IEC
with60559
the
standard [22] and the
recommendations of Duval
the IECTriangle
60559 1standard
clearly indicated
[22] anda thedischarge
DuvalofTriangle
low energy. The results
1 clearly of thea
indicated
analysis
dischargeusing
of lowtheenergy.
Duval The
Triangle 1 have
results of thebeen presented
analysis using intheFigure
Duval12.Triangle 1 have been presented in
Figure 12.
The extremely high increase in the TCG (exceeding 2000 ppm/month) and the suggested type of
fault (discharges) caused in directing the transformer towards an internal inspection. As a result,
burnt connections (aluminum and cooper) on the regulating windings of phases B and C were
identified. Confirmation of this observation can be seen in Figure 13.
Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 15 of 19

Energies 2019, 12,

CO2 (carbon 2155
dioxide) 4419.2 556.6 840.9 1389.0 1122.4 1268.4 15 of 18
4000
TCG 10,363.6 12.9 2449.4 149.2 311.2 259.5 -

Energies 2016, 9, x; doi:10.3390/ 15 of 19

CO2 (carbon dioxide) 4419.2 556.6 840.9 1389.0 1122.4 1268.4 4000
TCG 10,363.6 12.9 2449.4 149.2 311.2 259.5 -

Figure 12. Defect indicated by the Duval Triangle

Triangle for a 2.7 MVA, 30/0.66 kV power transformer for a
designated as
3rd measurement designated as “1
“1 month
month later”.
later”.

The extremely high increase in the TCG (exceeding 2000 ppm/month) and the suggested type of
fault (discharges) caused in directing the transformer towards an internal inspection. As a result, burnt
connections (aluminum
Figure 12. and cooper)
Defect indicated on the
by the Duval regulating
Triangle windings
for a 2.7 of phases
MVA, 30/0.66 B and
kV power C were identified.
transformer for a
Confirmation of this observation can be seen in
3rd measurement designated as “1 month later”. Figure 13.

Figure 13. Damage identified during an internal inspection of a 2.7 MVA, 30/0.06 kV power
transformer.

After repairing the aluminum–copper connection and applying Cu–Al washers, the
transformer was returned into service. Chromatographic analysis of the oil performed after 1 and 2
yearsFigure
of repairing
Figure 13.Damage
13. theidentified
Damage transformer,
identified
during did
during notinternal
an
an internal indicate any
of aabnormalities
inspection
inspection 2.7 of
MVA,a 2.7 MVA,
30/0.06(Table 10—measurement
kV 30/0.06
power kV power
transformer.
numbers 4 and 5, designated as “1 year later” and “2 years later”). In the case of the other
transformer.
After repairing
transformers with the thesame
aluminum–copper
constructional connection
features and and applying
rated Cu–Althat
parameters washers, the transformer
have been mentioned
was returned
After
above, into service.
repairing
the original Chromatographic
the used
washers aluminum–copper
by the manufactureranalysis
connectionof the
were oil
and
also performed
applying
replaced after
those1made
withCu–Al and 2ofyears
washers, of
the
Al–Cu.
repairing thewas
transformer transformer,
returned did intonot indicate
service. any abnormalities
Chromatographic (Table of
analysis 10—measurement
the oil performed numbers 4 and
after 1 and 2
3. designated
5, Discussion
years as “1 year
of repairing later” and “2 years
the transformer, did not later”). In theany
indicate caseabnormalities
of the other transformers with the same
(Table 10—measurement
constructional
numbers 4 and features and ratedasparameters
5, designated “1 year later”that have
and been mentioned
“2 years later”).above,
In thethecase
original washers
of the other
The case studies presented in the paper concerned oil-filled power transformers of various
used by the manufacturer were also replaced with those made of Al–Cu.
transformers with the same constructional features and rated parameters that have been mentioned
nominal voltage and power, their different constructional features, and the different functions they
above, the original washers used by the manufacturer were also replaced with those made of Al–Cu.
performed
3. Discussion in the power system. The transformers were also characterized by different operating
time. Despite these differences, the first signal indicating a defect was always obtained as a result of
3. Discussion
The caseand
studies presentedasinathe paper
the oil tests, in particular result of concerned
information oil-filled
about thepower transformers
gases dissolved inof oil.
various nominal
However, in
voltage
each The and
case,casepower, their different
studies presented
the identified constructional
in thefrom
defect differed paper features,
theconcerned and the different functions they
others. oil-filled power transformers of various performed
in the power
nominal system.
voltage The transformers
and power, wereconstructional
their different also characterized by different
features, and the operating time. Despite
different functions they
performed in the power system. The transformers were also characterized by different operating
time. Despite these differences, the first signal indicating a defect was always obtained as a result of
the oil tests, and in particular as a result of information about the gases dissolved in oil. However, in
each case, the identified defect differed from the others.
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 16 of 18

these differences, the first signal indicating a defect was always obtained as a result of the oil tests,
and in particular as a result of information about the gases dissolved in oil. However, in each case,
the identified defect differed from the others.
The first case study revealed the weakness of the analysis of gases dissolved in oil—the failure of
the analyzed transformer might have occurred between the consecutive oil tests. However, this fact
was not a surprise. Such a disadvantage also characterized all operation actions performed at the
scheduled time intervals (so-called time-based maintenance). The solution to this problem was the
use of continuous monitoring of the selected diagnostic indicators, among which the concentrations
of the gases dissolved in oil was treated as one of the most important indicators. In the case of an
electrical discharge, which is usually a sudden phenomenon caused by external factors, a continuous
monitoring might also be insufficient.
In the literature, it is difficult to find a description of the defects that are indicated by an analysis
of the gases dissolved in oil and the SFRA methods, with a simultaneous absence of signals from other
diagnostic methods. Therefore, an analysis of case Study 2 should have been interesting. Deformation
of the windings detected by the SFRA method could have been a cause of disturbance in the flow of
the cooling agent (mineral oil) and could have been a source of local overheating, which in turn was
indicated by the DGA results.
The third considered case study showed a good complementation of the DGA method and the
measurements of the winding resistance. DGA as a method that does not require turning off the
transformer from the service, indicated the nature of the defect. However, performing the winding
resistance measurement—a method requiring the transformer to be turned off—was used to identify
which transformer element was responsible for the observed thermal defect.
The last of the presented cases indicated that the observation of anomalies in the gas concentrations
and detection of their cause during the internal inspection of the transformer would facilitate the
elimination of similar constructional errors, in the entire group of transformers originating from a single
manufacturer. In this case, after detecting a similar pattern for the gases dissolved in the oil, it was
possible to locate the source of gas generation through an analogy to the inspected unit. This allowed
for the omission of tedious searches.
In conclusion, all presented cases were combined through a common point—the nature of defect
occurring in the transformers was recognized on the basis of measured concentrations of gases dissolved
in oil. The IEC 60599 Standard based analysis, as well as the Duval Triangle Method jointly indicated a
similar type of defect on the basis of the data available from the latest measurements. As we also had
other measurement data, such as SFRA or a winding resistance measurement, the decision process was
carried out and an internal inspection was performed. In all cases, the defect identified on the basis
of DGA was confirmed by this inspection. Thus, the case studies presented in this paper represent
important data which might be used by the scientists who develop diagnostic methods or expert
systems, based on DGA. The results presented might also supplement the databases of the expert
systems where identification of the defect resulted from a comparison of cases of a similar origin.

4. Conclusions
This paper presented four case studies concerning oil power transformers, which were sent for an
internal inspection aimed at identifying the potential defects resulting from previous observations, as a
result of the operational events and diagnostic tests. In each case, the internal inspection indicated a
presence of defects that were dangerous for a further exploitation of the transformers considered.
The considerations presented confirmed the key role of the measurements of oil parameters,
with a particular emphasis on the analysis of the concentrations of gases dissolved in oil in assessment
of the technical conditions of the power transformers. Simultaneously, case Studies 2 and 3 showed that
just the additional studies (performed in the place of transformer operation, but after de-energizing the
transformer) allowed for an identification of the nature of the defect and its general location. It can be
Energies 2019, 12, 2155 17 of 18

assumed that without the SFRA and the winding resistance measurements, the transformers considered
would have remained in service with recommendation of oil testing at shorter time intervals.
The experience confirmed by the case studies presented shows that DGA is a very effective tool for
detecting and recognizing the general nature of defects that appear in a transformer, but its suitability
for defect location without any support from other methods, mainly electrical ones, is weak.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.P.; Data curation, T.P., and R.K.; Formal analysis, T.P., and
P.R.; Methodology, T.P., P.R., and R.K.; Supervision, T.P.; Validation, T.P., P.R., and R.K.; Visualization, P.R.;
Writing—original draft, T.P., P.R., and R.K.; Writing—review and editing, P.R.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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