Computer Organization and Architecture

Internal Memory
 Computer Memory Overview
• The memory is that part of computer where programs and data are
stored. Basically the concept is the following:

• Bits

– The basic unit of memory is the binary digit called a bit. A bit may
contain a 0 or 1. It is the simplest possible unit

• Memory addresses

– Memories consist of a number of cells or locations each of which can

store a piece of information. Each location has a number called its
address, by which program can refer to it. The cells is the smallest
addressable units.

– Byte: 8-bits
 Computer Memory ......
– Bytes are grouped into words. The significance of word is that most
instruction operate on entire word. A computer with a 32bit/word
has 4 bytes/word

• Byte ordering

– The bytes in a word can be numbered from left-to-right or right-to-

left.

– The former system, where the numbering begin at the “big” (i.e,
high-order) end is called a big endian computer, such as the SPARC
or the big IBM mainframes. In contras it is a little endian computer,
such as the Intel family using right-to-left numbering for the
representation of a 32 bit computer.
 Characteristics of Computer Memory
• Capacity: the amount of information that can be contained in a memory unit -- usually in
terms of words or bytes
• Memory word: the natural unit of organization in the memory, typically the number of
bits used to represent a number
• Addressable unit: the fundamental data element size that can be addressed in the memory
-- typically either the word size or individual bytes
• Unit of transfer: The number of data elements transferred at a time – usually bits in main
memory and blocks in secondary memory
• Transfer rate: Rate at which data is transferred to/from the memory device
• Access time:
– For RAM, the time to address the unit and perform the transfer
– For non-random access memory, the time to position the R/W head over the desired location

• Memory cycle time: Access time plus any other time required before a second access can
be started
• Access technique: how are memory contents accessed
Memory Access Methods

• Random access:

– Each location has a unique physical address

– Locations can be accessed in any order and all access times are
the same

– What we term “RAM” is more appropriately called read/write

memory since this access technique also applies to ROMs as
well

– Example: main memory

Types of Memory
Computer memory system consists a various types of memory. Manufactures produce a number of
different types of memory devices having a variety of technologies. The technology affect not
only the operating characteristics but also the manufacturing cost. In the section following we
present an overviews of types of memory.
• Main Memory (“Internal” memory components)
– RAM (read-write memory): Static RAM, Dynamic RAM
– ROM (Read Only Memories) : ROMs, PROMs, EPROMs, EEPROMs, Flash Memory.
• Cache memory
– The cache memories are high-speed buffers for holding recently accessed data and neigh
boring data in main memory. The organization and operations of cache provide an
apparently fast memory system.
• External Memory
– Magnetic disks
– RAID technology disks
– Optical disks
– Magnetic tape
 Semiconductor Memory Types
Memory Type Category Erasure Write Mechanism Volatility

Random-access
Read-write memory Electrically, byte-level Electrically Volatile
memory (RAM)

Read-only
Masks
memory (ROM)
Read-only memory Not possible

Programmable
ROM (PROM)

Erasable PROM
UV light, chip-level
(EPROM) Nonvolatile

Electrically

Electrically Erasable Read-mostly memory

Electrically, byte-level
PROM (EEPROM)

Flash memory Electrically, block-level

Semiconductor Memory
• RAM
– Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is random
access
– Read/Write
– Volatile
– Temporary storage
– Static or dynamic
Memory Cell Operation
 Dynamic RAM
• Bits stored as charge in capacitors

• Charges leak

• Need refreshing even when powered

• Simpler construction
Dynamic RAM is made with cells that store data as
• Smaller per bit
charge on capacitors.
• Less expensive

• Need refresh circuits Dynamic refers to the tendency of stored charges to

leak away, even with power continuously applied.
• Slower Hence needs periodic charge refreshing to maintain
• Main memory data storage.

• Essentially analogue
– Level of charge determines value
 Dynamic RAM Structure

The address line is activated

when the bit value from this
cell is to be read or written.
The transistor acts as a
switch
-Closed -allows current
flow
- Open – no current flow

Fig. Typical
DRAM
DRAM is an analoge device
structure for
an individual
cell that
stores one bit
 DRAM Operation
• Address line is active when bit read or written
– Transistor switch closed (current flows)
• Write
– Voltage to bit line
• High for 1 low for 0
– Then signal address line
• Transfers charge to capacitor
• Read
– Address line selected
• transistor turns on
– Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to sense amplifier
• Compares with reference value to determine 0 or 1
– Capacitor charge must be restored
 Static RAM
• Bits stored as on/off switches- traditional flip-flop logic gate configuration

• No charges to leak- holds its data as long as power is supplied to it

• No refreshing needed when powered

• More complex construction

• Larger per bit

• More expensive

• Does not need refresh circuits

• Faster

• Cache
In contrast, SRAM is a digital
• Digital
device, using same logic
– Uses flip-flops elements used in the processor
 Stating RAM Structure

The circle at the

head of T3 &
T4 indicates
signal negation
Fig. Typical
SRAM
structure for
an
individual
cell that
stores one
bit
 Static RAM Operation
• Transistor arrangement gives stable logic state
• State 1
– C1 high, C2 low Both states are stable as long as the
direct current (DC) voltage is
applied
– T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
Address line is used
to close or open a
• State 0 switch
– C2 high, C1 low Controls two
transistors T5 &T6
– T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on
• Address line transistors T5 T6 is switch
• Write – apply value to B & compliment to B’
• Read – value is on line B
 SRAM v DRAM
• Both volatile
– Power needed to preserve data
• Dynamic cell
– Simpler to build, smaller
– More dense
– Less expensive
– Needs refresh
– Larger memory units
• Static
– Faster
– Cache
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Permanent storage- as the name suggests, ROM contains a
permanent pattern of data that can’t be changed

– Nonvolatile –no power source is required to maintain data

• Important Applications of ROM

– Microprogramming

– Library subroutines

– Systems programs (BIOS)

– Function tables
 ROM Cont…
• The advantage of ROM is that the data or program is
permanently in main memory and need never be loaded from a
secondary storage device.

• ROM is created like any other IC chip, with the data actually
wired into the chip as part of the fabrication process.

• This presents two problems

– 1. The data step includes a relatively large fixed cost; whether one or thousand of
copies of a particular ROM are fabricated

– 2. There is no room for error; if one bit is wrong, the whole batch of ROM must be
thrown out.
 Types of ROM
• ROM
• Written during manufacture
– Very expensive for small runs; is attractive for high
volume production runs.
• Programmable (once)
– PROM
– Writing is performed electronically; may be done by
supplier or customer
– Needs special equipment to program
– For small number of ROMs
 Types of ROM Cont…
• Read “mostly” 3 common forms
– Erasable Programmable (EPROM)
• Erased by UV
• Multiple update capability

– Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)

• Writable at any time w/o erasing prior contents
• Only the bytes or bits addressed are updated
• EEPROM combines advantages of non volatility with flexibility of being
updatable in place
• Takes much longer to write than read

– Flash memory
• Erase whole memory electrically
– Flash memory in detail
• Another semiconductor ROM

• So named because of the speed with which it can be

reprogrammed

• Intermediate b/n EPROM and EEPROM in both cost and

functionality.

• An entire memory can be erased and rewritten as EPROM

and, in addition, just blocks of memory can be erased rather
than an entire chip.
 Error Correction
• Memory is subject to errors

• Hard Failure

– Permanent defect; cells can’t store data

– Can be caused by harsh env’t abuse, manufacturing defects,

and wear

• Soft Error

– Random, non-destructive

– No permanent damage to memory

– Can be caused by power supply problems or alpha particles

 Advanced DRAM Organization
• Basic DRAM same since first RAM chips
• Enhanced DRAM
– Contains small SRAM as well
– SRAM holds last line read
• Cache DRAM
– Larger SRAM component
– Use as cache or serial buffer
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
• Access is synchronized with an external clock
• Address is presented to RAM

• RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional DRAM)(delay, the DRAM performs various
internal functions, such as activating the high capacitance of the row and column lines,
sensing the data, and routing the data out through the output buffers. The processor must
simply wait through this delay, slowing system performance.
• Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when data will be ready
• CPU does not have to wait, it can do something else
• Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block – this eliminate the
address setup time
• DDR-SDRAM =Double-Data Rate Synchronous DRAM
– sends data twice per clock cycle (leading & trailing edge)
– But SDRAM can only send once per clock
 RAMBUS
• Adopted by Intel for Pentium & Itanium

• Main competitor to SDRAM

• Vertical package – all pins on one side

• Data exchange over 28 wires < 12cm long

• Bus addresses up to 320 RDRAM chips at 1.6Gbps

• Asynchronous block protocol

– 480ns access time
 Cache DRAM
• Mitsubishi
• Integrates small SRAM cache (16 kb) onto generic DRAM
chip
• Used as true cache
– 64-bit lines
– Effective for ordinary random access
• To support serial access of block of data
– E.g. refresh bit-mapped screen
• CDRAM can pre-fetch data from DRAM into SRAM buffer
• Subsequent accesses only to SRAM
 Section II

Chapter 6
External Memory
 Types of External Memory
• Magnetic Disk
– Is foundation of external memory
– RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disk)
– Removable
• Optical
– CD-ROM
– CD-Recordable (CD-R)
– CD-R/W
– DVD
• Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic Disk
• Disk substrate coated with magnetizable material (iron oxide…rust)

• Substrate used to be aluminium

• More recently, glass substrates have been introduced.

• The glass substrate has a number of benefits, including the following Increases
reliability
– Improvement in the uniformity of the magnetic film surface to increase disk
reliability

– A significant reduction in overall surface defects to help reduce read-write errors

– Ability to support lower fly heights (described subsequently)

– Better stiffness to reduce disk dynamics

– Greater ability to withstand shock and damage

 Read and Write Mechanisms
• Recording & retrieval via conductive coil called a head
• May be single read/write head or separate ones0910251680
• During read/write, head is stationary, platter rotates
• Write
– Current through coil produces magnetic field
– Pulses sent to head
– Magnetic pattern recorded on surface below
• Read (traditional)
– Magnetic field moving relative to coil produces current
– Coil is the same for read and write
• Read (contemporary)
– Separate read head, close to write head
– Partially shielded magneto resistive (MR) sensor
– Electrical resistance depends on direction of magnetic field
– High frequency operation
• Higher storage density and speed
 Data Organization and Formatting
• Concentric rings or tracks
– Gaps between tracks

– Reduce gap to increase capacity

– Same number of bits per track (variable packing density)

– Constant angular velocity

• Tracks divided into sectors

• Minimum block size is one sector

• May have more than one sector per block

Disk Data Layout
 Disk Velocity
• Bit near centre of rotating disk passes fixed point slower than bit
on outside of disk

• Increase spacing between bits in different tracks

• Rotate disk at constant angular velocity (CAV)

– Gives pie shaped sectors and concentric tracks

– Individual tracks and sectors addressable

– Move head to given track and wait for given sector

– Waste of space on outer tracks( the amount of data stored in

the long outer track is the same as the short inner track)

• Lower data density

 Disk Velocity
• Can use zones to increase capacity(multiple zone recording)

• modern hard disk systems use a technique in which the surface

is divided into a number of concentric zones (16 is

typical).Within a zone, the number of bits per track is constant.

Zones farther from the center contain more bits (more sectors)

than zones closer to the center.

• This allows for greater overall storage capacity at the expense of

somewhat more complex circuitry.

– Each zone has fixed bits per track

– More complex circuitry

Disk Layout Methods Diagram
 Finding Sectors
• Must be able to identify start of track and sector
• Format disk
– Additional information not available to user
– Marks tracks and sectors
 Characteristics
• Head motion
– Fixed (rare)
– movable head
• Disk portability
– Removable
– Fixed(non-removable disk)
• Sides
– Single sided
– double (usually)
• Platter
– Single
– multiple platter
• Head mechanism
– Contact (Floppy)
– Fixed gap
– Flying (Winchester)
 Fixed/Movable Head Disk
• Fixed head
– One read write head per track
– Heads mounted on fixed ridged arm
• Movable head
– One read write head per side
– Mounted on a movable arm
 Removable or Not
• Removable disk
– Can be removed from drive and replaced with another
disk
– Provides unlimited storage capacity
– Easy data transfer between systems
• Non-removable disk
– Permanently mounted in the drive
 Multiple Platter
• One head per side
• Heads are joined and aligned
• Aligned tracks on each platter form cylinders
• Data is striped by cylinder
– reduces head movement
– Increases speed (transfer rate)
Multiple Platters
Tracks and Cylinders
 Floppy Disk
• 8”, 5.25”, 3.5”
• Small capacity
– Up to 1.44Mbyte (2.88M never popular)
• Slow
• Universal
• Cheap
• Obsolete?
Winchester Hard Disk (1)
• Developed by IBM in Winchester (USA)

• Sealed unit

• One or more platters (disks)

• Heads fly on boundary layer of air as disk spins

• Very small head to disk gap

• Getting more robust

Winchester Hard Disk (2)
• Universal
• Cheap
• Fastest external storage
• Getting larger all the time
– 250 Gigabyte now easily available
 Speed
• Seek time
– Moving head to correct track
• (Rotational) latency
– Waiting for data to rotate under head
• Access time = Seek + Latency
• Transfer rate
Timing of Disk I/O Transfer
 RAID
• Redundant Array of Independent Disks
• Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
• 6 levels in common use
• Not a hierarchy
• Set of physical disks viewed as single logical drive by O/S
• Data distributed across physical drives
• Can use redundant capacity to store parity information
 RAID 0
• No redundancy

• Data striped across all disks

• Round Robin striping

• Increase speed
– Multiple data requests probably not on same disk

– Disks seek in parallel

– A set of data is likely to be striped across multiple disks

 RAID 1
• Mirrored Disks
• Data is striped across disks
• 2 copies of each stripe on separate disks
• Read from either
• Write to both
• Recovery is simple
– Swap faulty disk & re-mirror
– No down time
• Expensive
 RAID 2
• Disks are synchronized
• Very small stripes
– Often single byte/word
• Error correction calculated across corresponding bits on disks
• Multiple parity disks store Hamming code error correction in
corresponding positions
• Lots of redundancy
– Expensive
– Not used
 RAID 3
• Similar to RAID 2
• Only one redundant disk, no matter how large the
array
• Simple parity bit for each set of corresponding
bits
• Data on failed drive can be reconstructed from
surviving data and parity info
• Very high transfer rates
 RAID 4
• Each disk operates independently

• Good for high I/O request rate

• Large stripes

• Bit by bit parity calculated across stripes on each

disk

• Parity stored on parity disk

 RAID 5
• Like RAID 4

• Parity striped across all disks

• Round robin allocation for parity stripe

• Avoids RAID 4 bottleneck at parity disk

• Commonly used in network servers

• N.B. DOES NOT MEAN 5 DISKS!!!!!

 RAID 6
• Two parity calculations
• Stored in separate blocks on different disks
• User requirement of N disks needs N+2
• High data availability
– Three disks need to fail for data loss
– Significant write penalty
RAID 0, 1, 2
RAID 3 & 4
RAID 5 & 6
Data Mapping For RAID 0
 Optical Storage CD-ROM
• Originally for audio
• 650Mbytes giving over 70 minutes audio
• Polycarbonate coated with highly reflective coat,
usually aluminium
• Data stored as pits
• Read by reflecting laser
• Constant packing density
• Constant linear velocity
CD Operation
 CD-ROM Drive Speeds
• Audio is single speed
– Constant linier velocity
– 1.2 ms-1
– Track (spiral) is 5.27km long
– Gives 4391 seconds = 73.2 minutes
• Other speeds are quoted as multiples
• e.g. 24x
• Quoted figure is maximum drive can achieve
 CD-ROM Format

• Mode 0=blank data field

• Mode 1=2048 byte data+error correction
• Mode 2=2336 byte data
 Random Access on CD-ROM
• Difficult
• Move head to rough position
• Set correct speed
• Read address
• Adjust to required location
• (Yawn!)
 CD-ROM for & against
• Large capacity (?)
• Easy to mass produce
• Removable
• Robust

• Expensive for small runs

• Slow
• Read only
 Other Optical Storage
• CD-Recordable (CD-R)
– WORM
– Now affordable
– Compatible with CD-ROM drives
• CD-RW
– Erasable
– Getting cheaper
– Mostly CD-ROM drive compatible
– Phase change
• Material has two different reflectivities in different phase
states
 DVD - what’s in a name?
• Digital Video Disk
– Used to indicate a player for movies
• Only plays video disks
• Digital Versatile Disk
– Used to indicate a computer drive
• Will read computer disks and play video disks
• Dogs Veritable Dinner
• Officially - nothing!!!
 DVD - technology
• Multi-layer
• Very high capacity (4.7G per layer)
• Full length movie on single disk
– Using MPEG compression
• Finally standardized (honest!)
• Movies carry regional coding
• Players only play correct region films
• Can be “fixed”
 DVD – Writable
• Loads of trouble with standards
• First generation DVD drives may not read first
generation DVD-W disks
• First generation DVD drives may not read CD-
RW disks
• Wait for it to settle down before buying!
CD and DVD
 High Definition Optical Disks
• Designed for high definition videos
• Much higher capacity than DVD
– Shorter wavelength laser
• Blue-violet range
– Smaller pits
• HD-DVD
– 15GB single side single layer
• Blue-ray
– Data layer closer to laser
• Tighter focus, less distortion, smaller pits
– 25GB on single layer
– Available read only (BD-ROM), Recordable once (BR-R) and
re-recordable (BR-RE)
Optical Memory Characteristics
 Magnetic Tape
• Serial access
• Slow
• Very cheap
• Backup and archive
• Linear Tape-Open (LTO) Tape Drives
– Developed late 1990s
– Open source alternative to proprietary tape
systems