Paul Ariola, Robert Mejorada, and Karina Pineda

Seminar in Political Economy

Extended Outline

Income Level and Political Participation in the Philippines

Introduction: Defining Political Participation
Topic sentence: Political participation, a key feature in democratic societies, can be defined in various
ways.
(This paragraph will serve as the introduction to the review of related literature. It will establish the
Philippines, which is the setting of this study, as a democratic country. This will serve as a transition to
political participation since it is an important element of democracy. Therefore, political participation will
be defined using relevant sources. The definition will be based on what is appropriate for the study.)
 The Philippines is known to have a democratic system. One of the key features of the democratic
process is the ability of citizens to participate in the country’s political affairs.
 Political participation is more associated with representative democracy and indirect participation
in which it expresses itself in individual and collective actions that include mainly voting,
campaigning, contacting, group action and protest all oriented towards influencing the
representatives in government, rather than active and direct participation in the process of
governance itself. Gaventa and Valderrama (1999)
 Political participation, then, may be defined as individual or collective action at the national or
local level that supports or opposes state structures, authorities, and/or decisions regarding
allocation of public goods. Three aspects of the definition should be emphasised. First, the action
can be verbal or written. Second, it can be violent or nonviolent. Third, it can be of any intensity.
(Conge, 1988)

Determinants of Political Participation

Topic sentence: There are several factors that motivate citizens to participate in political affairs.
(This paragraph will enumerate some of the determinants of political participation mentioned in relevant
sources. Aside from listing them, an explanation on how these influence people to become politically
involved will be provided. These are information, educational attainment, images of candidates, and the
role of community, mass and interpersonal communication.)
o Information: it plays a vital role for it is through information dissemination that voters are
well-informed about the presidential candidates and this said “information” about the
candidate serves as an influential factor to a voter's decision (Alvarez, 1998).
 Educational Attainment: Individuals particularly voters who have availed better education and
gained more knowledge have the tendency to vote for a candidate based on personal attributes.
Additionally, the author notes that people who are highly (Glass, 1985).
o Voters with higher education looked onto a candidate's personality as basis for voting
rather that a candidate's statements (Miller et al, 1986).
 Images of Candidates: The importance of candidate image is emphasized as it serves as an
influential factor to voter’s choice (Hacker, 1995).
o The authors, researchers Holland and Prysby uses a notable assumption that voters take
into consideration the personal traits of a candidate that becomes an influential factor for
a voter's choice and consequently to the voter turnouts (Hollan, 2014).
 Role of community, mass and interpersonal communication is vital in political participation.
These factors influence participation to a certain extent that it has a positive influence on a
respondent’s orientation toward the larger community rather than local neighborhood only
(Mcleod et al, 1999).

Topic sentence: Out of all the determinants mentioned, income has been proven to play a major (if not the
biggest) role in influencing political participation.
(This part will expound on income as a major determinant of political participation. It will cite several
studies and analyses that justify this point. Moreover, income will be discussed in a general perspective.)
Paul Ariola, Robert Mejorada, and Karina Pineda
Seminar in Political Economy

 This study was facilitated to determine whether or not there is a relationship between
socioeconomic characteristics and voting behaviour. The results showed that characteristics such
as municipal income class and household size had a significant positive relationship with voter
turnout (Lero, 2008)
 This journal by Brooks and Brady analyses the effects of income on voting behaviour and the
outcome of presidential elections in the U.S. since 1952. They found out that income had a
significant and stable impact on voting behaviour. Moreover, it was seen that changes in
household income have a large effect on the outcome of the elections since 1950. Therefore,
household income shapes the voting behaviour indirectly. Because of this, they affect policy
evaluations, which eventually influence the vote choice (Brady & Brooks, 1999)
 Income inequality - people participate less where neighborhoods are unequal and where
individuals within neighborhoods are socioeconomically alike which has something to do with
economic segregation. Economic segregation is defined as the condition of having many
homogeneously rich and many homogeneously poor neighborhoods in the same country. This
concept lowered the rates of political participation (Schroeder, n.d.).
 When the divergence between parties on economic and social issues is high, that will tempt a
higher electoral turnout, given the fact that these voters will be motivated to avoid their undesired
outcome (Castillo, 2009).
 As income inequality increases at the community level, social forms of participation decrease a
little among low-status individuals, and increase considerably for high-status individuals,
widening the already existing social participation gap between high-status and low-status
individuals (Szewczyk, 2015).
o As income inequality at the community level increases, voting increases among low-
status individuals and decreases among high status individuals (Szewczyk, 2015).  
 Resources such as time, money, and civic skills are dispersed differently among groups with
distinct socioeconomic status and these resources have significant effects on overall political
participation that is why socioeconomic status has been a good predictor of political participation
(Brady, Verba & Schlozman, 1995).
 There is no evidence of a direct effect of inequality in “civic engagement” as it was seen that the
poor participated less in political affairs although participation has not risen even if income
inequality increased (Brown & Uslaner, 2005).
 Independent of differences in resources at the individual and societal level, higher inequality is
linked with lower civic participation and inequality heightens the connection between income and
participation (Lancee & Van de Werfhorst, 2012).
 How citizens participates (Game theory): actors who were interested in terms of increasing the
total welfare in the game were the ones who are willing to participate in politics than actors who
have self-centered preferences. On the other hand, the authors also found out that the actors who
were most interested in reducing the modification between their own well-being and of the others
were the ones who do not wish to participate than actors with self-centered preferences (Dawes et
al, 2007)

Political Participation: Low-income

Topic sentence: Based on the general profile of those who belong to the low-income level, their level and
manner political participation are mostly based on their immediate, material needs as well as the extent to
which they can benefit from participating.
(This part of the literature review will focus on how those who belong to the low-income bracket
participate in political activities such as elections, and the like. First, a general profile of those in this
category will be given to better understand how they think and behave as well as their underlying
problems and concerns. Then, the reasons behind their participation will be enumerated and expounded.)
(Lawless & Fox, 2001)
Paul Ariola, Robert Mejorada, and Karina Pineda
Seminar in Political Economy

 Material resources and demographic attributes usually associated with a propensity to participate
politically drove political activism among poor respondents.
 Severe economic hardship and formative contact with government agents whom poor citizens
routinely face served as experiences that bolstered their willingness to participate in the political
system
(Brown, 2009)
 People classified under a low socioeconomic status, on the other hand, are said to have graduated
in either elementary or high school, and have a low level of income.
 Those of a lower socioeconomic status attribute their low levels of political participation (i.e.
voting) and political efficacy to their low educational attainment and income level. The results of
both elections prove that their votes lean towards Democrats, who promote social welfare,
universal health care, and other policies that would benefit poorer citizens.
(Keefer & Khemani, 2004)
 Electoral behaviour is also examined particularly among poor voters. Variables such as
information asymmetry, social polarization, political incentives, & credibility of political leaders
were also discussed in detail. The level of democratization of countries in relation to electoral
behaviour were also analysed specially in the context of developing countries.

Topic sentence: There are several studies that explain the correlation between low-income level and
political participation.
(This paragraph will include studies that concentrate on the political participation of the poor. The
findings of the said studies as well as the analysis that can be drawn from them will be stated. This is to
provide empirical evidence to prove the theoretical explanations behind the political participation of the
low-income earners.)
(Chua & Coronel, 2014)
 The poor not only have an idea about their ideal leader, but also see voting as their only
legitimate way of changing the political situation.
 The credentials as well as the moral character of the leader are ranked as the top determinants for
the poor’s vote. While they associated qualities such as God-fearing and helpful to their preferred
leader, corrupt scored significantly high as in contrast to the other qualities of a bad leader.
However, the irony that exists in the poor’s voting behaviour is their willingness to accept money
from vote buying.
(Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 2004)
 The lower classes viewed Commission on Elections (COMELEC) as reliable, they thought
otherwise towards the National Citizens Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL)
 The lower classes tended to vote for the winning political candidate
 On the topic of vote buying, more Class D and E participants said that they were willing to accept
money; they also perceived that money and influence are major determinants for a candidate’s
victory
(Lupu, 2010)
 The lower class or the poor people supported Hugo Chavez than the rich ones. These poor people
who have a low level of income tend to support the leftist government that is the Chavez
administration rather than high income level
(Lin, 2007)
 People tend to vote in taiwan if there is a heightened interest of policy makers on poverty
alleviation and the electorate’s geographical, educational and poverty level. This was the results
of the presidential elections in Taiwan.
Paul Ariola, Robert Mejorada, and Karina Pineda
Seminar in Political Economy

Political Participation: High-income

Topic sentence: High-income earners, on the other hand, exhibit contrasting motivations and priorities
behind their level and manner of political participation as opposed to the low-income earners due to their
different needs, interests, and circumstances.
(This part of the literature review will focus on how those from the high-income level participate in
political activities such as elections, and the like. First, a general profile of those in this group will be
given to better understand how they think and behave as well as their underlying problems and concerns.
Then, the reasons behind their involvement in political affairs will be listed and explained.)
(Tessler, Jamal & de Miguel, 2008).
 While all citizens are encouraged to do this, political participation is said to be a costly activity.
This is why those who have sufficient resources such as the money, time, knowledge and social
connections are said to participate more in politics
(Fraser et al. 1972)
 High-income individuals have more time available for non-work activities such as voting and
have greater flexibility of hours as compared to low-income individuals and this is the reason
behind greater political participation for high-income individuals relative to low-income
individuals
(Kasara & Suryanarayan, 2014)
 Researchers pose that those with high income highly participate in elections due to taxation
incentives. The underlying factor is the issue of redistribution that draws the concern.
(Solt, 2008)
 Individuals with higher income participate more in politics because of their ability to shape and
influence the issues tackled and in order to maintain concentration or individuals with lower
income participate more in political to push for their needs and wants.
(Brown, 2009)
 Those of a high socioeconomic status have high educational attainment and an occupation that
allows them to earn high income
 Those of a higher socioeconomic status have a higher vote turnout and tend to vote Republican.
Their high educational attainment enables them to know and value civic duty; they support
Republicans because they benefit from the party’s platform, which is entered on economic
growth

Topic sentence: There have been studies done that explain the correlation between high-income level and
political participation.
(This paragraph will include studies are centerd on the political participation of the rich. The results of
these studies as well as the analysis that can be drawn from them will be stated. This is to provide
empirical evidence to prove the theoretical explanations behind the political participation of the high-
income earners.)
(Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 2004)
 Classes A to C voted based on their personal preference; moreover, they would choose candidates
whose beliefs and advocacies were similar to their own
(Cook, Moskowitz, & Page, 2013)
 The study conducted by Cook, Page, and Moskowitz aimed to determine whether or not the
wealthy American population participates in political activities. Wealthy Americans are more
active in politics than average citizens.
 They participate in and attend meetings, pay attention to politics, volunteer for political
organizations often, contribute large amounts of money to politics, participate in political
discussions, and attend campaign events, and initiate contacts with government officials such as
Senators and Representatives
Paul Ariola, Robert Mejorada, and Karina Pineda
Seminar in Political Economy

(Lupu, 2010)
 In the case of Venezuela, majority of the wealthiest class voted against Chavez or the leftist
government. Nevertheless, more in the middle class supported Chavez’s claim. Whatever effects
Chávez may have had on overall turnout, his efforts have not excessively mobilized poor voters.
(Gelman et al, 2007).
 In the case of Connecticut, high-level income individuals tend to vote for Republican presidential
candidate than the low level income class in poorer states

The Gap
Topic sentence: Although extensive research has been done on the low-income level, there is an
alarmingly lack of studies on the political participation of the high-income earners, especially in the
Philippine context.
(This paragraph will serve as the conclusion of the literature review. It will also mention the gap that the
researchers have found in the list of relevant sources. This gap is the lack of studies conducted to
determine why the rich participate. Despite the presence of sources, there is not enough done on the rich,
especially in contrast to studies done on the poor. This is especially apparent when talking about the
Philippine setting.)
 The issue on the lack of research on a group that is not only prominent in society, but also
responsible for shaping the economy needs to be addressed. The new insights that will be gained
from such information will enrich the discussion and understanding of political participation,
especially in the Philippine context.
 Thus, the study aims to fill in this apparent gap by pinpointing how and why these people
participate in political activities.