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South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints - Text PDF
South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints - Text PDF
Reinhold Griinendahl
South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints
Grantha Tamil - Malayalam - Telugu - Kannada - Nandinagari
ISBN 3-447-04504-3
p. 79, line 1:
p. 94, line r. 0©
©
nya dre
3 9
2001
Harrassowitz Verlag • Wiesbaden
Gedruckt mit Untersriitzung der Deutschcn Forschungsgemeinschaft.
Contents
Preface . vii
Introduction . xiii
Grantha Tamil
Tamil .43
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahmc
Ein Titeldatensatz fur these Publikation ist bei Der Deutschcn Bibliothek
Abbreviations & Contractions .52
crhaltlich
Numerals .55
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CTP Cataloguing-in-Publication-Data
A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek Graphic Classification .59
e-mail: cip@dbf.ddb.de
Basic Characters & Ligatures . 121 The present guide is a by-product of my edition of the Sivadharmasastra as
Additional Graphs . 136 well as of my handling of the South Indian manuscript and print collections
of the Niedersachsische Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek, Gottingen. It is
Conjunct Forms . 136
intended to provide a basis for the self-reliant study of documents written in
Numerals . 138 South Indian scripts. Apart from manuscripts and inscriptions (the latter
Abbreviations & Contractions . 138 with the qualifications explained below), this comprises printed editions of
Sanskrit texts published in large numbers up to the 1930’s. From about that
Consonant Clusters & Conjuncts . 143
time onward, Sanskrit printing in South Indian scripts was gradually mar¬
ginalized by Devanagari type.
In the course of this development the former achievements of Southern
Kannada printing gradually fell into oblivion, much to the detriment of Sanskrit
studies, I believe. The major catalogues of Sanskrit printed books' testify to
Basic Characters & Ligatures . 163 the wealth of this tradition, and there is reason to assume that its volume is
Additional Graphs . 178 considerably larger than recorded in those catalogues. Apart from facilitat¬
ing access to the Southern text tradition in general, prints in South Indian
Conjunct Forms . 178
scripts have brought to light a fair number of Sanskrit texts never published
Numerals . 180 in Devanagari or any other North Indian script. However, it remains
Abbreviations & Contractions . . . .^. 180 exceptionally difficult to trace their bibliographical data, let alone the prints
themselves, especially in libraries outside South India.
Consonant Clusters & Conjuncts . 181
To give an example from first-hand experience: Towards the end of my
editorial work on the Visnudharma I came across various references that led
me to assume that the authors of the books in question had used a South
Appendix: Distinctive Features of Nandinagari .201 Indian edition of the Visnudharma that was hitherto unknown, at least to
me. However, in the bibliographic reference tools available to me at that
time this assumption did not materialize. When I visited the Adyar Library,
Cennai (Madras), a storehouse of South Indian manuscripts and prints, in
Checklist of Conjunct Components .211 1993, I simply checked the card catalogue, and there it was, a Telugu edi¬
tion of the Visnudharma that had escaped R.C. Hazra’s notice as well as
The Southern Brhaspati Cycle (1207-1986 A.D.) .217 mine!
Those who do not have the good fortune of having easy access to the
Bibliography .219 admirable collections of South Indian prints in Adyar and other places may
be referred to the catalogue of printed Sanskrit books deposited in the
1 See, e.g., Catalogue of the Library of the India Office, Vol. II, Part I, Sanscrit Books, [ed. by]
Outline Tables Prana Natha and Chaudhuri, Jitendra Bimala, 4 vols., 1938—1957.
viii PREFACE PREFACE IX
library of the Oriental Research Institute, Mysore,2 a kind of bibliographic few booklets designed for elementary instruction (see bibliography). Prac¬
self-help kit in all such matters, and a very useful complement to the India tical guides to South Indian scripts that gave adequate attention to the
Office Library catalogue mentioned above. plethora of conjunct characters were hard to find.
Measures to overcome this deplorable lack of information are easy to When thinking about ways to fill this gap it seemed only natural to start
envisage, but not quite so easy to realize: A cumulative online catalogue will with the material I had just collected, viz., manuscripts of the Sivadharma-
probably remain a librarian’s castle in the air for some time to come, unless sastra and the Visnudharma, and various prints, among them the Visnu-
perhaps South India’s booming computer industry, in a noble gesture of dharma edition mentioned above. On the one hand I already had prepared
reverence to the subcontinent’s cultural heritage, would bestow its blessings machine-readable versions of these two texts (c. 1,300 respectively 4,300
on libraries and other institutions struggling to preserve their exceptionally verses), which furnished evidence of all relevant characters and conjuncts.
rich holdings. On the other hand, the Sivadharmasastra tradition alone offered manu¬
By and large, the same applies to Sanskrit manuscripts in South Indian scripts in three of four South Indian scripts (the exception being Kannada).
scripts. However, compared to catalogues of printed books, the range of In a further stage, these materials were supplemented by other texts avail¬
South Indian manuscript catalogues, though limited to relatively few libra¬ able in South Indian prints as well as in machine-readable versions, first and
ries, is stunning, as a look into K. L. Janert’s Annotated Bibliography will foremost the Bhagavadglta (for details see bibliography). At about the same
show.3 4 In view of the abundance of tradition documented in these catalogues time I was entrusted with a collection of books in modern Indian languages
taken over from the Seminar fur Indologie und Buddhismuskunde, Gottin¬
it is all the more regrettable that the projected successor to Theodor Auf-
gen, a considerable number of them being written in Dravidian languages
recht’s Catalogus Catalogorum, the New Catalogus Catalogorum published by
and/or scripts. This fortunate coincidence put the project on a much firmer
the University of Madras, seems to have come to an untimely halt.3 As
basis. Finally, the yield of these materials was compared with samples from
pointed out elsewhere, whatever the reason for this delay, the project
the manuscript collection of the Niedersachsische Staats- und Universitats-
deserves all the attention and help needed to get it back on track.5
bibliothek, Gottingen.
The idea for this book came to me when I was collecting manuscript
An endeavour like the present one requires the basic decision between
microfilms and prints in South India in 1993. Feeling quite unprepared for
particularity and generality. Should the delineation of a given script confine
the task, I looked around for practical help, but all I chanced upon was a
itself to one particular manuscript or should it comprise as many sources as
possible, including printed texts? In my view the first method, although
2 Sitarama Sastry, S. (comp.): A catalogue of printed Sanscrit worlds in the Government Oriental
convincingly applied to other Indian scripts, is less suitable for a highly
Library, Mysore (l8gi-iggg). — Mysore : Govt. Branch Press, 1944. Venkatanathacharya,
complex system such as Grantha Tamil, of which the following pages can
N. S. (comp.): A supplemental catalogue of printed Sanscrit works in the Oriental Research
only give an inadequate impression.
Institute, Mysore (1945-1956). - Mysore : Univ. of Mysore, 1957
But the impression would have been even less adequate had I confined
3 Janert, Klaus Ludwig: An Annotated Bibliography of the Catalogues of Indian Manuscripts. -
Wiesbaden 1965 (Verzeichnis der orientalischen Handschriften in Deutschland, Suppl. 1). myself to the evidence of one particular manuscript. To begin with, even
4 Calculated on the basis of Aufrecht’s tripartite Catalogus Catalogorum, the New Catalogus with a limited choice of manuscripts it would be difficult to decide which of
Catalogorum has covered around 43 per cent of its ground in the 34 years since the publica¬ them can be considered exemplary. Having made a choice, and accepted its
tion of vol. 2 in 1966 (not taking into account the first edition of vol. 1 in 1949, replaced by inevitable randomness, one is tied to the characteristic features of that parti¬
a 2nd ed. in 1969). If it is continued at the same speed, it could take another 45 years until
cular manuscript, no matter how ‘typical’ they may be. Furthermore, the
at least some of us would see its completion, but considering that the last volume was
published in 1991, this seems a very optimistic estimate.
choice entails undesirable limitations: As a rule, a given manuscript will
5 See Grunendahl, R.: “A Plea for an Integrated Approach towards Manuscript Cata¬ offer only one variety of, say, the Grantha Tamil conjunct hca, which may
loguing”, Journal of the Nepal Research Centre, 12 (2001), pp. 151-159, section 4.2.1.
X PREFACE PREFACE XI
match one of the seven specimina given below (see p. 24). But with regard adequate representation of manuscript evidence before other aspirations.
to the other six — provided they had come to one’s notice in the first place — Furthermore, even within the limited range of my standardization efforts,
one is faced with the dilemma of either waiving the principal decision in font design already took far more time than I had planned, and at some
favour of one particular manuscript or plainly excluding valuable evidence point pragmatism had to prevail in order to carry the project to completion.
gathered from other sources. And there is another, equally undesirable After all, it had already caused yet another serious delay of my schedule for
limitation: Considering that hardly any individual manuscript will yield the completing the edition of the Sivadharmasastra.
full range of ligatures and conjuncts it may be asked how its limited evid¬ A discussion of palaeography and phonology definitely lies outside the
ence is to be complemented, or whether comprehensiveness should be tacitly scope of the present guide. Here the reader is referred to the pertinent titles
sacrificed in favour of an ultimately unsustainable principle. in the bibliography. At present, a discussion of palaeographical aspects would
By comparison, an eclectic approach taking in all available sources - be premature anyway because this field of research will soon be put on a
manuscripts and prints — has few disadvantages, apart from not finding new basis by the ongoing ‘Indoskript’ project of the Indological institutes of
favour with the purists. It will certainly increase general applicability of such Freie Universitat Berlin and Universitat Halle.
a survey if the bewildering variety encountered in manuscripts, and the Generous spacing provides room for noting down variants one will in¬
sometimes distinct conventions of prints, can be distilled to a diversified evitably come across in the course of one’s study of manuscripts and prints
whole. Such an approach obviously requires a certain standard in the deline¬ in South Indian scripts. It is the primary purpose of the present guide to
ation of the scripts in question. To a degree, the printed type developed for encourage such studies.
these scripts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is the result Besides, it is also intended to recall to memory an aspect of librarianship
of a similar distillation process, and therefore provides a suitable reference that tends to be ignored by the modern travesty of an academic librarian
point for the standardization of the material collected in this book. I am striking the eye in the peculiar blend of a self-styled global player in infor¬
confident that readers will have little difficulty in relating the standardized mation management and a smug media worker.
type to the individual character, and vice versa.
An additional advantage of standardization is that it elucidates the under- My debt of gratitude is to Gerhard Ehlers (Berlin) for going through
lying principles of composition, especially with regard to conjuncts. An indi¬ earlier versions of the Grantha Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu sections and
vidual scribe may slur conjunct components beyond recognition, whereas contributing numerous additions and corrections, to Ute Hiisken (Gbttin-
they remain recognizable if standardized, and this in turn enhances the gen) for procuring material from India, and for her help and encourage¬
grasp of the underlying principles of composition. ment through the various stages of this project, to Heike Moser-Achuthath
With a view to achieving the degree of uniformity necessary for easy (Tubingen), from whose expertise the Malayalam section has benefitted
recognition of characters I designed a number of PostScript™ fonts with considerably, to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft for funding the
Fontographer™ 4.I.6 These are definitely not intended as a contribution to publication of this book, and to Harrassowitz Verlag for undertaking it.
professional typography, and seem to confirm Fiona Ross’ verdict that the
wide dissemination of font designing tools had led to an abundance of very
poor font designs.7 It should be kept in mind though that I had to put the Reinhold Grunendahl
6 Apart from Fontographer™, no Windows™ based software was used in the composition of
this book. The layout was done with WordPerfect™ 6.0 (DOS) supported by SmartKey™.
7 Ross, Fiona G. E.: The Printed Bengali Character and Its Evolution. Richmond : Curzon 1999,
p. 223.
Terms1 and Symbols Introduction
Consonant cluster The unconnected combination of a consonant with an¬ rely almost exclusively on epigraphic evidence, which may be due to the
other consonant or consonants, which leaves all compo¬ extreme scarcity of South Indian manuscripts with verifiable dates. In conse¬
nents graphically unaltered, except in size and position. quence, these works usually turn out to be moderately useful for the prac¬
tical purpose of actually learning a script: to begin with, they can only offer
Ligature The combination of a consonant with a vowel diacritic.
the limited range of characters documented in inscriptions. Furthermore,
epigraphic characters of a given script differ considerably from those
encountered in manuscripts.
The present book is an attempt to fill this gap. Some practical hints for
readers may not be out of place:
& separates variants (not used in lists of conjuncts)
Variants of basic characters are given in the respective systematic sections
# a Tamil character in a Grantha Tamil context
under -al-a (see box on top of the page). These variants have not been
# a numeral carried through all non-a vocalizations unless a particular ligature appears
more frequently or seemed worthwile to recall as a variant of a basic
□ represents a host consonant (in displaying vocalization etc.)
character. The large-size outline tables give only the ‘standard’ form.
Both long and short diphthongs {e/e, o/o), the distinction of which is a
characteristic of several Dravidian languages and scripts, have found their
way into South Indian Sanskrit manuscripts and prints. In some sources
they seem to be used indiscriminately while in others preference is given to
one or the other. As a rule, I have given the exact transliteration of long and
short diphthongs although the distinction is inconsequential for Sanskrit
(for examples see the lists of conjuncts).
The charts and outline tables display a number of ligatures (i.e., vocaliza¬
tions) not sanctioned by Sanskrit phonetics. This certainly makes them
rather hypothetical and difficult to document in texts as, e.g., ligatures of
vocalic -/ with consonants other than But I can detect no harm in includ¬
ing them just the same. And, if required, each and every one of them can
actually be documented, albeit in one particular context alone, viz., the
South Indian ‘letter-numerals’ occasionally used for numbering the folios of
manuscripts. The system of ‘letter-numerals’ reserved for this purpose is
different from the one employed in other contexts, which combines basic
1 Cf. Ross 1999:236^ characters and conjuncts in no apparent order, all of them ending in -a,
XIV INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION XV
with three exceptions (see the Malayalam section, p. 94).2 3 By contrast, the Tamil
letters used for manuscript pagination follow the sequence of the Sanskrit
Tamil script (for the Tamil language) is included here because Sanskrit
alphabet, usually beginning with the vowels from a to au (plus am/ah/iti)
manuscripts and prints in Tamil Grantha frequently display Tamil charac¬
followed by the consonants from {- to h- (plus fy-/sl(-/sp-) declined through
ters (e.g., 6TI la for (u)) la in 6) .JlldfiF61T<g3(D) patalatala). Furthermore, in
the entire range of vocalizations from -a to -au? Gerhard Ehlers once point¬
spite of its limited range of characters, Tamil script is frequently used for
ed out to me that these ‘letter-numerals’, apart from their obvious function,
printing entire Sanskrit texts, especially popular editions of religious texts
could also be intended to provide the reader of a given manuscript with a
such as the I—I<3E>6nS) So66)<9j , in large numbers. Although they are
reference aid for getting acquainted with the hand of its scribe. In view of
seldom encountered in a Sanskrit context, I have also included Tamil
the fact that such mss. frequently display a parallel numbering in digits it
abbreviations and other features that are hard to find in the usual reference
seems likely that this is the principal purpose of South Indian ‘letter numer¬
works.
als — contrary to letter numerals in Nepalese manuscripts, for example.
The following remarks on graphic elements of the Tamil script are based
on Beythan’s observations (1943:i4ff.):
The following notes on some graphic aspects of the scripts in question are
A hook is added at the lower right to distinguish between initial cfj, d-
intended to facilitate orientation in the sometimes confusing variety of
and c#) a-, and likewise between diacritic -it and □ -u (in Ib^ nit, L_j}pu,
characters. Palarographical and phonological aspects are of no concern here.
ILj, yu, 61^ vu). Similarly, the end of initial 6^ 0- is curled to distinguish it
from 6^ o-. An added 6TI /-graph distinguishes initial 9611 a- from 9_u-,
Grantha Tamil initial 6^61T au- from 6j> o-, and diacritic Qn61T -au from 61a -e.
A curl distinguishes diacritic □ -1 from □) preceding diacritic G □ -e /
Grantha Tamil is by far the most complex of the South Indian scripts
Gad -o from 61a -e and 61OIT -o, as well as a variant of diacritic -u from -u
applied to Sanskrit texts. Finding this complexity difficult to summarize in
(in @ (Fp mu, ^ ru, lu, (Till) lu). It should be noted that diacritic
words I have tried to map it out in an attempt at graphic classification (pp.
-ul-u show the greatest variety of all vocalizations.
59—76), which, it is hoped, will need no further comment here.
A thorn at the lower right distinguishes initial 6J e- from 6T e- and
(where necessary) |J ra from diacritic [f -a, while the F -a-element distingu¬
ishes 61 aF -o from 61 □ -e, and GaF -o from G□ -e. A similar graphic ele¬
ment denotes diacritic -it (in OTjfT nit, 600311 nit, ^11 tu, JjJT nu, 6AJIT lit, JFF
2 Cf. C. Bendall 1896.
ru, <60)11 nit) if the respective -u character ends in an upward stroke ( 6TI nu
3 Cf. Burnell 1878:80. At least to my knowledge, the South Indian systems of letter-numerals
etc.).
have not yet been studied in great detail. Here are some examples taken from manuscripts
The three characters that have a curve at the bottom to denote diacritic -a
deposited in the Niedersachsische Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek, Gottingen. First, a
rather typical numbering method according to a Ramayana-Ms. in Tamil Grantha (Cod. (viz., (500) na, (fi/ ra, 60) na) retain it in -o/-o: 61(500) no, G(500) no etc.
Ms. Sansr. Schr. 75)' vowels from a to au (1—14), am (15), ah (16), consonants with
inherent a from ha to ha {17—49), then la> k§a, s\a, spa, am(?), iti (50—55), followed by !{a
[repeated!], ha, k}> hj, hu, ha, hr, hj, hi, kj, he, \a'• kp, hpu (56-69), ham (70), hfth (71), and
Grantha Malayalam (Arya Eluttu)
so on through the rest of the alphabet (i(ka, hha, hhi, hhu etc.). An interesting variation can
The graph for unaugmented diacritic CD -au distinguishes initial (alternat.)
be found in an incomplete manuscript of the Taittirlya-Samhita (Cod. Ms. Sanscr. Schr. 6):
6Y0® i- from 6n i-, g>® u- from u-, ^ /g f- from g r-, Q® au from
ha-ha (1-33), la, h§a, sha, spa, am( ?), iti (34-39), then ha, ha, hi, k}, ku, hp> hj, h}', hj, Kl Ke, nj
Kat (4°—51); after a gap caused by missing folios, the numbering continues with chu (‘70’, 63 o, and diacritic Qn® -au from ©□ -e.
according to the somewhat incongruous parallel numbering in numerals) etc.
XVI INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION XVII
The two older variaties of diacritic -u □ / D3 and -u □ / c£L are invariably Telugu
applied according to the pattern laid down in the respective table (pp. 84b).
There are two conspicuous characteristics distinguishing Telugu (and Kan¬
This pattern is also applied if such -u ligatures appear as final members of
nada) from Grantha Tamil and Malayalam. One is the vertical stroke
a conjunct/consonant cluster: cflYg) btu, cfrgi \tu, cflb fyut, cflb knu etc.
(Tel. jada or ottu or vottu) marking all aspirated stops except (•) tha. The
In consonant clusters built with virama attachecPto the^st component,
vertical stroke of qj) fya may be considered dispensable in so far as the basic
diphthong diacritics are written between the virama and the following
character is clearly set apart anyhow and, consequently, i{ha does not have
component, e.g., 6T3Gcfl£f1 h{se, (OTDGg tsnye.
the aspiration mark in the related Kannada script (see below). The remain¬
The inventory of prepausal characters is rather small, compared to
ing Telugu aspirates need the vertical stroke to distinguish them either from
Grantha Tamil. However, in Grantha Malayalam prepausal characters for
their unaspirated counterpart (viz., q) cha from o) ca, dha from (5 da,
voiceless plosives also stand for their voiced counterparts. Thus cflb also
£) dha from £) da, $ pha from 5 pa, and bha from 8) ba) or from unre¬
serves for -g, (0b -t for -d, and also for -/!4
lated characters (viz., ^0 gha from ^7) ma and Ocp jha from Cx5) ya\ for
A triangular markXl indicates gemination in conjuncts with preceding r-,
headmarks see below). Strictly speaking, the aspiration mark in (4) tha
v\z. Gy rc(c)a, 6DJ & 6T^Jj rb(b)a,i| rbh(bh)a,Q rm(m)a, <^,)& ry(y)a,
achieves little by way of distinction because there is no unmarked counter¬
Qj & ojd rv(v)a including the non-r- variants of those conjuncts ending
part, and (4) tha bears no resemblance with unaspirated <5 ta. Instead, the
with an upward stroke to the right, especially DJ cca, Q mma and Cg} yya.
dot in the middle distinguishes (4) tha from dha. However, especially in
Variants of the simplified Malayalam script introduced in the 1970s and
older prints the distinction between (4) tha and $ dha is not always made.
1980s have been included.
The second graphic characteristic of Telugu and Kannada is the head-
Due to their graphic similarity, the following characters may be difficult
mark (Tel. talakattu, Kan. talebattu) above some characters with inherent
to distinguish, especially in manuscripts:5
-a, taking different forms in Telugu □ and Kannada tf. According to
0
e-
-au
& pri Burnell (1878:17), this headmark developed from a short cross stroke
(Y) na which, in previous stages of palaeographic development, marked the upper
QJ ca Q_l pa QJ va end of a perpendicular stroke at the character’s origin. With regard to this
CD) sa OJD da headmark, Telugu consonants fall into three categories:
(0) ta cflb ba — 8 consonants without headmark:
63 0 la qj) kha, ha, & ja, ST ha, 6) ta, S3 na, 8) ba, Q la, (and &9 ra),
u £ la g/ nya — 19 with a headmark in central position and/or attached to the body of the
(Y)J nva mi mpa character:
Finally, some notes on writing Prakrit in Malayalam script: 1\a, t\ ga, o) ca, $ cha, fiCp jha, (•) tha, da, dha, <5 ta, (4) tha, £) da,
‘anusvara preceding a consonant may indicate gemination: $ dha, r5 na, bha, ^S) ma, CkD ya, (5 ra, <^> va, &sa, (and ^ la),
0(0) ‘m’ta = (0Y0) tta, oO ‘m’tha = g ttha — 6 with a headmark to the left of the centre and detached from the body:
anusvara on top of a consonant or vowel indicates nasalization: q)D gha, o5 pa, 5 pha, <A. sa, rO sa, dF ha.
617)13 = 6TT)ol3 nambha As a rule, the position of the headmark determines the position of diacritic
‘anusvara may stand for yya: ©TO0(810) am a = ©1Dg)/©TD ayya ET° -a (Tel. dirgham), □ -/ (Tel. gudi, circle), □ -l (Tel. gudidirgham) as well
as diphthong diacritics.
4 As pointed out by Gundert (i8y2:xiv) and others, in Malayalam -t is pronounced
5 List contributed by Heike Moser-Achuthath.
XVI11 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION XIX
intersecting the upward stroke to the right (e.g., t?pd, tTpo, ff po,
fj phu from fp) gha; likewise, they denote -u. with QJ° instead of 177° to
distinguish ^5j° vu (and o5j° pu) from ^5j° ma, and fj° phu from fj° gha.
pau). This, by the way, distinguishesfrpb,~t? pau fromTTz/a, "STvau,
and rxT sa, fCr so, of so, KJ" sau from rT na, r0°no, of no, 7T nau. -ol-o ligatures:
right: jho, jho, Cp7 ° jhau. An additional feature distinguishing Telugu (and Kannada; see below)
from Grantha Tamil and Malayalam emerges from the above description of
— qD gha does not take -z'/-z7-[diphthong] at the position of the headmark
ligatures, viz., the notation of several non-zz vowels: Diacritic -a (with quali¬
but attaches them in the centre: ghi, q?P ghi,~fp) gheffp) ghe etc.
fications), -el-e, -ai, -o/-o, -au are not denoted sideways, but on top of the
— The z-related semi-vowel CtDD ya deserves special attention because it re¬
respective consonant.
tains its headmark in C&P yd, but drops it in -i/-i: COD yi, COJ° yz~!
— In oT ha the headmark is treated as part of the character’s body, and is Consonant clusters and conjuncts:
thus retained in the formation of ^T6 ha as well as ho, ho (alter¬ If two or more consonants are combined without a separating vowel, the
natively oTD ho, oJ\J° ho; see below), and hau. consonants following are written below the first and lose their headmarks.
Various consonants take a special form when subscribed in this manner (see
p. 136T). In general, the construction and arrangement of consonant clusters
XX INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION XXI
is predictable, although the position of diacritics for non-zz vowels can be — 6 with a headmark detached from the body due to the right upward
puzzling. As a rule, consonant clusters are read from top to bottom and stroke usually ending well below it:
from left to right; the vowel — non-zz diacritics usually being attached to the 5? & 0? gha (alternat.), do pa, qj pha, c5\ sa, sa, <xn & ha (alternat.).
basic consonant of the cluster (except with alternative nj-pzz □J-pw / These characters have a dot (or small circle) as an additional feature.
□j-pAw D^-phii) — is pronounced only after the last component. This The dot determines the position of -<z/-z/-z7-[diphthongJ diacritics and,
requires some circumspection, especially in reading more complex clusters combined with the shorter upward stroke, distinguishes die) pa1 / oo pi /
such as rtsnye (see list). It should be noted that, contrary to other non-zz pe etc. from oJc) va / vi / o3 ve etc., rTD sa /A) si / dJ se etc. from
diacritics, the lower component of -zzz 13 is not directly attached to the basic fi3c> na / rv) ni / rv) ne etc.
consonant but written at the bottom of the cluster/conjunct, e.g., A), ntai. In the absence of a special graph for (long) diacritic -tl-el-o, the length is
9 _g _9
In some cases the sequence of components is modified, apparently for marked by adding C (dlrgha) to diacritic -i/-e/-o\ -f, □ ^ -e, Q78)(; -o.
pragmatic reasons (see list for tpra [actually ‘trpa’}\ sstha ['sthsa\, the first s
-i ligatures:
standing for visarga).
Most consonants with an upward stroke bearing a headmark (2d ca, <2*3 cha,
Class nasals are frequently replaced by anusvara (or ardhanusvara). How¬
^ ta, rd na, 2f5 bha, o30 ma, o3 va, c3 sa, & la) or with a hook to the right
ever, they appear in their ‘regular’ shape, too, and have therefore been
(80 bha, Zija, 80 ba, CO la) attach an integrated variant of diacritic -z: SD hhi,
included in the list.6
83 ci, 0 chi, 23 ji, 3) ti, rv) ni, 2d bi, <£) bhi, etc.
Some clusters and conjuncts, especially those with -r-, can be written in a
Another variant of diacritic -z is attached to round or circular elements
variety of ways, which have not been carried through in each and every
bearing a headmark: A gi, COp jhi, A thi, 0 di, 0 dhi, 0 thi, 0 di, 0 dhi,
case. A glance at the context of the respective section will help to comple¬
0 ri.
ment the picture, it is hoped.
-u/-u ligatures:
o3 va and pa dp pha denote diacritic -u with □) instead of DO to clearly
Kannada
distinguish o3) vu (and dj) pu) from o30 ma, and 60) phu from 0? gha-,
Most of what has just been said of Telugu holds good for Kannada, too. A likewise, they denote -u with □J7) instead of 038), which distinguishes o3J5>
vertical stroke □ (e.g., in dha) marks all aspirated stops except 80 bha (cf. vu (and 6jJo) pu) from o30 ma, and dj_/8) phu from <5? gha.
Telugu section above) and 0 tha.
-o ligatures:
The groups of consonants distinguished with regard to the headmark
In Kannada -o/-o is generally denoted by combining the respective -e liga¬
(Kan. talebattu) are very similar to those in Telugu:
ture with diacritic -«, e.g., ^38) f{o, 838MJ kp.
- 8 without a headmark:
oT) ma and CdO ya lose the last hook of their -e ligatures (»3o me /Oil ye)
80 bha, 2S na, 33yzz, TT ha, &) ta, S3 na, 80 ba, CO la (and 63 la, S3 ra),
in o338) mo Ci338) yo / o338)^ mo 0338)C yo.
- 21 with a headmark attached to the body of the character:
d \a, A ga, gha (alternat.), 83 ca, <2*3 & 2^ cha, CLpyVzzz, d tha, 0 da, Consonant clusters:
0 dha, 3 ta, 0 tha, C3 da, 0 dha, r\3 na, 2(3 bha, o30 ma, CdO ya, d ra, o3 va, The principles for consonant clusters in Kannada are the same as those
2) /zz, <36 ha (alternat.), (and 0 la), described for Telugu (see above). Diacritics for non-zz vowels are attached
to the basic consonant of the cluster. Subordinate consonants, including post-
6 By contrast, C.P. Brown (i854:xxiv) considered this “an empty innovation (...) not likely to 7 There is an alternative form for dJc) pa with a longer upward stroke intersected by diacritic
become popular”. -a: cOc) pa).
XXII
INTRODUCTION
consonantal -r, are written after non-a diacritics attached to the basic con¬
Grantha Tamil: Basic Characters & Ligatures
sonant (e.g.,Gfoj dru). Only the subscribed component of -ai is written after
post-consonantal -r (e.g., trai). Pre-consonantal F-r follows the afore¬
mentioned components F rtsnya), but usually precedes post-conso¬ Vowels Initial Diacritic
nantal -r (e.g. Jp rtre); the dlrgha graph { denoting -ll-el-o usually takes
the final position in the cluster (e.g., § F^ rthi, Jf^ rtre). a da
r 8
finally, the checklist of conjunct components and the table displaying the
years of the Brhaspati cycle according to the South Indian calendar may be
r as & 8^5
helpful in handling manuscripts.
1 ear □6iu
ai Q6ifflT&6)9/or QQ □
ga da §3 ba 6TU sa 6IT0
ha ^ & rq na cm ma 8 &
-a/ -a -a/ -a
k- c9o c9olT kh- 62J & 6YIIT 6LJ 6LJF ph- 6LQ 6LQIT
p-
g- V) & jp _U)fr gh- 6ILI 6HJ IT b- 6TU 6rUfT bh- 61T) & 6U) 60) rr
n- ^ n , ^fr m- 8 &c? SIT
t- U- & L,
v- 6U euir
th- O& O Off
s- 6IT0 6IT0IT
t- j£F) & d?) d)ir th- UL9 UL9IT
-i/-I
n- g?>] m- £1
k- (S^&cSo) c9d@ & c3g) kh- 67JU 62J® p-GLJ^&GLJ GTJS&^J ph- GUT0 6UT©
v:)
g-JJj13 & LO_ VJ©&U)p gh- 6iirn ear® b- eriF1 & ery ©ru® bh-arr^&arL. arj®&Q7>
Variants:
tr & Q1
nr JDq)
GRANTHA TAMIL *3
12 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
k- Q<5d 00c9o kh- QOJ 0062J p- 06LJ 006LJ ph- 06I£I Q06LO
g- 0V) 00J/) gh- 06UJ 006ULI b- 0601 00601 bh- 061Q Q061Q
h- 0^ 00^ m- 08 008
k- GlcOofr c9b61T kh- 0627(7 62J61T p- 06U(7 6LJ6TT ph- 06)_Qfr 6U36U
g- 6H/)ir J/)6TT gh- 06UJI7 61U6TT b- 0607(7 6TU6TT bh- 06V) fT 61/) 61T
n- 0^q(7 ^61T m- 08(7 861T
k n Igj&ra fe -m
g P O -m (anusvara)
j &L y O -h (upadhmantya)
n r itr avagraha
t a V i pluti
a/
d s v6
Conjunct Forms of Sonorants
n 6mb s
& Oj & □ J -y-, e.g. sya-\ UTI^ & etc.
t s an)o
j post-consonantal -r-, e.g. sra-\ ^JT)^ & UT>/
d
J h eifti
□_j &A pre-consonantal -r-, e.g. darsana
kka <5o
<%> kva c3o c9du
cUo 6U
ktu
ksma
ktya c3o\
ksmya
kya
khna 62J5 QJ5
kra ^dJty
khma
gdhra AD ghrya
gnya
ghva 6UJ
6U
gbha AD L®p
Of)
gya nktva
22
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL
23
rikya
chma
3 ^P
nkra Hr chya
nksa 3
f a£. chra
nksya
chrya
nga G)f)
chla
i0 (@>
nma vo
chva Ik
g
6U *58
ilia
@)
era
24
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS GRANTHA TAMIL
25
jva 88 thya
6U
°J
thra
jhra
thva 0 O
6U 6)1
tta
U-4.
W dra
ttha
V 'a dva gd
611
gJ5U
tya
tra
dhya
w
dhva gd
6U 611
26
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL
nta 6m 60ST
6- tkra
ntha 6m
0 ®sr tksa
nna 6m
6m “) ttva jS <3<36LI
nnya 6m\
omn) ttha <5ul9 <3tul9
UL9
nya 6m\^
tna 6h)
J5
nra §66^ 60ob tnya
□5^ b)
nva 6SftT 603DU
6)J tpa 8&6U 96) 1 <5tlj
6) I
nha 6m 6mjJ)
QJT) tpra dfe>L aa_,
nhya 6m\
6LTQ n) tpha afein d6LQ
tmya
%
tka 6b
<36
H^do 9&c3o tya
b 4)
28
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS GRANTHA TAMIL 29
trya
tla <3u\j
@>
tv a <56)J
6)1
<5m dgha fWl
tsa doro
6LTD
tstha jS dfoiro
6m UL9
UL9
tsna afeiro ddra
6tA) JB
J5 6)
tsnya ddha
_s£\
6XT00J UJ
15
tsya ddhna
emy
tsva <5 afeiro ddhya ^ ^
6iro 6)1
6)1
ddhra
thla UL9
<S>
30 CONSONANT CLUSTERS &
CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL
dbha
Jq %}P nta J5 6g£
dbhya
ntya
dbhra
ntra
dma
ntva 6c56LI
QJ
dya
ntsa °&6lR) 6c9glto
Giro
ntha J5 6TUL9
UL9
dva
B&j op
6U Jl‘ 3-’ nda _J5
dvya
jm) ndya
i)
ndra J5
&
dhna LU >£/
(see ddhna)
J5 ndri
dhma uu o*j
§ u? ndva J5 pTJD
dhya 6U
ndha J5 'flu 6UU
UU
dhra OJj (see ddhra)
u ndhya
T®>
dhla ULJ
<@) ndhra J5
.uu
dhva uu> (see ddhva)
61J nna J5 Tjf> 615
J5
32 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS GRANTHA TAMIL 33
phva 6)_Q
6U bhya
bhra ^610^
bja 6TU
29
6Y1V)
S3 bhla ap 6100
@>
bda 61QJ
5- bhva 610 ^ft)J 6U0d
6L1
bdha 60J
uu
bdhva 6VU
bU> mna 8 ok,
bba
6)1 J5
6TU
6TU mpa 06LJ io_i
bbha 6KTJ
6V) mpha O6L0 c^6LQ Sr*
bma 6DJ
2 mba O610J 8
6TU
bya
^H)
mbha 061Q
bra 60^
mma 8 &>
8
bla 6TU
<S>
mmya
bva 6TU
00
fill mya
mra %
bhna SD 0/15
J5 mla 8 8 ScK)
@) CTO
bhma 6U)
2 % «£
mva 8
6)i
C%>l
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL 37
rt(t)ya
rtra ^5y4 ^
yya
'H) r(t)tha LL9-1 c5us4
rthya
rk(k)a Sfo—l c9olc9o
rd(d)a %_4
rg(g)a u)4
r(d )dha IU)4
rgya
r(d )dhna uo4
rgh(gh) a 61U4 &M
J5
6}jy
6UJ r(d)dhva UL_)4
6) I
rghya 6Hl4\
rp(p)a 6LJ-X
rc(c)a ^>y
c#J,
rba 6YU4
rcya
rbha 61Q—b
r)(j)a 82-1 & ggfe
rm(m)a §4 cflcf 4
rju 8^
ry(y)a UJ 4
rn(n)a owr4 «fc)
°t) rl(l)a @)4 @h>l> (ds
ova
rt(t)a iS-l
rv(v)a 6U4 6^) 4
rttha see rtha
rsa Uir4
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL 39
rsva iro4
6U lva (@)
6D
rsa
lka @)
<3o sea LTD py
_3J
lga &
AO ©Ip scha UU
lgu
sna LTD
J5
lpa @>
6)_J @€L1 sma UU
2 U>
lpi
sya
lpya
luo) @eq) sra
lba @>
6DJ sla UX) umj
@>
Ima @>
2
@6> sva UU UU6U
6U
lya
ssa UU in
LTD LTD
11a
ska 61% 6a
(3o GJD
4° CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA TAMIL 41
sta 6LTD
sti anSt
6^
stu 61TU111
- /
stya 6iro\ 6^
stra 61T0
stva 6LT0
d)Q_l
stha 6iro
UL9
sna 61A)
J5
snya 6iro\
spa 6im
6U
spya 61T0\ eircA
6) \n) 6) U
spha 6LT0
61D
sma 61T0
8 n
smi 6H§
smya 61T0\
8 ^
Tamil
sra
i &d S]&D°
CO fo
hna 61/7) am T R* & l°F □ &□
6MT cfcoi
hna 6117) u JV)\ & □) I & &□ *
J5
hnya ®i|A 6mn|j u & cMM cS^ &0/1& QJ&D
* and variants
44 TAMIL TAMIL
45
Consonants
Vo we Hess -a Vo we lless -a
k- c56 <35 v- 6) 1 6U
& ( fa o°oU za oo §8 ) n- 666T p66)&6M7>&666) n- 66T §6) & 66T5 & 66)
n- fp Grantha Characters: t- <9) & dp &> fT
u
•
1-
V 6\J
6V) 6V> ks- (3(31% <36) % r- D" LIT ks~ <56)% (36>% fT
-i/ -l
-u/ -u
9c93 & &&> G<5okQ>&> 1- 616\) G6\) k- 60)<55 & 66)<3E> 1- <?6Y) & 6lf0\l & 2/0Y)
9(5) Gbi v- 616) 1 G6TJ n- 60)[Q v- 6016)J
9(67) G(6T) !- 9677 G6T7 n- 601(67) 1- §6TT & 6)fOTT & 2/DVT
96007 G600T n- 9607 G607 n- §600T&61/300T&2^00T n- ?j60T & 61/30T & 2/661
6\^ G^ t- 60)c5?
-of -o -au
= c35c9r until
= 6)J [T 6) | receipts
r- = £l[T@){?6l5] long-lived
- Agriculture etc.
\S = ffllf sri
= d1 6TT LD saltpan
Ld - 1—5]6ir§6Tr pillai, a title of rank
S3 & JX = QlD6\3 6\3l paddy
LD-irr-nT- yiB = ^ DcSoO [JR §3 [Til c3 c f] l*P maharajarajasri,
- jfjl 6 V) LD ground
A&, = 6 ^ from the first
= L_|60TQdHJJ dry cultivation
&L - 6LI663c56LLI[nr belonging to
kL
= GLDff)l—ILCj _ afore-mentioned - Anglo-Indian Currency
- Accounting
L4 = 1_16(5(31 LD a Fanam = 8 o Cash
ffh_ & f[fc3 - \V) 1 J3I_Iff number 6 LTL- = 63J [T ITc55 651 a Pagoda = 42 Fanams
dH 665L an Anna
54 TAMIL
Cardinals
- Calendar
10 11 12 etc.
- Weights & Measures
20 21 22 etc.
is = 0065^1 one Marcal (measure of capacity)
11,000
etc.
58 NUMERALS
oa g 6) □-
a 6EI & 6) ft) 1 IfrO <5>
These basic elements, along with two variants, are displayed in black boxes,
'/lO = 32/320 1A = 40/320 V20 = 48/320 ‘A = 6V320
while the framed boxes below them show their various derivations.
In the column to the right of a framed box,
6\J 9> & © — the first row classifies the basic characters) built from the respective
graphic element (or otherwise remains empty);
%= S0/320 i/2 —160/^20
3A = 240/320
— the second row gives all conjuncts beginning with the graphic element
in question. It should be noted here that only genuine conjuncts, i.e.,
graphically connected consonants, have been classified in this manner; clusters
of graphically unconnected consonants should be looked up in the alphabetic
list, starting from the basic character around which the cluster is construct¬
ed. Where the complete classification of all conjuncts originating from a
particular consonant would have entailed unnecessary repetition the reader
is referred to the alphabetic list for further details.
— The third row indicates graphically related characters.
Within these rows, conjuncts are arranged according to increasing com¬
plexity, as far as possible.
Tamil characters are marked with an asterisk (*), numerals with a number
sign (#). Unclassified characters are listed at the end.
ON
°cfJGLTO ntsa
GRANTHA TAMIL 63
(<f 4-0
6)
g\^ khva
GRANTHA TAMIL
65
GRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION GRANTHA TAMIL 67
4.1 Q -e QQ -ai
6~F)fT nu*
nO bdha bdhva
4.8 6y2_& la
68 graphic classification
GRANTHA TAMIL
6)
S & cy* ma m
1_ ta* I & 1^ ta t
l_
1_I pa* I_| pu* pu*
U) & If) ga
LI iai g u)4 rga gya
7.12
1777) gna LHT^ gnya
7-J3 1 jha
LTD sa LTD sa
Llbj thya
® -h (jihvdmuliya) r S&°J
©
o -h (upadhmamya) ! 610 □
610
o & <5. & 8 & 1 visarga i 6t0) □
6rb)
Z&^ avagraha e/e ©□ Go
l pluti ai ©© □
Furthermore, Tamil fractions and abbreviations have not been classified. o/o © ©0 ©□3 G m3
ka c£b ta s pa Q_l sa CO
cha tha LQ ra CO la y
ja 82 da G & 3 la O ra 0
ha 6TCD na CD
8o BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES GRANTHA MALAYALAM 8l
y- CO) CQ)3
c- OJ DJ3 ch- OGQ 003
r- CO 03
j- 82 c33 jh- (DU) CDU)3
1- QJ QJ3
n- 6TOO 6T003
V- QJ C0J3
t- S S3 th- O 03
s- C/3 033
d- 010 CU03 dh- CU9 CU93
s- 09d & cO 0943
n- 6TT0 & 6IT) 6003
s- CTO CT003
t- CGO & 3b C303 th- LQ LQ3
h- GO 003 l- y y3
d- 0 &3 03 dh- OO 0)3
1- ®L ^3 r- O 03
n- CD CD3
82 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES GRANTHA MALAYALAM
83
-i/-l -i/-I
s- crol m51
t- «61 (ofl th- LOl LCfl
d- sl efl dh- col oil h- QOl odl !- yl y6!
n- COl ofl 1- eQ $ r- 61 di
84 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES GRANTHA MALAYALAM
85
u/-u
t- s V- OJ 9J U)J COJ
0 § !h- 9 9 g-
n- Od Od) 1- 6^
0
r- O0 O©
^0
BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
- ch- Og
-r/-f alternatively
with
J resr J:
k-
gh-
"RJ °QJJ
n-
... <?/c
88 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
GRANTHA MALAYALAM 89
k- ©C0D ©Ocfb kh- ©6) J 0060 P- Ool ooq_i ph- ©OQ OOO O
s- ©CTO OOCTO
t- OCU) ©OCU) th- OLD ©OLQ
g- ©COO ©0)0 gh- ©OQJ0 ©OQJ0 b- ©6roo ©60 10 bh- ©00 ©80
c- ©OJO ©_QJ 0 ch- ©nco o ©0130 y- ©CQ)0 ©CQ)0 kd GcfbO kho 6600
j- ©g20 ©S20 jh- ©CDU)0 ©CDU)0 r- ©coo ©CD0 go 60)0 gho 6GQJ0
V- ©coo ©OJ0
t- ©SO ©SO th- ©oo ©O0
-au alternatively
kau d3b0
n- ©6TT)0 ©6TT)0 s- ©Q9d0 ©Q9d0
khau 600 ... f/c.
s- ©00)0 ©00)0
t- ©C6)0 ©CO) CD th- ©LQO ©LQ0
k d0b & c£)b & 9b r (t) & (b <9/ -y-> e-g- tya~- s'ya~:
n 6TTb & 6H& 1 (Ub & ((3b (3d & [□ post-consonantal -r-, e.g. pra(Q_| & [O I
I l
t cob & cob & (db 1 Oo & (/£) □ & Dj pre-consonantal -r-, e.g. hprsa-. cfbQQd & dfbQjfTI
&
<8> -A (upadhmamya)
u
□ virama
JUO &dUO (T) 6T#
l 10 100 1,000
□ gemination mark, e.g. cca Q [ Qj
no cm
031 («5U) clOO ocyaj kka d9o
na nna nya skra jhra ha gra pra dre
kku cfh53 kku d0 kkr dEte)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
kkra (cffo)
(2 LQ QJ 6DJ (TO)
m
jQQ 6TT)
kkha d0b6U d06II
ma tha la pta ba tra ru cha na
kca d0b_QJ cflbiU kce dEbG _QJ 3LGQJ
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
kta c£H(X> ktu cOYQ) ktu dEH?b, ktr dEbg)
6TQ)
ktya cfrg/
ha
ktrya
Fractions
ktva d0Y9)J dElYSxJ
gnya
khma 6U gbhya
(2)
khya
& gma CO0 C0 U2\
98 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA MALAYALAM
99
nkya 600;
&
rikra 6B(g)
<g>
nkha 6B6U
iigha 6G“OQJ
ilia 6BQJ
cca
aj O CQJ
chla nQ
6\J jhra [emu (ffiU)
chva O.QJ
nca 6KBJ
jjna
ncha 6IQJ.O 6TQ) J (=ncsa)
(79
jjya rija 6T2Q nju 6TeB
dya
tya
tra
dhya
w
dhra [019
thra | O (O,
ttya
ttha coin
6TO J tnya
W>
6TDOO tpa coboi cofo i
nhya tpra
CObcfb tma
COb(c£j) tmya
(Obd0h9d tya
©
(Db6U tra
c® <§>
am) trya
cm)
106 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA MALAYALAM 107
tsya
ddya (0b(3/
tsra («m)
ddra 60 (Ob0
thya
\Sf ddhra (6X)
dya
& ntva Oft) (DU ODD
dra LG © ntsa ObffiTO
dva GJ ntha mu
dvya nda 08
ndya
©
dhna com CD CDD (see ddhna) ndra
(£9
CO
dhma cjoa CD
(2)
ndva an
dhya ndha cruo
dhra [CD (see ddhra) ndhya
dhla CD
6V>
ndhra orb(L9 (nay
dhva CJLU (see ddhva) nna ono
nbra ofb(6n_|
no CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS GRANTHA MALAYALAM
nma 02 pya
psva
U
bja 60J cS 60J bhla 8QJ 8
S3 6NJ
bda 60J bhva 8J
G
bdha 6HJ
CO nO
bdhva 60J mna 0
Oil CO
bba enj mpa 0QJ OTJ (contraction of OftXOJ “npa”)
bla 60J
6\J mya
&
bva 60U mra La ©
mla 0
6\J
bhna 800 mva 0J
cbco
rg(g)a
& r(d)dha (3JL)
r(g)ghy a O0
rp(p)a cy OJ
rc(c)a
Sd Qj oo'i rb(b)a 6Dj eryjd
rc(c)ya my
a
rbh(bh)a £ e'e
r(t)tha (71)‘n
rsna (bead
TD6 6TD
rha ob qp
116 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
GRANTHA MALAYALAM II7
lma qj a QJ sla Ud
0 6\J
lya sva cyaj cyou
Ira L&i oica ssa
be
11a QJ
6\J
vra LQJ
CSJ sta Q3d
S
°IJ
(TO (m>
sta
cm
ssa
38
stya nro , ssva (TO
erne7 ^d mil
120 CONSONANT & CONJUNCTS
hnya a ^9 (□)
hya
°s i
I
SI □ &B
□ &6
hra |_QO (09
hla QO u □0
6
VJ
11a W r £00°
dj
1 °2) (& 00 =lu) □
lka
d0b
o3 >
rr (pronounced tt) O O O ai 80
rrr (09
c*—0
0/0 80 £0 □ □
17 Q °
au
122 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
TELUGU I23
ka §■ ta fc> 3
Pa sa $
ga t\ da ba a sa rO
ca 5 ta C5 ya c& ia es
cha $ tha ra (5
ja a da <5 la 0
jha Cep dha <3 va 3
na ST na 3
|
I24 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
TELUGU
I25
-a/ -a -a/ -a
c- 73 ch- 3
y- c5d o&r
t- &)
V- 3 73
th- (5
n- £9 ET s- oX oX
s- 3 73
t- 3 7T th- $ 3”
n- 3
1-
r- es
BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
TELUGU
I27
-i/-1 -l/-l
k- § § kh- SP $ P- 5 b ph- cP
9
V-
t- 6 th- <g> A a £>
n- fc
1- § §
1
k- §5 & to) §> &g\T kh- spo $or P- S) 37 ph- q)J 5j°
n- £00 £30T
h- oT°0 & oO™ tor & to™
t- to Sr th- to Sr 1- to Sp
d- to Sr dh- to Sr r- 050
n- to) Sr
J3° BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
TELUGU
r3i
-r/-r
g- *) 3
K. gh_
A- *3
ch- cjS^j
c- ^
*3
s- aJ jh- 6x)^
*3
^ ^3 "•■ sj SJ
d- ^
sS dh" ^
*- a3
s3 th- ^
d- ^ 63 dli- <£\
n- ^
s3 ... etc.
132 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
n- 2o
c- fS 3 ch-
£
E■ jh- ~5cp ap
§?
t- lb th- ~5 a
d- G> <3 dh- (3 2.
n- 13
t- 75 $3 th- 3j!)
1.
d- C5 73 dh-
n- 73 3
BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES TELUGU X35
-o/ -i
i «Vo ZZr'jO
k- s kh- S' p- oJ ph-
r^~o
n- zT 1- (S' s Sanscrit -o □ also
r*—6
rendered as -6 □
v- & c3h s
t- 15” ?h- ©”&S” S’ (especially in prints)'.
<-»Vo
s- rJ jh5 CcX &SJ) ...
t- S' CT th- (T S'
VO oX ...
d- S' S' dh- (5" S' h- 3^&So 3*”
ho 2S6 Sr
n- S' S' !- ^
Additional Graphs
e.g.,
T
□ & □ virdma (Tel. pollu), e.g. alam: ^=9 O oS
e.g., ^5 \ -pu/-pu (altern.): O'? DT
°J oJ oJ
-n, e.g., dhaman: (JPcSDg-
~ph~i e.g., tpha-: *l5 \ -phul-phu (altern.): D9 DT
Conjunct Forms
pre-consonantal -r- (Tel. \valapala]gilapa, “rattle [on
the right hand]”), e.g., darsanar5
D]j e-g->
= r5 or r5 o500 people
0_93«Xt-2Crro V *
on account of
ell * -eSoA' acting
~500 | * =~530~3'DO halting place; also ‘dated at ...’ 1 * = TT" a Taloof{, division of a district
003 1^9 | * = CCDSjAO ^rvXAO ‘endowed with honour’ Oil or ST* I * » STaTa village , town
&
ui<T||U’| u*a37a&|3;5
‘His Honour’ (address in a letter) — Anglo-Indian Currency
all = a) 2j° oO 5 5l)0 or o3 r\5^o0 500 letter, request <5o &<jj \ & <5j° \ = 6s°tr Cldoo
cxJ <xJ
ff5 1 or "to! = ^<5Ao(3_;5 ‘Your humble servant’ 3HI * = a Hunn, or Pagoda
much, many
1 = 8D (j|5 cOu C5 oSjO Wednesday kta kta TiP kti ktu §V)
klya
- Weights & Measures
k*my5I^ gla A
CO
%/ v/
ghna cpj-^ ghnu qXQ-^ ghno "5^°^
t/
khya c£)^ khyai c|j)^ ghya <£OC ghya ghyau 35°^
nghra 2o °)
os
nghri 2S 1
<£>/
nma
nca of^ nci of\ nee
cchru
cche ~o) \
SO\J
n'ya in
cchre ~S)
?
V cchro tka (jO|^ tka
cchva cchva
tta 6)
ntha 83 tpa {S^ tpi 03^ 1:pu {SO \ {S'? tpu {$0^0 {5
O
oJ oj oJ oO
nda 83 ndi S^ tpra {S^J) tpra
G G 1^3
ndha 83
(5
tpha {S^ tphu {So
<
tphu {Ssr* 3^ 67
nna 83 tma {S^ tma tmi
£9
nma 83. nma ST,
tmya {S^ ^
i
tska
TELUGU
dbhra
dma £),
dvya dvya
dhna dhna
dhma dhma
!52
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
TELUGU
nyo
v<"
ppa ppu oJO cO ^[ ppu So \
C\ )
pya pya
r py-^9\
§
pra x)j ^oJ pra tTj prl |c0 hj
orYS
pro (oJj
pla oJ pi u oJO
00 00
9
psa psi psu
J54 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS TELUGU
*55
psya 3^
mno ~o5CT^
rsna (5 rsni 0
cCX
S3 S3
rha 6 o?E" rha rhi 0 rh5 (5*
cJ" oT1 oT°
lkya
i58
CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS TELUGU
r59
Ima lmai
A sla $ sla W° sli §> sle
n n n m
lva
lha O lha
oT3 oT
ss" \ v/
ska ckk|^_ ska oXj^_ sku oYOj^ skr oXj^ (vowelposition!)
vya o5^ vya o8Y^ vyu cxk)^ vye 08)^ skra o8k|^J) skra ~oS^J
vra ^oSj vra vrl |o8) vre ^xY, sta ckk sta oY sti cek stu oYO stau oX
G9 eo " eo eo
stya Sic stya <xY^
eoyj
sea sea cP^ sci 8^ see ^ scai stra si1;! stra oYJj stre 08k J stro
e)/ 69.
scyu 8 stva Si^; stva xY C
kya GOoJ) " eooj
v^* 9 —z£
sna sna cP^ snl 8^ snu cKl)^ stha 08k stha 8xY sthi 08k sthe 08k
0 O O G
*X
_ < \6
sma 8^
*1 sna 08k
89
snu 08Y8)
89
sno ckl
89
snauxY
89
sya sya
^ iyS Syai
snya ckkC
89k)
v/ \ 3 1/ v/
sra sra (Wj sri (^J (also sr) spa 08k Y spa 08k Y spi 08k Y spu 08YO Y 08k 9
oJ oJ oJ oJ oJ
t/ —ZD
srl
L* @** sru^Dj sre J srd spu ckkVJ0 Y
oJ
08k f
oJ
spai 08k Y
Q oJ
i6o CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
TELUGU
sma aX sma oX
v-"'
ska rO) ska
skha rO
»/
v< _ v.--'
sta rO sta 7\5° s
stau r\)“
strya rO^J)^
. 9
stva rOC stvi rO C
hra hri
Vowels Initial Diacritic
i o| □ &B
ga ri da ci ba 20 sa rO
gha 4? & ep3 & c0O dha bha 2*3 & 3C) & <5? & $l3
na © na ma 2d & 2d
ca 23 ta 3 cd
ya ha OO & od & 2d
ja £ da (3 la 0 &© la 69
jha dp dha 0 va d & d ra 69
na op na 0
166 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
KANNADA 167
t- 6i 1© th- d 0c)
v- <d & o30
n- rd rv)0
1- 09 09^ r- 09 09=^
i68 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES KANNADA 169
i/-I
onn9
n- •ST? l- O O?
t- §0
V- cD <3?
db? th- g) A?
d- a 0? dh- S- §) 8?
9
n- £§ e§? S- 6J\ <ih?
S- f\J A?
t- Q th- <A?
h- ZTJ 0370
s- to too
t- to too th- to too s- dJvO dJvTO
d- too CtoO dh- CjlO too s- rOO rUTO
n- 230 23lO
h- ado toro 1- $0 <&73
t- to too th- CflO too 1- e90 eaTO r- 600 69.73
d- too too dh- CjlO cjtoo
n- <to0 rtoo
172 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES KANNADA
J73
r/-r
... etc.
kh- 20^ 1
k-
g- % gh- ^
n-
- ^ ch- ^ <%
jh- dp\^
mr\
n- ^
!h- % %>
d-
%> dh-
n- S8^
n- ^ ... etc.
J74 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
-e/ -ai
k- 3 kh- cD
g- A gh- cp>
n- ffi9 0^9
e)
c- 23 ch- (£)
®<d
i- 2? jh- Gcp Cep
n- "ST®
t- h th- <S
d- a
% dh- a
%
n-
*4
t- ^
th- a
d- a dh- (J)
n- rv)
*4
Reinhold Griinendahl Reinhold Griinendahl
South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints
Grantha Tamil — Malayalam — Telugu — Kannada — Nandinagari Grantha Tamil - Malayalam - Telugu - Kannada - Nandinagari
ISBN 3-447-04504-3 ISBN 3-447-04504-3
Harrassowitz Verlag • Wiesbaden Harrassowitz Verlag • Wiesbaden
The Kannada characters on pages 174-177 were printed wrongly. The pages should be pasted over The Kannada characters on pages 174-177 were printed wrongly. The pages should be pasted over
with the corrected version enclosed here. with the corrected version enclosed here.
-e/ -ai
gh- ^
b- bh- :$
4)
m-
ch- Cj y- do
_9
jh- dp r- d Sanscrit -e □
also rendered as -e □ :
1- d
d
V-
ke khe
th- d
ge f\2 ghe cp^
dh- d s- $ 3 s
pj ne a3?
s- oJ\
rt
... etc.
_D
s- rO —
th- rp
dh- d h- 50 1- 's?
%
1- es*3 r- «es3
176 BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES KANNADA !77
-0/ -au
rrpr'c) ej3
n- 1- ©33
V- o4>^/3 a!3
t- b.js &J3 th- x^>
s- r\Jv7c) 3J3
t- .§33 th- §33 §P
_zr^> _D
k- djd g* kh- so33 P' coys dJ ph- dfjz) -VfS)
_9
C- ?Ajz) s’3 ch- ($Jz) CsT3 y- 0^73 cdP3 Sanscrit -o □v/e)
J3 ($Jz) qp
4
th-
—)
1
Additional Graphs
□ -d-, e.g., -bda-\ 20
0 O
□^ & □ virama e.g. alam\
□ -dh-, e.g., -bdha-\ 20
Q Q
£=~ -n, e.g., dhaman:
□ -n-, e.g., -ghna-\
d
o -■rn (anusvara)
□ -p-, e.g.,
OJ oO
oo
-A (visarga)
□ -/’A-, e.g., -tpha~:
qj qj
X -A {jihvdmuliya)
□ -A-, e.g., -dba d
eo eo
OO -h (upadhmamya)
□ -AA-, e.g., -dbha-\ d
2P 2P
S avagraha (only in prints; avagraha not documented
-w-, e.g. -nma-\
in mss.!) \ %
□
6
-hr* e.g., -tka-' 3
6
□F pre-consonantal -r-, e.g., darsana-: d$Fr3
□ d
-g-3 e.g., -dga-: □ e.g. -g/a-: rt
A A on m
□ -c-, e.g., -era-: d
ecr □ \ & -v-, e.g. -/wz-: S 1
oJ cO d (0
□ & n -cA-, e.g., -ccha □ & n -A, the latter only for -f^sa
ep ep ep ep oJ\
□ -A, e.g., -A/A-:
as -s-, e.g. -tsa-\
ai
□ e.g., -\ta-\
i8o BASIC CHARACTERS & LIGATURES
o_9^.%,^fe.a.e3€ o
&
n_D^-V3?eL\AF O
123456 789 0
Fractions
I II III _ = =
samvat
S- Jz) ^ | sloka
m
182 CONSONANT CLUSTERS & CONJUNCTS
KANNADA
l83
ksmya Sc)
grya ^
ksya 5^ ksya 5c)^ gla A gla 73c)
no m
ksva d
P gva A^
gVi ^oS
khya cD^ khyai ol5 ghna cp\ ghnu cpA ghno cpOc)
c( a, cl
ghya 4?^ ghya 4-AA, ghyau 4?^ ^
gda He)
Q
ghra 4Jy ghra cp'Ay ghre 4J^
gdva He)
O P
gdha A gdhl A ^ gdho d vJc)
Q Cf) Q
2 consonant clusters n- is usually represented by anusvara.
gdkrt A^ y ka 2PJ-
gbha A
ep cca 2/^ cca 23cP cci 23
tsu 6ft)
thya ft.
dya ft n
dhya ft,
nta Ec)in \
ntha Ec)
O
nda E3 ndi E^
Q Q
ndha Ec)
wya ^ trya 33
tka ^ tkai 3 5
tv a
6 tve tvo -3§3c)^
6 e)
ddra d ,
qJ
ddva d c ddvi d r
OoJ OoJ
dhva d^^J
dba d dbl d P
20
dbra oJ
aora d .
2od
dbha d dbha CJc) dbhi d dbhu d/c)
20 2 5M o
dbhra d
20^
,
dma d,
&
drya d ,«
dva dva COcO^ dvi dve
^ _D
pra dJy pra <SJq)j pn oO^y
0
pro doJo^j
psyadJj^
o3 n F lha O
OO
rsa c^F
rsna cx>\
83
spha rv) sphi rv) sphu rvD sphu rdJz) hla SO hla Sod
qJ qJ G Qj on no
_D
sya rv)o sya rv)d)n sye rv) 0 P
£
_D
syo rv)dc) o
_D
sra r\J sra rv)c)^y sro rvXTc)^
• 9
sva rv)^ sva rv)c)^ svi rv)^ sve r\J
a ^1 & & y\
a ^n&5TI&3^1 □1
I 3 & a □1 ^1
u 5 & 3 □
5
u & 3> □
%
r \ (=“rr”) □
\
r \ <=“rf”) □
\
1 (tzo/ documented)
I (not documented)
e V & V □
\\
ai P □ %
o 5^&50 dl *£i
au 3l $i
NANDINAGARI 203
na* r na m ma ft
jhaf it dha va
na (not documented) na a
f to be distinguished from J ru
204 APPENDIX
Conjuncts
Additional Graphs
kka ft gga -^T
o -m (anusvara)
kca f. gna
g_9 -h (anundsika)
kta $ gya VI
2 & C -h (visarga)
ktya gra
3 avagraha
ktra $ gla
□ &□, virama, e.g. -t -t /\ &
ktva * f
Di & n
r\
& □1 Vedic accents (preceding accented syllables)
ktha $ ghna
5°o om
kya 371
1 2 3 4 5 ksma VI cca 5
cchva
206 APPENDIX NANDINAGARI 207
Os^
cyu dhva tv a i dhva
era g tsa
tv a
£ tya fTI dva 3 bra
a
tra
rsa skr \
rse sta 3
rsya stra 3
stva 3?
lkya stha 3 3
Checklist of Conjunct Components
kk rgh tt ttv
nk rghy nt
rikt St nty
nktv kc §ty ntr
riky cc str ntv
iikr he stv nts
nks ncy Pt
nksy rc tth ptv
tk rcy nth rt
tkr sc sth rtth
tks rty
rk cch dd rtr
lk cchr nd st
sk cchv ndy sty
skr nch ndr str
sk sch stv
ddh
kkh gj ndh kth
tkh ii tth
skh jjn nn nth
d) nny rth
njy rn rthy
gg
dg dj §n sth
dg bj hn
dg r) gd
dgr kt dd
Conjuncts listed in the sequence of their third component Reverse index of conjuncts
jn kn rim py
Conjuncts listed in the sequence of their fourth component
tt khn cm sny
nt gn jm ty
ksny riksy riktv
St ghn nm kty
ksmy tsny
nth tn tm tty
216 CONJUNCT COMPONENTS
00
OO
dy I Prabhava 1207 1267 1327
rn
sy *447 1507 1627 1687 1867
*<1
O
spr '567 r747 l927
ddhv
ddy ?y br bdhv
2 Vibhava 1208 1268 1328 1388 1448 1508 1568 1628 1688 1748 1808 1868 1928
dhy nksy dbr nv 3 Sukla 1209 1269 1389 ■449 1509 1629 1689 1809 1869
*329 >569 ■749 r929
ddhy sy bhr bhv 4 Pramoda 1210 I27O I33° I39° 1450 1510 I57° 1630 1690 1750 1810 1870 I93°
ndhy tsy mr yv 5 Prajapati 1211 1271 r331 1391 1451 1511 I57I 1631 1691 I75I 1811 1871 l931
ny hy vr rv 6 Arigiras 1212 1272 I332 1392 1452 1512 1572 1632 1692 1752 1812 1872 1932
gny kr sr Iv
7 SrTmukha 1213 I273 >333 *393 [453 l5l3 >573 1633 i693 ■753 1813 l933
tny skr sr sv
i873
tsny gr kl ksv 9 Yuva 1215 I275 •335 1395 J455 1515 •575 i635 i695 r755 1815 r875 *935
py ngr gJ nksv
10 Dhatr 1216 1276 '336 1396 M56 1516 1576 1636 1696 1756 1816 1876 1936
phy dgr Pi sv II Isvara 1217 I277 l337 *397 •457 I5I7 1577 1637 1697 I757 1817 i877 1937
by ghr ml tsv 12 Bahudhanya 1218 1278 1338 1458 1518 1638 1698 1758 1818 1878
i398 r578 1938
mby rtghr 11 hv 13 Pramathin I219 1279 r339 r399 1459 I5I9 ‘579 1639 1699 !759 1819 i879 >939
bhy chr si ns
14 Vikrama 1220 1280 I34° I4OO 1460 1520 1580 1640 1700 1760 1820 1880 J94°
gbhy cchr hi ks
r5 Vrsa 1221 1281 1341 I4OI 1461 1521 1581 1641 1701 1761 1821 1881 1941
dbhy )r kv nks
l6 Citrabhanu 1222 1282 1402 1462 1522 1582 1642 1702 1762 1822 1882
my str rs
*342 x942
gv
tmy thr r7 Subhanu 1223 1283 x343 I4°3 1463 1523 1583 1643 '7°3 1763 1823 1883
cchv ss 1943
ksmy dhr ts 18 Tarana I224 1284 *344 !4°4 1464 1524 i584 1644 1704 *764 1824 1884 1944
iv
smy tr ip ts 19 Parthiva 1225 1285 >345 I4°5 r465 1525 1585 1645 1825 1885
*7°5 x765 1945
yy ktr tv nts 20 Vyaya 1226 1286 ■346 1406 1466 1526 1586 1646 1706 1766 1826 1886 1946
ry ttr stv ns 21 Sarvajit 1227 1287 ‘347 i4°7 1467 1527 1587 1647 1707 1767 1827 1887 x947
kry ntr dhv ps 22 Sarvadharin 1228 1288 1348 1408 1468 1528 1588 1648 1708 1768 1828 1888 1948
gry str nv ss
23 Virodhin I229 1289 r349 1409 1469 T529 t589 1649 *7°9 x769 1829 1889 1949
stry dr ktv rh
24 Vikrta 123° I29O 1350 I4IO 1470 1530 1650 1710 1770 1830 1890 195°
try ddr rtktv lh
159°
dry ndr tv 25 Khara I23I I29I '35i I4I I 1471 1531 1591 1651 I7I I 1771 1831 1891 1951
sry dhr ttv 26 Nandana I232 1292 i352 1412 >472 1532 [592 1652 1712 1772 1832 1892 1952
27 Vijaya I233 1293 *353 I4I3 1473 l533 1593 1653 I7I3 1773 1833 1893 1953
28 Jaya 1234 I294 r354 T4i4 1474 r534 1594 i654 1714 x774 i834 1894 •954
2l8 THE SOUTHERN BRHASPATI CYCLE, I207— 1986 A.D.
29 Manmatha 1235 1295 1355 1415 [475 1535 1595 1655 i7i5 *775 1835 1895 r955 Bibliography1
30 Durmukha 1236 1296 1356 1416 1476 1536 1596 1776 1836 1896 t956
31 Hemalamba I237 H«7 [477 1537 1597 1777 1837 1897 1957 General
1238 1418 1478 1538 1598 1658 1718 1778 1838 1898 1958
I239 I299 I359 I4I9 1599 1659 I7I9 1779 H 1899 l959 Buhler, Georg
I24O 1300 1360 1420 1480 1540 1600 1660 1720 1780
m i960 1896.1 Indische Palaeographie : von ca. 350 A. Chr. - ca. 1300 P. Chr. -
36 Subhakrt
37 Sobhana
1242 1302 H62 1422
BS m ra
1783 1843 >9°3 19G
1962
und Altertumskunde ; 1,1)
1896.2 Siebzehn Tafeln Indische Palaeographie. - (Grundriss der indo-ari¬
schen Philologie und Altertumskunde ; 1,2)
38 Krodhin I244 I3°4 [364 t424 t484 ■544 1604 1664 1724 1784 1844 *9°4 1964
41 Plavanga m !967
42 Kllaka 1248 1308 1368 1428 1488 1548 1608 1668 1728 1788 1848 1908 1968
Dani, Ahmad Hasan
43 Saumya 1669 l729 r789 1849 19°9 1969 1963 Indian Palaeography. — Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1963.
44 Sadharana
13 1970
Daniels, Peter T. & Bright, William
45 Virodhakrt
31 1971
1996 The World’s Writing Systems. — New York : Oxford Univ. Press.
1252 IS 1972
1253
u3 1433 1493 *973
Falk, Harry
1993 Schrift im alten Indien : ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmeif ungen. —
48 Ananda 1254 >434 1494 EH 1794 !974
Tubingen : Narr (ScriptOralia ; 56).
49 Raksasa 1255 *435 1495 EH r795 !975
E EE a a 1976
Gai, Govind Swamirao
1986 Introduction to Indian Epigraphy : [with Special Reference to the
I257 m m a 1977 Development of the Scripts and Languages], - Mysore : Central
n a 31 n 1918 >978
Institute of Indian Languages. (Occasional Monographs Series,
1259
u || m p m
a
1919 T979 Central Institute of Indian Languages ; 32)
Bm
descriptions in my forthcoming edition of the Sivadharmasastra, and Gerhard Ehlers:
59 Krodhana I5°5 I5f>5 1625 1685 1745 1805 1865 > 925 1985 Indische Handschriften, Teil 12 : Die Sammlung der Niedersachsischen Staats- und Universitats-
60 Ksaya 1386 1446 1506 1566 1626 1686 1746 1806 1866 1926 1986 bibliothe\ Gottingen. Stuttgart : Franz Steiner Verlag 1995. (Verzeichnis der orientalischen
Handschriften in Deutschland ; II,12), especially the South Indian Mahabharata mss.
220 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 221
2 This list is mentioned in: Willem Caland, Kleme Schriften, ed. Michael V^itzel, Stutt¬
gart (Glasenapp-Stiftung ; 27), p. xxxiii, no. 55a as Ecriture Grantha.
222 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY 223
Venugopalan, K.
Kunjan Pillai, Suranad (ed.)
1983 A Primer in Grantha Characters. - St. Peter, Minn. : James H. Nye
1965- Malayalam Lexicon : a Comprehensive Malayalam-Malayalam-English
(also available from: www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/southasia/grantha).
Dictionary on Historical and Philological Principles (Malaydla Mahd-
Winslow, Miron nighantu). - Trivandrum : Government Press.
1862 A Comprehensive Tamil and English Dictionary of High and Low
Mangalam, S. J.
Tamil. — Madras : P.R. Hunt.
1988 Palaeography of Malayalam Script. — Delhi : Eastern Book Linkers.
ZlEGENBALG, BaRTHOLONLEUS
Pisharoti, K.R.
1716 Grammatica Damulica : quce pervaria paradigmata, regulas & necessari-
I928-3o“Sanskrit and Prakrit in the Arya Eluttu - a Note”. Bulletin of the
um vocabulorum apparatum, viam brevissimam monstrat ... — Hals
School of Oriental Studies, 5 (1928—1930), pp. 307—310.
Saxonum : Orphanotropheum.
Ravivarmma, L. A.
2i97i Pracina Kerala Lipinal (Ancient Kerala Scripts). — Tiruvananta-
Retnamma, Kalathivilakom
Snmadbhagavadgita. — Trssivaperur : Vidyavinddini 1909. r994 Early Inscriptional Malayalam. — Thiruvananthapuram : DLA Publi¬
cations.
Cakko, I. C.
1955 Pamniya pradyotam : a Commentary in Malayalam on Panini's Vya-
karana-sutras Containing Sutrapatha, Dhatupatha, Ganapatha, Indices
Telugu
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