Battle of Aleppo (2012-2016)

Coordinates: 36.216667°N 37.
166667°E
Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)
Battle of Aleppo
‫ﻣﻌﺮﻛﺔ ﺣﻠﺐ‬
Part of the Syrian Civil War
Clockwise from top-left: A destroyed tank in Aleppo, the Saadallah al-

Jabiri Square buildings after the October 2012 Aleppo bombings, residents
of Aleppo wait in line for food, and a Free Syrian Army fighter walking
among rubble in Aleppo
Bottom: The situation in Aleppo on 20 August 2016, when both the rebels
and Syrian Government forces besieged each other
Map Legend
Syrian Arab Army control
Opposition control (including al-Nusra Front)
SDF control
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant control
Joint SAA-SDF control
Confrontation or unclear situation
Date 19 July 2012 – 22 December 2016

(4 years, 5 months and 3 days)[14]
Location Aleppo, Aleppo Governorate, Syria
36.216667°N 37.166667°E
Result
Decisive Syrian Army and allied victory[15][16]
City divided between a government-held west and rebel-

held east, with two northern districts YPG-held, from July
2012 to November 2016[17]
UNESCO World Heritage Site Ancient City of Aleppo
largely damaged in the fighting[18]
In December 2016, pro-government forces gained control
of all of the formerly rebel-held east[15][19]
Rebels continue to hold one neighborhood[20][21] and parts
of two others in the outskirts of the city,[15][22] the YPG
controls Sheikh Maqsoud
Belligerents
Syrian Arab Fatah Halab (2015– YPG[a]
Republic 2016)[6] YPJ
Iran (from 2013) Jaysh Halab Army of
Russia (from (December 2016) Revolutionaries
September 2015) Army of Conquest
Allied militias: (since mid-2016)
Liwa al-Quds[1] Ansar al-Sharia
(from 2013) (2015–2016)[7]
Hezbollah[2] Free Syrian Army
(from 2013) Support:
Iraqi Shia Saudi Arabia[8][9]
militias[3] (from 2013)
Qatar[8][10]
Liwa
Turkey[10][11]
Fatemiyoun[1]
Liwa France[12]
Zainebiyoun[3] United
Ba'ath States[8][13]
Brigades[1][4]
SSNP[1] (from Islamic State of Iraq
2013) and the Levant (2013–
Syrian 2016)
Resistance[5]
Commanders and leaders
Ali Abdullah Abdul Jabbar al- Zoran Birhat[42]
Ayyoub[23] Oqaidi (YPJ senior commander)
(Chief of the General (FSA Aleppo top commander, Sharvan Efrin[42]
Staff) 2013)[31] (YPG commander)
Suheil al-Hasan Taufik Shiabuddin [43]
(Head of Aleppo military Nujin Derik[44]

operations)[24] (Nour al-Din al-Zenki (YPJ commander)
Qasem Movement)[32][33] Sewsen Bîrhat (YPJ
Soleimani KIA † commander)
(Major General of Abdul Qader KIA:
IRGC)[25] Saleh †[34] Yusuf
Viktor Bondarev (al-Tawhid Brigade top Kahia †[45]
(Russian Air Force commander)[35] (Kurdish Front
Commander-in-Chief) commander)
Yusef al-Jader †
Maher al-Assad (al-Tawhid Brigade)[36]
(4th Division)
Yussef Al-Abbas †[37]
Mohammed
(al-Tawhid Brigade)
Akkad
(Governor of
Khaled Hayani †
(16th Division)[38]
Aleppo)[26]
KIA: Abu Khalid al-Suri †
(Islamic Front)[39]
Abbas
Samii † Abdulrahman al-
(Republican Guard Salameh † (Al-Nusra
Commander)[27][28] Front)[40]
Jabbar Nasif Ismail †

Drisawi † (Harakat Nour al-Din al-
(IRGC General) Zenki)[41]
Zaino Berri
(al-Berri tribe
Abu Omar al-
Shishani (2013–2014)
leader)[29]
Hossein
Hamadani †
(IRGC General)
Mohammad
Rafi † (Liwa al-
Quds Colonel)[30]
Units involved
Syrian Armed
Ahrar ash- Army of
Forces
Sham[63] Revolutionaries
Units involved
Sham Falcons[64]
Syrian Army Jabhat al-Akrad
Jaysh al-Islam[65]
4th Northern
Free Idlib
Mechanized Democratic
Army[66]
Division[1][46] Brigade[77]
Al-Tawhid Brigade[67]
(2013–14)[a]
Republican
Fastaqim Union
Guard[47]
Levant Front
Harakat Nour al-Din
Syrian al-Zenki[68]
Marines[1] Army of
4th Mujahideen
Armoured Syrian Turkmen
Division[46] Brigades[69]
5th Liwa al-Haqq[70]
Mechanized
Division[48] Al-Nusra
17th Front[71]
Division
Jaish al-Muhajireen
(Reserve)
wal-Ansar[72]
46th Special
Forces Jabhat Ansar al-
(Airborne) Din (since mid-2014)[71]
Regiment[49]
80th Army Harakat Fajr ash-
Brigade[50] Sham al-Islamiya[73]
Special Harakat Sham al-

Forces[3] Islam[74]
Turkistan Islamic
Tiger
Party in Syria[75]
Forces
Movement of Salah
Desert
al-Din the Kurd[76]
Hawks
Brigade
629th
Battalion[51]
National
Defence
Forces[52][53][54]
Shabiha[55]
(2011–2012)
Local Defence
Forces[55]
al-Baqir
Brigade[3]
Military
Intelligence
Directorate
Military
Security
Shield
Forces[3]
Forces of the
Fighters of
the Tribes
Syrian Air
Force Syrian
Ministry of
Interior
Special
Mission
Units[1]
Iranian Armed
Forces
Units involved
IRGC[56]
Quds Force
Basij
Iranian Army[57]
Russian Armed
Forces
Support:
Russian Air
Force[58]
Russian
Navy
Russian
Ground
Forces[59]
Special
operations forces
advisors
(Oct–Dec 2016)[60]
Iraqi Shia
militias
Units involved
Harakat
Hezbollah al-
Nujaba
Ammar
Yasser
Brigade[3]
Asa'ib Ahl
al-Haq[3][61]
Kata'ib al-Imam
Ali[3]
Harakat al-
Abdal[3]
Kata'ib Dir'
al-Wilaya[3]
Kata'ib
Hezbollah[25]
Badr
Organisation[62]
Hezbollah
Units involved
Syrian Hezbollah
units
Junud al-
Mahdi[3]
Imam al
Hujja
Regiment[3]
Strength
20,000 SAA soldiers Unknown
(2012)[78] 15,000 fighters
1,500 NDF (2012)[81]
fighters[79]
2,500 al-Nusra
2,000–4,000
fighters[81]
Lebanese Hezbollah
fighters[80] c. 8,000 fighters (mid-
4,000 Iraqi 2016)[82]
Hezbollah
fighters[25] 1,000 al-Nusra
fighters[83]
Casualties and losses

31,275 overall deaths
(in the whole province)[84]
a The YPG was neutral at the start of the battle in 2012, semi-allied with the
rebels 2012–2014,[85] neutral 2015–2016, and semi-allied with the Syrian
Army during the final offensive in late 2016 (see Aleppo offensive
(November–December 2016)).
The location of Aleppo within Syria
The Battle of Aleppo (Arabic: ‫ )ﻣﻌﺮﻛﺔ ﺣﻠﺐ‬was a major military confrontation in Aleppo, the largest city in
Syria, between the Syrian opposition (including the Free Syrian Army (FSA) and other largely-Sunni
groups, such as the Levant Front and the al-Qaeda-affiliated al-Nusra Front)[86] against the Syrian
government, supported by Hezbollah, Shia militias and Russia,[62][87] and against the Kurdish-led People's
Protection Units (YPG). The battle began on 19 July 2012 and was part of the ongoing Syrian Civil War.[88]
A stalemate that had been in place for four years finally ended in July 2016, when Syrian government troops
closed the rebels' last supply line into Aleppo with the support of Russian airstrikes. In response, rebel
forces launched unsuccessful counteroffensives in September and October that failed to break the siege; in
November, government forces embarked on a decisive campaign that resulted in the recapture of all of
Aleppo by December 2016.[89] The Syrian government victory was widely seen as a potential turning point
in Syria's civil war.[90][91]
The large-scale devastation of the battle and its importance led combatants to name it the "mother of
battles"[92] or "Syria's Stalingrad".[93] The battle was marked by widespread violence against civilians,[94]
alleged repeated targeting of hospitals and schools (mostly by pro-government Air Forces[95][96] and to a
lesser extent by the rebels),[97][98][99] and indiscriminate aerial strikes and shelling against civilian
areas.[87][100][101][102] It was also marked by the inability of the international community to resolve the
conflict peacefully. The UN special envoy to Syria proposed to end the battle by giving East Aleppo
autonomy, but the idea was rejected by the Syrian government.[103] Hundreds of thousands of residents were
displaced by the fighting and efforts to provide aid to civilians or facilitate evacuation were routinely
disrupted by continued combat and mistrust between the opposing sides.[104][105]
Various claims of war crimes emerged during the battle, including the use of chemical weapons by both
Syrian government forces and rebel forces,[106][107] the use of barrel bombs by the Syrian Air
Force,[108][109][110][111] the dropping of cluster munitions on populated areas by Russian and Syrian
forces,[112][113] the carrying out of "double tap" airstrikes to target rescue workers responding to previous
strikes,[114] summary executions of civilians and captured soldiers by both sides,[115][116] indiscriminate
shelling and use of highly inaccurate improvised artillery by rebel forces.[117][118] During the 2016 Syrian
government offensive, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights warned that "crimes of historic
proportions" were being committed in Aleppo.[119]
Fighting also caused severe destruction to the Old City of Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage site.[120] An
estimated 33,500 buildings have been either damaged or destroyed.[121] After four years of fighting, the
battle represents one of the longest sieges in modern warfare and one of the bloodiest battles of the Syrian
Civil War, leaving an estimated 31,000 people dead,[84] almost a tenth of the estimated overall war
casualties at that time.[122]
Contents
Background
Combatants
Course of the battle
2012: Initial rebel attack and capture of Eastern Aleppo
2013: Advances and counter-advances
2014: Syrian government encirclement of the rebels
2015: War of attrition
2016: Supply lines cut, surrender, and evacuation
Aftermath
Strategic analysis
The role of Turkey
Casualties
Allegations of war crimes
Syrian government and allies
Rebels
Destruction of the city and heritage
Reactions
Media coverage
Domestic reaction
Aleppo victory celebrations
Foreign reactions
Protests in solidarity with anti-government forces in Aleppo
Timeline
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Background
In 2011, Aleppo was Syria's largest city, with a population of 2.5 million people. A UNESCO World
Heritage Site, it has been described by Time as Syria's commercial capital.[123] Author Diana Darke has
written that "The city has long been multi-cultural, a complex mix of Kurds, Iranians, Turkmen, Armenians
and Circassians overlaid on an Arab base in which multi-denominational churches and mosques still share
the space."[124]
Nationwide protests against President Bashar al-Assad began on 15 March 2011, as part of the Arab Spring.
Anti-government protests were held in several districts of Aleppo on 12 August 2011, including the city's
Sakhour district. At least two protesters had been shot dead by security forces during a demonstration in
Sakhour with tens of thousands attendees.[125] Regular large protests started in Aleppo in May 2012.[126]
During this period, government-organized rallies in support of itself also occurred.[127] Aleppo had
remained undisturbed and largely supportive of the government[128][129] by the 16-month-long conflict until
22 July 2012, when rebel fighters from the neighboring villages converged and penetrated into it,[130] to
which the government responded with heavy-handed, indiscriminate bombardments of the city.[128] On 16
February 2012, the UN General Assembly issued a resolution with a vote of 137 in favour, 12 against, and
17 abstentions, and called on Syria "to immediately put an end to all human rights violations and attacks
against civilians."[131]
Combatants
At the beginning of the Battle of Aleppo, rebels reportedly had
between 6,000[132] and 7,000[133] fighters in 18 battalions.[134] The
largest rebel group was the al-Tawhid Brigade and the most
prominent was the Free Syrian Army, largely composed of army
defectors. Most of the rebels came from the Aleppo countryside and
from towns including Al-Bab, Marea, Azaz, Tel Rifaat and
Manbij.[135] A resident of Aleppo reportedly accused the rebels of
Major Yasser Abdul Rahim,
using civilian homes for shelter.[136] On 19 November 2012, the
commander of Fatah Halab and field
rebel fighters—particularly the al-Tawhid Brigade and the al-Nusra
commander of the Sham Legion in
Aleppo, coordinates an attack on
Front—initially rejected the newly formed Syrian National
YPG positions in Aleppo, 2 October Coalition.[137] However, the next day the rebels withdrew their
2015. rejection.[138]
By December, rebel fighters were commonly looting for supplies;

they switched their loyalties to groups that had more to share. This new approach led to the killing of at least
one rebel commander following a dispute; fighters retreating with their loot caused the loss of a frontline
position and the failure of an attack on a Kurdish neighborhood. The looting cost the rebel fighters much
popular support.[139]
Islamic extremists and foreign fighters, many of whom were experienced and came from the ongoing
insurgency in neighboring Iraq, joined the battle.[63] Jihadists reportedly came from across the Muslim
world.[69] Jacques Bérès, a French surgeon who treated wounded fighters, reported a significant number of
foreign fighters, most of whom had Islamist goals and were not directly interested in Bashar al-Assad. They
included Libyans, Chechens, and Frenchmen. Bérès contrasted the situation in Aleppo with that in Idlib and
Homs, where foreign forces were not common.[140] Some FSA brigades cooperated with Mujahideen
fighters.[63] Four hundred Turkmen joined the battle under Sultan Abdulhamid Han.[141] By 2016, the rebel
factions still included internationally recognized terrorist groups such as Al-Nusra Front; they numbered
1,000 fighters in October 2016.[83]
Hezbollah, which by 2013 joined the Syrian Civil War in support for
President al-Assad, was also designated as a terrorist group by
various organizations.[142] The government retained some support in
Aleppo; in 2012 a rebel commander said, "around 70% of Aleppo
city is with the regime".[143] During the course of the battle, Assad
lost support from Aleppo's wealthy class.[144] In 2012, CBS News
reported that 48 elite businessmen who were the primary financiers
A destroyed government tank on a for the government switched sides.[145] For the first time, the
road in Aleppo government's Syrian Arab Army engaged in urban warfare. They
divided their forces into groups of 40 soldiers each. These were
armed mostly with automatic rifles and anti-tank rockets and
artillery, tanks and helicopters were only used for support. In August 2012, the army deployed its elite
units.[146] and eventually, after the rebels executed Zeino al-Berri, tribal leader of the al-Berri tribe, the tribe
joined the fight against the rebels.[147] Initially, the Christian community tried to avoid taking sides in the
conflict.[54] However, many Christians supported the Army and some formed militias aligned with the
government following the capture of their quarters by the Syrian Army.[52][53] Many Christian Armenians
also supported the Syrian Army. Some of Aleppo's Armenians claimed Turkey supported the FSA to attack
Armenians and Arab Christians. In 2012, one Armenian militia had around 150 fighters.[54]
At the beginning of the battle, Aleppo's Kurds formed armed groups, most notably the Saladin Ayubi
Brigade, which worked with the opposition. Units of the Kurdish Front, part of the FSA and allied with the
Democratic Union Party (PYD), were formed later in 2013. The PYD had poor relations with both sides. Its
People's Protection Units (YPG) stayed out of Arab areas and insisted the FSA stay out of the Kurdish area.
They did not initially fight the Syrian Army unless attacked.[148] The Kurdish areas in Aleppo mainly came
under PYD control.[149] At various points in the conflict, the Kurds joined the opposition against pro-
government forces.[85] However, the YPG-controlled neighborhood of Sheikh Maqsood came under a siege
by both Syrian government forces and the rebels. In September 2015, the rebels accused the YPG of having
a deal with the government, while the YPG accused the rebels of shelling the neighborhood.[150] Between
November and December 2015, the conflict between the rebels and US-backed Kurdish-led Syrian
Democratic Forces (SDF) in the rest of Aleppo province escalated.[151][152] Truce attempts largely failed to
stop the fighting.[153][154] The situation escalated in February 2016, when the SDF followed up on advances
by the Syrian Armed Forces, backed by Russian airstrikes, and they themselves took territory north of
Aleppo city from the rebels.[155][156]
Starting in late September 2015, Russian warplanes had carried out their very first attacks in Syria.[157] The
Russian bombing campaign included strikes against rebel forces in Aleppo.[158]
Course of the battle
2012: Initial rebel attack and capture of Eastern Aleppo
Gunfire between rebels and security forces broke out in and around Salaheddine, a district in the city's
southwest, on the night of 19 July 2012.[159]
In late July and early August 2012, the FSA continued its offensive in Aleppo, with both sides suffering a
high level of casualties. Rebel commanders said their main aim was to capture the city center.[160] On 30
July, the rebels seized a strategic checkpoint in Anadan, a town north of Aleppo, gaining a direct route
between the city and the Turkish border—an important rebel supply base.[161] They also captured Al-Bab,
an army base northeast of the city.[162] Later, rebels attacked the air base at Minakh, 30 km (19 mi)
northwest of Aleppo, with arms and tanks captured at the Anadan checkpoint.[163] Opposition forces
continued to gain territory in the city, controlling most of eastern and southwestern Aleppo, including
Salaheddine and parts of Hamdaniyeh.[164] They continued to target security centers and police stations as
clashes erupted near the Air Force intelligence headquarters in Aleppo's northwestern district Zahraa.[165]
Rebels over-ran several police stations and posts in the central and southern districts of Bab al-Nerab, Al-
Miersa and Salhain, seizing a significant quantity of arms and ammunition.[164]
Free Syrian Army rebels hold a Bombed out vehicles in Aleppo
planning session
Play media
Conquest Brigade fighters

battle government forces in al-
Midan, September 2012
2013: Advances and counter-advances
In December 2012, the al-Nusra Front unilaterally declared a no-fly

zone and threatened to shoot down commercial aircraft, alleging that
the government was using them to transport loyalist troops and
military supplies.[166] After multiple attacks on Aleppo International
Airport, all flights were suspended on 1 January 2013.[167] The
following month, the rebels seized Umayyad Mosque; and during
An ISIL suicide bomber detonates a the battle, the mosque's museum caught fire and its ceiling
car bomb during the Siege of collapsed.[168]
Menagh Air Base.
On 9 June, the Syrian Army announced the start of "Operation
Northern Storm", an attempt to recapture territory in and around the
city.[169] Between 7 and 14 June, army troops, government militiamen and Hezbollah fighters launched the
operation. Over a one-week period, government forces advanced in the city and the countryside, pushing
back the rebels. However, according to an opposition activist, on 14 June the situation started reversing after
rebels halted an armored reinforcement column from Aleppo that was heading for two Shiite villages
northwest of the city.[170]
On 8 November, the Syrian Army started an offensive against the rebel-held Base 80, launching "the
heaviest barrage in more than a year".[171] Al Jazeera wrote that a government victory would cut the rebels'
route between the city and al-Bab.[172] Two days later, Reuters reported that the rebels had regrouped to
fight the Syrian army.[173] Fifteen rebels were killed and the army recaptured the base.[174] The following
month, the army partially besieged the city in Operation Canopus Star.[175] During the offensive, Army
helicopters attacked with barrel bombs, killing more than a thousand people, according to the Free Syrian
Army's Abu Firas Al-Halabi.[176]
2014: Syrian government encirclement of the rebels
Government forces, having lifted the siege of Aleppo in October 2013, continued their offensive in 2014.
This culminated in the capture of the Sheikh Najjar industrial district north of Aleppo and the lifting of the
siege of Aleppo Central Prison on 22 May 2014, which contained a garrison of government soldiers that had
resisted rebel forces since 2012.[177] A ceasefire proposal was presented by a UN envoy in November; under
the proposal humanitarian aid would be delivered to Aleppo following the cessation of hostilities. President
Assad said the ceasefire plan was "worth studying",[178] and according to the UN envoy the Syrian
government was "seriously studying" the proposal.[179] The FSA rejected the plan; its military commander
Zaher al-Saket said they had "learned not to trust the [Bashar al-] Assad regime because they are cunning
and only want to buy time".[180]
2015: War of attrition
In early January, the rebels recaptured the Majbal (sawmills) area of

al-Brej and captured the southern entrance of the stone quarries
known as al-Misat, forcing government troops to retreat to the
north.[181] Rebels also seized the Manasher al-Brej area. They tried
to advance and take control of al-Brej Hill, with which they could
seize the military supply road running between Aleppo Central
Aleppo residents waiting in a bread Prison and the Handarat and al-Mallah areas.[182] At the end of
line during the Syrian civil war January, the rebels took control over some positions in al-Brej
Hill.[183][184]
In mid-February, the Syrian Arab Army and its allies launched a major offensive in the northern Aleppo
countryside, with the aim of cutting the last rebel supply routes into the city, and relieving the rebel siege of
the Shi'a-majority towns Zahra'a and Nubl to the northwest of Aleppo.[185] They quickly captured several
villages,[186] but bad weather conditions and an inability to call up reinforcements stalled the government
offensive.[187] A few days later, the rebels launched a counter-offensive, retaking two of four positions they
had lost to Syrian government forces.[188]
On 9 March, opposition forces launched an assault on Handarat, north of Aleppo, after reportedly noticing
confusion in the ranks of Syrian government troops after the February fighting.[189] Opposition sources said
the rebels had captured 40–50% of the village, or possibly even 75%, while the Army remained in control of
the northern portion of Handarat.[189][190] In contrast, a Syrian Army source stated they still controlled 80%
of Handarat.[191] On 18 March, after almost 10 days of fighting,[192] the Syrian Army had fully expelled the
rebels from Handarat,[193] and re-established control of the village.[194]
On 13 April, Islamist opposition forces and al-Nusra Front renewed their assault on the Air Force
Intelligence building, utilizing a tunnel bomb followed by an assault.[195] Much of the Air Force Intelligence
building was reportedly damaged as a result of the tunnel bomb.[196] Between 27–29 April, the FSA and
Ahrar ash-Sham launched an operation in the old city of Aleppo and Al-Hatab Square in the Al-Jdayde
(Jdeideh) District, which included tunnel bombs[197] and the shelling of buildings where soldiers were
stationed. The rebels claimed to have killed 76 troops in these operations.[198] Sahat Al Hatab square and the
buildings around it were left devastated as a result of this operation.[199]
In preparation for a new
offensive, the rebels heavily
shelled government-held
parts of Aleppo, leaving 43
civilians dead and 190
wounded on 15 June.[200] On
17 June, rebel forces
captured the western Play media
Sham Legion multiple rocket
neighborhood of Rashideen Rebel forces use tunnel bombs
launcher mounted on a technical
from Syrian government under the Al-Hatab Square, in
launch rockets at YPG positions in
forces.[201][202] Throughout preparation for an assault on
Aleppo, 2 October 2015.
19 and 20 June, a new round government troops in April 2015.
of rebel shelling killed 19
more civilians.[203]
In early July, two rebel coalitions launched an offensive against the government-held western half of the
city.[204] During five days of fighting, the rebels seized the Scientific Research Center on Aleppo's western
outskirts, which was being used as a military barracks. Two rebel attacks on the Jamiyat al-Zahra area were
repelled. Government forces launched an unsuccessful counter-attack against the Scientific Research
Center.[205][206]
In mid-October, ISIL captured four rebel-held villages northeast of Aleppo, while the Army seized the
Syria-Turkey Free Trade Zone, the al-Ahdath juvenile prison and cement plant.[207] Meanwhile, the SAA
and Hezbollah launched an offensive south of Aleppo, reporting they had captured 408 square kilometres
(158 square miles) of territory in one month.[208] By late December, reporting that they were in control of
3/4 of the southern Aleppo countryside.[209]
By the end of 2015, only 80 doctors were left in eastern, rebel-held part of Aleppo, or only one for 7,000
residents, while only one bakery was left to serve 120,000 people.[210]
2016: Supply lines cut, surrender, and evacuation
Destroyed area in Aleppo
By 2016, it was estimated that the The situation in Aleppo on 20 August 2016, when both the rebels
population of rebel-held Eastern Aleppo and Syrian government forces besieged each other
Syrian Arab Army control
had been reduced to 300,000,[124] while 1.5
Opposition control (including al-Nusra Front)
million were living in government-held SDF control
Western Aleppo.[211] Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant control
In early February 2016, Syrian government Confrontation or unclear situation
forces and their allies broke a three-year
rebel siege of two Shi'ite towns of Nubl and
Zahraa, cutting off a main insurgent route to nearby Turkey.[212] On 4 February, the towns of Mayer and
Kafr Naya were recaptured by government forces.[213] On 5 February, the government captured the village
of Ratyan, to the northwest of Aleppo.[214]
On 25 June, the Syrian Army and allied forces began their long-awaited North-west Aleppo offensive.[215]
The ultimate goal of the offensive was to cut off the Castello highway, which would cut off the last supply
route for rebels inside the city, thus fully encircling remaining opposition forces.[124]
By late July, Syrian government forces had managed to sever the last rebel supply line coming from the
north, and completely surrounded Aleppo.[216] However, within days, the rebels launched a large-scale
counterattack south of Aleppo, in an attempt to both open a new supply line into rebel-held parts of the city
and cut-off the government-held side. The whole campaign, including both the Army's offensive and
subsequent rebel counter-offensive, was seen by both sides as possibly deciding the fate of the entire
war.[217][218][219][220][221]
After a week of heavy fighting, rebels both inside and outside Aleppo advanced into the Ramouseh
neighborhood, linked up and captured it, while also seizing the Al-Ramousah Military Academy. With these
advances, the rebels managed to cut the government's supply line into the government-held part of west
Aleppo[222][223][224] and announced the Army's siege of rebel-held east Aleppo had been broken.[225]
However, the new rebel supply line was still under Army artillery fire and being hit by air-strikes,[222]
making both sides essentially under siege.[226] Since the rebel offensive started, at least 130 civilians had
been killed, most by rebel shelling of government-held districts. 500 fighters on both sides also died, mostly
rebels.[227] However, on 4 September, the Syrian Armed forces recaptured the Technical College, Armament
college and artillery college, thus imposing the siege on Aleppo once again. Later that week they recaptured
the Ramouseh district and reversed almost all rebel gains made since 30 July. The Syrian Government forces
then started an offensive to capture eastern Aleppo on 22 September, taking 15–20% of the rebel-held part
of Aleppo.
Rebels started an attack on western Aleppo in late October, which failed, with government forces retaking
areas in the south-west that they had lost to the rebel's late July offensive. The Syrian Army then launched
an offensive, aimed at finishing rebel-held Aleppo once and for all, during which they captured the Hanano
district, Sakhour district, Jabal Badro district, Bustan al-Basha district, Hellok district, Sheikh Kheder
district, Sheikh Fares district Haydariyah district, Ayn al-Tal industrial district and reportedly the research
housing south of Jabal Badro. They also captured the Ard' Al Hamra district, reportedly cutting rebel-held
territory in Aleppo by 40–45%.[228]
By 13 December 2016, only 5% of the original territory of the city remained in rebel hands.[229] A ceasefire
was announced and the fighting stopped in order to allow the evacuation of civilians and rebels. The buses
were prepared for the evacuation. However, the deal fell apart the next day, when the Syrian Government
resumed their intense bombing of eastern Aleppo, with both sides blaming the other for the resumed
fighting.[230]
The deal was revived on 15 December with first convoy of evacuees leaving.[231] The evacuation was
however suspended on the next day.[232] Another deal was reached on 18 December and evacuation
resumed later in the day.[233] The evacuation again stalled on 20 December, but resumed on the following
day.[234][235] On 22 December, the evacuation was completed while the Syrian Army declared it had taken
complete control of the city.[236] Red Cross later confirmed that the evacuation of all civilians and rebels
was complete.[237]
In the closing days of the battle for the city, the Times of Israel reported that "Testimonies emerging from
the city since Monday detail brutal atrocities being committed by pro-government Syrian forces.[238]
Aftermath
On 22 February 2018, it was reported that the YPG had agreed to hand over eastern districts of Aleppo city
to the Syrian government. According to Syrian state television, this decision was made to reinforce positions
around the region of Afrin, and to halt Turkey's offensive.[239] This came days after pro-Syrian regime
fighters agreed to bolster the Kurdish forces in the northwest.[240]
SOHR and a witness later said that Syrian government forces had entered the areas controlled by the
Kurdish fighters. YPG spokesman Nouri Mahmoud however denied this claim.[241] A YPG commander
later stated that Kurdish fighters had shifted to Afrin to help repel a Turkish assault. As a result, he said the
pro-Syrian government forces had regained control of the districts previously controlled by them.[242]
Throughout the start of 2020, the SAA made advances in the Idlib and Aleppo countryside. On the 17th of
February, they had regained control of the last rebel-held suburbs in Aleppo city, gaining full control for the
first time since 2012.[243]
Strategic analysis
Rebel forces expanded into the countryside south of
Aleppo to control sections of the M4 and M5 highways,
effectively blocking ground reinforcements for the
Syrian Army. Before the end of 2012, the Syrian Army
in Aleppo was receiving sporadic supplies and
ammunition replenishment by air or via backroads.[244]
The fall of Base 46, a large complex that reinforced and
supplied government troops, was seen by experts as "a
tactical turning point that may lead to a strategic shift" The situation after the Battle of Aleppo
in the battle for Aleppo.[245] In a November 2012, Syrian Arab Army control
intelligence report, American publisher Strategic Opposition control (including al-Nusra Front)
Forecasting, Inc. described the strategic position of SDF control
government forces in Aleppo as "dire", and said the
Confrontation or unclear situation
Free Syrian Army had them "essentially
surrounded".[246]
On 26 November 2012, rebels captured Tishrin Dam, further isolating government forces in Aleppo and
leaving only one route into Aleppo.[247] By late January 2013 Deputy Prime Minister Qadri Jamil said all
supply routes to Aleppo had been cut off by opposition forces, comparing the situation to the Siege of
Leningrad.[248] By late February 2013, Aleppo International Airport was almost surrounded by rebel
forces.[249] Later, the Syrian Army regained control of the strategic town Tel Sheigeb, allowing them to
approach the airport.[250] In November 2013, the Syrian Army retook the town of al-Safira.[251] This opened
a road for the government to support the besieged Kuweires Military Airbase and Aleppo Power Plant.
In February 2014, it was reported that the army planned to encircle Aleppo and impose blockades and
truces. It would also try to recapture Sheikh Najjar Industrial City to rebuild the economy and provide
jobs.[252] By October 2014, the army had seized Sheikh Najjar, reinforced Aleppo Central Prison and
captured Handaraat, almost besieging rebel-held Aleppo. Tensions peaked in early April 2014, when a
Syrian Republican Guard officer allegedly killed a Hezbollah commander during an argument over the
opposition advance in al-Rashadin,[253] and other pro-government militia groups sent as reinforcements,
such as the National Defence Force, proved to be unreliable in combat.[254][255] Effectively cutting off
access was more difficult in Aleppo because rebels controlled more terrain there than in other cities. Rebels
also have a strong presence in the countryside and around the border crossings with Turkey.[256] In April
2014 government commanders inside the city were saying that contrary to implementing such a strategy,
"the best [they] can do in Aleppo is just secure ... positions".[257]
The attempted encirclement involved the SAA's attacks on Bustan Al-Pasha, Khalidiyyeh, the farms of
Mazra'a Halabi, Al-Amariyya and Bustan Al-Qaseer.[258] The rebels' strategic victory at the Siege of Wadi
Deif resulted in threats to several main government supply lines.[259] This cast doubt on government forces'
ambitions to control the road from Hama to Aleppo and the Damascus-Aleppo international road, and has
been seen as a personal defeat for Syrian Arab Army Col. Suheil Al Hassan.[260]
Staffan de Mistura, the United Nations and Arab League Envoy to Syria, proposed a pause in fighting, but
opinions about implementation were divided.[261] The European Union warned that "cases of forced
surrender imposed by the Assad regime through starvation sieges were labelled fallaciously as local cease-
fires in the past."[262] The Southern Front of the Free Syrian Army, which was gaining ground in Deraa
province south of Damascus, warned that a freeze in fighting in Aleppo could hamper their advance, as pro-
Assad forces could be redirected from Aleppo.[263]
The Syrian government's defeat at the Second Battle of Idlib in late March 2015, which helped expand the
influence of the al-Nusra Front, forced the Islamic State (IS) to expand its attacks in central Syria after it
failed to block the Raqqa highway that branches out to the Syrian army's main supply route to Aleppo along
the Khanasir-Athriya road. IS's aim would potentially be to establish the necessary conditions to attack Idlib
and al-Nusra.[264] The March–April IS offensive in central Syria led some volunteers defending the Homs-
Aleppo highway to consider deserting to defend their hometowns.[265]
According to Jane's Information Group, a possible offensive on Homs by both al-Nusra Front and IS
working independently might force the government to move critical forces away from Aleppo to defend key
supply routes.[266] There were additional opposition gains during the 2015 Jisr al-Shughur offensive.[267]
Syrian government minister Faisal Mekdad stated in June 2015, "All our strategic planning now is to keep
the way open to Aleppo to allow our forces to defend it".[268] Media outlets have noted that powerful online
campaigns are being conducted in a war of information regarding Aleppo.
The role of Turkey
Turkey had sponsored rebel forces in Aleppo to a degree that eastern Aleppo was called "a Turkish card
guarded by jihadis."[269] However, Turkish policy changed in August 2016, moving thousands of rebel
fighters away from the area west of Aleppo to counter the secular federalist Syrian Democratic Forces to the
north (see Turkish military intervention in Syria). This reduced the forces available to try to lift the siege of
Aleppo, ensuring its fall.[270][269]
Casualties
With over four years of fighting, the battle of Aleppo represents one of the longest sieges in modern warfare,
which left an estimated 31,183 people dead,[84] almost a tenth of the overall Syrian war casualties. The
Violations Documentation Center in Syria assessed the death toll. According to its records, between 19 July
2012 and 15 December 2016 there were 22,633 adult male deaths (73%), 2,849 adult female deaths (9.2%),
3,773 child male deaths (12.2%) and 1,775 child female deaths (5.7%). 23,604 or 76% of all fatalities were
civilians, while only 7,406 or 24% were military deaths. Causes of death were explosions (910 deaths),
shelling (6,384 deaths), field execution (1,549 deaths), shooting (9,438 deaths), warplane bombardment
(11,233 deaths), chemical and toxic gas attacks (46 deaths) and others.[84]
The pro-opposition monitoring group the Syrian Observatory for
Human Rights (SOHR) gave a similar number: it registered that
1,612 days of fighting for Aleppo left 21,452 civilians dead. Among
them were 5,261 children under the age of 18 and 2,777 women over
the age of 18.[15]
The Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), a pro-opposition

non-governmental organization, reported that the Russian
bombardments killed at least 1,640 civilians in the Aleppo area:
Aleppo, Karm al Jabal neighborhood,
1,178 civilians died between 30 September 2015 and 1 August
2013
2016,[271] while additional 462 civilians were killed from 19
September 2016 until 30 November 2016.[272]
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has described the fighting as one of the most
devastating conflicts in modern times. It appealed: "The human cost of the fighting in Aleppo is simply too
high. We urge all parties to stop the destruction and indiscriminate attacks, and stop the killing".[273]
The ICRC also said that hundreds of civilians perished through the "indiscriminate shelling of residential
areas across Aleppo".[274] Several infectious diseases broke out in Aleppo and other areas in Syria during
the civil war, including poliomyelitis, measles and cutaneous leishmaniasis.[275] Food prices also grew
astronomically during the war. A kilogram (two pounds) of sugar cost $21 at one point.[276]
Allegations of war crimes
Syrian government and allies
Aleppo suffered catastrophic damage during the four-year siege and battle. The violations and
According to an Amnesty International report, government forces have been abuses suffered by
responsible for the majority of violations in the conflict in Syria.[115] Ravina people across the
Shamdasani, a spokesperson for the Office of the UN High Commissioner for country, including
the siege and
Human Rights, issued a statement in November 2016 which said that "strikes bombardment of
against hospitals, schools, marketplaces, water facilities and bakeries are now eastern Aleppo, are
commonplace, and may amount to war crimes". During that phase of the offensive, not simply
about 250,000 civilians were left in the city.[278] In November 2016, UNICEF tragedies; they also
estimated that nearly 100,000 children were living under siege in Aleppo.[279] The constitute crimes of
2016 offensive cut off the city from food supplies, and last time eastern Aleppo was historic proportions.
reached with significant humanitarian supplies before the Syrian re-capture was the
beginning of July in 2016.[280] The Syrian government, aided by Russian army, UN High
Commissioner for
used war planes to systematically bombard hospitals in the rebel-held areas of the
Human Rights,
city.[281][282] By the end of November 2016, no functional hospitals were left, and
Zeid Ra'ad Al
over 20,000 people were displaced by the fighting.[283] Human Rights Watch
issued a statement reporting that the Syrian and Russian military campaign killed Hussein[277]
more than 440 civilians, including more than 90 children, between September and
October 2016. It also deplored that airstrikes often appeared to be "recklessly
indiscriminate".[113]
Between 29 January and 14 March 2013, opposition activists reported about 230 bodies were found on the
banks and in the Queiq River in Aleppo. They accused government forces of being the ones who executed
the men since the bodies came down the river from the direction of government-held areas of the city.
Human Rights Watch was able to identify at least 147 victims, all male and aged between 11 and 64.[284]
Human Rights Watch reported that family members of many of the victims testified that they were last seen
in a government-controlled area or after they set out to cross into the area through two checkpoints, one
manned by opposition forces and the other by government forces.[285][286]
In May 2014, the UN Security Council voted for the International Criminal Court (ICC) to investigate war
crimes in the Syrian Civil War, but the resolution was vetoed by Russia and China.[287]
In 2014, the United Nations adopted Resolution 2139 which ordered the end of using barrel bombs in the
battle.[288] The Syrian Observatory of Human Rights stated that the Syrian army dropped 7,000 barrel
bombs in the first five months of 2015, claiming the lives of 3,000 people. Amnesty International reported
that barrel bombs killed 3,000 people in 2014.[289] Channel4 reported that videos have emerged online
showing the Syrian army using barrel bombs.[288]
The Syrian government was accused of using the barrel bombs many times. Some of them were:
Middle East Monitor reported 14 deaths allegedly caused by the bombs in the Kallasa and
Qasila neighbourhood of the city in June 2015.[290]
CNN-IBN wrote about the government dropping barrel bombs in July in the neighbourhood of
al-Bab causing the death of 35 and injuring 50 others.[291]
BBC News alleged the government dropped the bombs in May, leading to the death of 72
civilians.[292]
The Anadolu Agency of Turkey wrote that the bombs launched by the government forces in
July killed 15 people.[293]
According to the Violations Documentation Center, barrel bomb attacks peaked between April
and July 2014, with an average of 107 attacks per month, and decreased to an average of
around 17 per month from September 2014 to March 2015.[294]
The government denied using barrel bombs.[295] In an interview to BBC, President Bashar al-Assad denied
using "indiscriminate weapons" like barrel bombs in the rebel held territories.[296] Assad said, "I know about
the army. They use bullets, missiles and bombs. I haven't heard of the army using barrels, or maybe cooking
pots."[297]
Amnesty International issued a detailed report about Aleppo in 2015. It warned about the Syrian government
use of imprecise explosive weapons on densely populated civilian areas, illustrating it with the example that
eight barrel bomb attacks between January 2014 to March 2015 killed at least 188 civilians—while only one
rebel was recorded among the fatalities.[294] It concluded that the government forces in Aleppo deliberately
targeted civilians and civilian objects, implemented "forced disappearances", used torture and other ill-
treatment among the prisoners—and that this constitutes a crime against humanity.[294]
Chemical attacks by the Syrian government on opposition-held areas in Aleppo were reported on 10
August[298] and 6 September 2016. After these attacks, the victims reported they were suffering from a
shortage of breath, coughing, reddened skin and eyes, and excessive tearing, and sought medical treatment
in hospitals. Five people, including three children, died as a result.[299] A UN report found that the Syrian
government used the prohibited chlorine bombs in Aleppo, causing "hundreds of civilian casualties".[300]
Human Rights Watch also condemned the Russian army for using incendiary weapons in Aleppo, in
violation of international law.[301] Cluster bombs were also used both by the Russian aviation[112] and the
Syrian government.[302] Russia was directly accused of war crimes several times for its part in the battle at
the UN Security Council by the ambassadors of the United Kingdom, the United States and France, due to
its use of bunker buster and incendiary bombs on urban residential areas.[303]
On 19 September 2016, a UN/Syrian Arab Red Crescent (SARC) aid convoy was attacked at night, as well
as a SARC warehouse and health clinic in Urum al-Kubra, a rebel-held town 12 km west of Aleppo. 20
civilians and one SARC staff member were killed, while food and medical aid, intended to reach Aleppo,
was destroyed. Some witnesses on the ground at the time of the attack said they had heard helicopters during
the attack. The United States accused Russian or Syrian government warplanes of perpetrating the attack,
while Russia rejected the accusation. The UN said it was not in a position to determine how the attacked
unfolded. The UN Operational Satellite Applications Programme (UNOSAT) said it believed the convoy
was attack by airstrikes.[304][305] United Nations investigators later concluded that the Syrian government
was responsible for the attack in a "meticulously planned and ruthlessly carried out" air strike.[306][300] The
investigators stated in a report that the Syrian Air Force used barrel bombs and rockets to attack the convoy
and that, after the initial attack, Syrian government jets strafed the survivors. According to the investigators,
since these actions were carried out deliberately they constituted a war crime.[307]
Following the re-capture of parts of Aleppo by the Syrian government, the Office of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Human Rights reported that pro-government Iraqi Shi'ite paramilitary group[308]
killed at least 82 civilians, including 11 women and 13 children, in the Bustan al-Qasr, al-Ferdous, al-
Kallaseh, and al-Saleheen neighbourhoods on 12 and 13 December 2016.[309]
In January 2017, the Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) and the Violations Documentation Center
(VDC) submitted evidence of alleged war crimes committed by militias backed by Russia and Iran to the
United Nations Commission of Inquiry on Syria. According to the head of the SNHR, "sometimes the
Russians exceed the regime in some kinds of violations" and he noted the similarities between the kinds of
war crimes and violations committed by Russian forces and those of the Assad regime.[310]
In February 2017, Breaking Aleppo (http://www.publications.atlanticcouncil.org/breakingaleppo/), a report

by the Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab, utilized open source and digital forensic research to
reveal both the Syrian government's atrocities and those of its supporters in the final months of the siege of
Aleppo.[110] In March 2017, the UN' Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab
Republic documented violations including chemical attacks and civilian executions perpetrated between 21
July and 22 December 2016.[311]
Wounded civilians arrive at the Doctors and medical staff

Aleppo hospital in October treating injured rebel fighters
2012 and civilians in Aleppo
Rebels
A UN envoy warned that rebels may have been committing war crimes due to their indiscriminate rocket
warfare targeting civilians in Aleppo, while trying to lift the siege in October and November 2016.[312] The
Aleppo rebels used improvised artillery, including "hell cannons", makeshift mortar firing gas cylinders
packed with explosives and shrapnel. UN High Commissioner For Human Rights Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein
stated that their use was "totally unacceptable" and constituted indiscriminate attacks as they were very
difficult to aim correctly, frequently killing and maiming civilians in government-held areas. According to
Zeid, their inaccuracy means they had no military purpose so he concluded their use was primarily to
"terrorize the inhabitants of western Aleppo".[313] The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported in
December 2014 that between July and December 2014 the rebels killed 204 civilians using hell
cannons.[314] Professor of Law Mark A. Summers of Barry University School of Law, a legal expert
previous assigned to the Office of the Prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia, wrote that both the uses of barrel bombs and hell cannons is inaccurate and so randomly
destructive that their use is illegal, and thus constitutes either the direct or indiscriminate targeting of
civilians and civilian objects.[315]
There have been reports that rebels have on multiple occasions indiscriminately shelled the predominantly
Kurdish Sheikh Maqsood neighborhood.[316] In mid-June 2016 Russia accused the rebels of causing the
death of over 40 civilians in the month. A spokesman for the US-supported SDF also accused the rebels of
causing 1,000 civilian deaths and injuries, through shelling of Sheikh Maqsood.[317] There were allegations
that the Army of Islam group may have used chemical weapons in Sheikh Maqsood on 7 and 8 April 2016,
based on reports of eight treated patients.[318][117][319] In May 2016, Amnesty International's regional
director suggested that the attacks on Sheikh Maqsood constitute war crimes.[316]
Rebel groups such as the al-Nusra Front, the Levant Front and the Ahrar al-Sham established Sharia law in
areas they controlled, imposing torture or other ill-treatment as punishment.[320] The al-Nusra Front
maintained a prison at the "fetid, trash-strewn basement" of the Aleppo Eye Hospital where the group was
headquartered. At this prison, some people were held for years and subjected to repeated torture.[321]
Human rights activists, lawyers and journalists have been subjected to kidnappings. In 2015, Amnesty
International warned that "non-state armed groups have engaged in abductions and hostage-taking, as well
as the arbitrary detention, torture, and other mistreatment of prisoners in Aleppo".[294] According to a 2016
Amnesty International report, some of the rebel groups in the city engaged in summary executions, in some
cases in public, on the basis of "quasi-judicial institutions". The victims were captured soldiers, government
officials, rival group members, as well as civilians.[115] Russian General Staff Lieutenant General Viktor
Poznikhir claimed that the Syrian government discovered several prisons in East Aleppo on 15 December
2016 used by the opposition to detain, torture and in some cases murder their opponents, including civilians
that refused to fight.[322] At the conclusion of the battle, Syrian state media claimed the Army had found the
bodies of 21 executed civilians in rebel prisons, citing the head of Aleppo's forensic unit. The Russian
defence ministry also claimed the execution of dozens of people by the rebels, some showing signs of
torture. The pro-opposition activist group the SOHR confirmed bodies had been found in the streets but
could not verify how they were killed.[323][324][325][326][327]
Denial of water and sanitation is considered a war crime.[328] Water supplies in the city for tens of thousands
of people were deliberately cut by the Jabhat al-Nusra group for several days in May 2014.[329] Jaish al-
Islam also reportedly prohibited civilians from receiving food and supplies in one neighbourhood they
controlled in December 2016.[330] The rebel groups also horded food during the siege, allowing civilians to
starve while they remained well-fed.[321]
During the December 2016 evacuation, Jabhat Fateh al-Sham rebels burnt buses meant to evacuate sick and
elderly civilians from two rebel-besieged Shiite villages in Idlib province, concurrently with the Aleppo
evacuations.[331]
Destruction of the city and heritage

Time magazine wrote:
...the ongoing devastation inflicted on the country's
stunning archaeological sites—bullet holes lodged in
walls of its ancient Roman cities, the debris of
Byzantine churches, early mosques and crusader
fortresses—rob Syria of its best chance for a post-
conflict economic boom based on tourism, which, until
the conflict started 18 months ago, contributed 12% to
the national income.[332] JFS rebels burnt buses meant to
evacuate sick and elderly civilians
from two rebel-besieged villages
The Al-Madina Souq, a major souq (market) in Aleppo, was affected concurrently to the Aleppo
by a fire in September 2012. The Irish Times reported that around evacuations.
700 to 1000 shops were destroyed by the fire, which had been
caused by firing and shelling.[333] The following month, there were
reports of the Great Mosque of Aleppo being damaged by rocket-propelled grenades.[334] Fighting with
mortars and machine guns caused damage to the main gate and the prayer hall.[335] The attack continued in
the mosque till it was repelled by the army.[334] The Citadel of Aleppo was damaged during Syrian army
shelling.[336]
On 2 October, Irena Bokova, the Director-General of UNESCO, expressed her "grave concern about
possible damage to precious sites" and requested the combatants to "ensure the protection of the outstanding
cultural legacy that Syria hosts on its soil".[337] She cited the Hague Convention for protecting the heritage
sites.[338] A 2014 report by UNITAR found, using satellite images, that 22 out of the 210 examined key
structures had been completely destroyed. 48 others had sustained severe damage, 33 moderate damage and
32 possible damage. The destroyed sites included the Carlton Citadel Hotel, destroyed to its foundations in a
bombing in 2014, the madrasas of al-Sharafiyya and Khusruwiyah. Damage to the Great Mosque of Aleppo,
whose minaret had been destroyed, was confirmed. According to official estimates, 1500 out of the 1600
shops in the souqs had been damaged or destroyed.[339]
The Washington Post wrote that the scale of devastation of Aleppo "evoked comparisons with cities like
Grozny and Dresden". It noted, however, that the destruction was mostly concentrated in the rebel-held part
of the city: about 70 to 80 percent of the destruction was in the east. UN satellite images determined more
than 33,500 damaged residential buildings in the city, most of them multi-apartment blocks. The costs of
reconstruction were estimated at between $35–40 billion.[121] Al-Hakam Shaar and Robert Templer
proposed that the deliberate destruction of Aleppo was a form of "urbicide".[210]
The Citadel of Aleppo was A destroyed factory in Aleppo,

damaged during the war. Karm al Jabl area, 4 March
2013
Reactions
Media coverage
The coverage of the siege of Aleppo in the Western media emphasised the suffering of civilians and often
contained graphic pictures of injured and dying children. As there were almost no international journalists
there, the reporting was outsourced to local activists linked to the rebels who held the city. This was
significantly different from the news coverage of the sieges of Raqqa and Mosul carried out by the Coalition
forces, where the civilian losses were downplayed.[340]
Domestic reaction
The Syrian President, Bashar al-Assad, said on the occasion of the 67th Anniversary of the Syrian Arab
Army in August 2012, "the army is engaged in a crucial and heroic battle ... on which the destiny of the
nation and its people rests ..."[341] After gaining nearly complete control of eastern Aleppo, Assad referred
to this success as an "important point in history of Syria". He also called upon remaining rebel factions to
surrender in exchange for amnesty.[342]
Aleppo victory celebrations
A series of victory celebrations were held in Aleppo following the

government forces' victory, attended by government supporters,[343]
including Aleppo's Christian community which has increasingly
sided with the government.[344] Large-scale outdoor Christmas
celebrations were held publicly for the first time in years, with a
Christmas tree lighting ceremony in the Al-Aziziyah
Several days after the Syrian
neighborhood.[345][343][346][347] Participants waved Syrian and
government's victory, Christmas was
Russian flags and held portraits of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad,
celebrated in Aleppo in public for the
Russian President Vladimir Putin, and Hezbollah leader Hassan first time in years.
Nasrallah. A Mass was held in Saint Elias Cathedral by Aleppo's
Christian community for the first time in four
years.[348][349][350][344] According to Syrian TV, the Christmas celebration, however, was disrupted with a
bomb that exploded at the event. The celebration, however, resumed several minutes after the bomb was
detonated.[351]
A May 2017 New York Times Magazine report from "Aleppo after the Fall" described the public experience
in formerly rebel controlled East Aleppo as "a chaotic wasteland full of feuding militias—some of them
radical Islamists—who hoarded food and weapons while the people starved" and quoted local sources as "no
one is 100 percent with the regime, but mostly these people are unified by their resistance to the opposition"
and people having experienced "a rebellion that is corrupt, brutal and compromised by foreign
sponsors".[269]
Foreign reactions
In October and December 2016, the UN held a "Security Council Emergency Briefing on Syria"
to discuss the situation in Aleppo. However, no agreement was reached. The United States
Ambassador to the United Nations, Samantha Power criticized the Syrian government, Russia
and Iran, in a speech at the briefing, stating "to the Assad regime, Russia, and Iran—three
Member States behind the conquest of and carnage in Aleppo—you bear responsibility for
these atrocities." Comparing the situation in Aleppo to the mass killings in Halabja, Rwanda
and Srebrenica, she addressed the Syrian, Russian and Iranian governments, asking them
"are you truly incapable of shame?"[352][353][354] UN humanitarian chief Stephen O'Brien
appealed to the Security Council to stop the bombardment of eastern Aleppo, describing
residents "scrabbling with their bare hands in the street above to reach under concrete rubble
trying to reach their young child screaming unseen in the dust and dirt below their feet". The
Russian ambassador, Vitaly Churkin, dismissed his speech, saying: "If I wanted to be
preached at, I'd go to church".[355]
At an EU summit in December 2016, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that Russia and
Iran were responsible "for crimes committed against the Syrian population" by the Assad
government and that these should not go unpunished. The US secretary of State John Kerry
also said that "there is absolutely no justification whatsoever for the indiscriminate and savage
brutality against civilians shown by the regime and by its Russian and Iranian allies over the
past few weeks, or indeed over the past five years."[356]
Armenia began sending humanitarian aid to Aleppo in mid-October 2012.[357] The aid was
distributed by Red Crescent, the Armenian National Prelacy in Aleppo, the Aleppo Emergency
unit, the Embassy of the Republic of Armenia to Syria, and the Consulate General of Armenia
in Aleppo. The Governor of the Aleppo Governorate, Mohammad Wahid Aqqad, said, "the
Syrian people highly appreciate this humanitarian gesture of the Armenian people, underlining
the strong Syrian-Armenian cooperation".[358]
The French Foreign Ministry said, "With the build-up of heavy weapons around Aleppo, Assad
is preparing to carry out a fresh slaughter of his own people". Italy and the UN peacekeeping
chief also accused the Syrian government of preparing to massacre civilians.[359]
As the Battle of Aleppo started, Saeed Jalili, the head of Iran's Supreme National Security
Council, met with Assad in Damascus. Jalili said Iran would help Assad to confront "attempts
at blatant foreign interference" in Syria's internal affairs, saying, "Iran will not allow the axis of
resistance, of which it considers Syria to be an essential part, to be broken in any way".[360]
During the Tehran sermon on 16 December 2016, Ayatollah Mohammad Emami Kashani
praised the "Aleppo triumph" as a "defeat of the infidels".[361] In contrast, Iranian reformist and
former director of Western Asian affairs in the Iranian Foreign Ministry, Mir-Hossein Mousavi,
said that he cannot applaud at what happened in Aleppo, concluding it is "nothing but a two
nights' joy and Tehran will be worrying for the next 30 years about it."[362]
The Russian Foreign Ministry issued an official statement condemning the bombing that
occurred on 9 September 2012, in which more than 30 people were killed. The ministry stated,
"We firmly condemn the terrorist acts which claim the lives of innocent people", on 11
September. The Foreign Ministry also called on foreign powers to pressure the armed
opposition to stop launching "terrorist attacks".[363] The Russian Consulate General in Aleppo
suspended operations on 16 January 2013.[364]
Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan urged international action, saying it was not
possible "to remain a spectator" to the government offensive on Aleppo.[365] Reuters reported
that Turkey had set up a base with allies Saudi Arabia and Qatar to direct military and
communications aid to the Free Syrian Army from the city of Adana. Reuters also quoted a
Doha-based source, which stated that Turkey, Qatar and Saudi Arabia were providing rebel
fighters with weapons and training.[366]
William Hague, the British Foreign Minister, said, "the world must speak out to avert a
massacre in Aleppo".[367]
The United States stated it feared "a new massacre" in Aleppo by the Syrian government;
"This is the concern: that we will see a massacre in Aleppo and that's what the regime appears
to be lining up for".[368] The United States condemned "in the strongest possible terms" the
government SCUD missile strikes on Aleppo in late February 2013, saying they were "the
latest of the Syrian regime's ruthlessness and its lack of compassion for the Syrian people it
claims to represent".[369]
Jan Egeland, Special Advisor to the UN Special Envoy for Syria, stated in November 2016: "I have not seen
a place where there has been so much politicization, manipulation of aid, as we have seen in Syria in recent
months. It has to stop!".[280] He also called the bombardment and destruction of the city a "dark chapter" in
modern history:
We all feel strongly that the history of Aleppo through this war will be a 'black chapter' in the
history of international relations. It took 4,000 years to build Aleppo, hundreds of generations,
yet one generation managed to tear it down in four years. Aleppo, for three thousand years,
gave to the world civilization and world civilization was not there to assist the people of Aleppo
when they needed us the most.[370]
In his last press conference as the United Nations Secretary-General on 16 December 2016, Ban Ki-moon
declared: "Aleppo is now a synonym for hell".[371] The UN High Commissioner for Refugees delivered a
statement on 17 December 2016, calling for an immediate end to the war in Syria: "With the situation in
Aleppo, Syria's war has reached an historic low... Aleppo has become a metaphor for the disastrous situation
that Syria is in today, with half the population having been forced from their homes."[372] The Washington
Post compared the destruction of Aleppo to the siege of Sarajevo in the 1990s.[373]
On 20 December 2016, the United Nations Security Council approved "adequate, neutral UN monitoring
and direct observation on evacuations from the eastern districts" in Aleppo.[374]
A pro-Syrian Revolution and "Save Aleppo" demonstration

anti-Assad and anti-Putin near Russian Embassy in
protest in Paris, 14 December Tokyo, 17 December 2016
2016
Protests in solidarity with anti-government forces in Aleppo
Rallies and demonstrations intended to show solidarity with Aleppo's besieged civilians, as well as protests
against Syrian government and its Iranian and Russian allies, were held in several cities across the world,
organized by numerous groups. In Paris, the Eiffel Tower went dark on 14 December, as a symbol of
solidarity, and thousands protested in Paris' Stravinsky Square against Russia's role in the destruction of the
city. Qatar cancelled its national day of celebration on 18 December 2016, in solidarity with Aleppo.[375]
German government spokesperson Steffen Seibert said that "the cries for help of the people caught up in the
fighting for the beleaguered city of Aleppo are a harrowing reminder to the world". He also urged: "There
must be an end to the killing and dying in Aleppo."[376] Protests were also held in London, Sarajevo,
Istanbul, Jerusalem, Gaza City, and Amman, with some protesters burning pictures of Vladimir Putin
because of Russia's role in the siege.[375][377]
Timeline
Syrian Army supply lines cut between October 2012 and October 2013, before being re-
established from the south.[378][379][380][381]
From mid-to-late 2014, the Syrian Army captures the eastern and northeastern approaches to
the city.[382][383][384]
Syrian Army cuts the northern rebel supply route from Turkey in February 2016, and the last
road into the rebel-held part of Aleppo city in July 2016.[385]
Syrian Army siege of rebel held parts of Aleppo from Summer into Fall 2016,[386] two rebel
counteroffensives repelled.[387][388]
On 12 December 2016, Syrian Army forces had gained control of 98% of the formerly rebel-
held east, and rebels were reportedly "near defeat".[389]
Syrian government and allies' victory reported on 12 December and declared on 13
December.[390][391][392]
City divided between a government-held west and rebel-held east, with two northern districts
YPG-held, from July 2012 to November 2016.[17]
Thirty percent[393] of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Ancient City of Aleppo has been
destroyed in the fighting.
See also
Siege of Homs—Siege of the city of Homs (2012–2014) during the Syrian Civil War
Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign—Battle for the control of Damascus and its surroundings
Siege of Eastern Ghouta
Palmyra offensive (2017)
Siege of Kobanî
Siege of Nubl and Al-Zahraa—Part of the Battle for Aleppo
Battle of Benghazi (2014–2017)
Battle of al-Bab
Turkish military intervention in Syria
Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)
Raqqa campaign (2016–2017)
Battle of Marawi
List of wars and battles involving al-Qaeda
Notes
a. Even though the Al-Tawhid Brigade mostly disintegrated in 2014, remnants of the group
remained active in Aleppo until 2016.)
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External links
"Aleppo After the Fall" by Robert F. Worth, New York Times Magazine, 24 May 2017 (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/magazine/aleppo-after-the-fall.html)
Battle of Aleppo frontline maps (http://www.agathocledesyracuse.com/archives/category/syria/
aleppo)
Aleppo: Key dates in battle for strategic Syrian city (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-e
ast-38294488) BBC News, 13 December 2016
Map showing level of building destruction (http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/
UNOSAT_A3_Aleppo_DamagePercentage_20160918opt.pdf), by United Nations Institute for
Training and Research, for 18 September 2016
"Aleppo aerial campaign deliberately targeted hospitals and humanitarian convoy amounting to
war crimes" (http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21256&
LangID=E), a Report by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human
Rights, 1 March 2017
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Battle of Aleppo (2012-2016)

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Battle of Aleppo (2012-2016)

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Coordinates: 36.216667°N 37.

Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)

Clockwise from top-left: A destroyed tank in Aleppo, the Saadallah al-

Date 19 July 2012 – 22 December 2016

City divided between a government-held west and rebel-

(Head of Aleppo military Nujin Derik[44]

Jabbar Nasif Ismail †

Special Harakat Sham al-

Casualties and losses

By December, rebel fighters were commonly looting for supplies;

Course of the battle

2012: Initial rebel attack and capture of Eastern Aleppo

Conquest Brigade fighters

2013: Advances and counter-advances

In December 2012, the al-Nusra Front unilaterally declared a no-fly

2014: Syrian government encirclement of the rebels

2015: War of attrition

In early January, the rebels recaptured the Majbal (sawmills) area of

2016: Supply lines cut, surrender, and evacuation

Destroyed area in Aleppo

The role of Turkey

The Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), a pro-opposition

Allegations of war crimes

Syrian government and allies

In February 2017, Breaking Aleppo (http://www.publications.atlanticcouncil.org/breakingaleppo/), a report

Wounded civilians arrive at the Doctors and medical staff

Destruction of the city and heritage

The Citadel of Aleppo was A destroyed factory in Aleppo,

Aleppo victory celebrations

A series of victory celebrations were held in Aleppo following the

A pro-Syrian Revolution and "Save Aleppo" demonstration

Protests in solidarity with anti-government forces in Aleppo

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Aleppo_(2012–2016)&oldid=960241577"

This page was last edited on 1 June 2020, at 22:00 (UTC).

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