Energy xxx (2014) 1e11

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and

pollutant emissions of biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct
injection diesel engine
Sary Awad*, Khaled Loubar 1, Mohand Tazerout 1
École des Mines de Nantes, Département Systèmes Energétiques et Environnement, (DSEE), GEPEA, CNRS-UMR 6144, 4 Rue Alfred Kastler, BP20722,
44307 Nantes Cedex 03, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fat trap grease is a cheap source for biodiesel production, but until now its transformation into biofuel is
Received 29 July 2013 not well studied. The effects of the use of biodiesel from degraded raw material on combustion in en-
Received in revised form gines are not discussed by researchers. In this paper, engine tests were performed on biodiesel produced
15 March 2014
from AFR (animal fat residues) collected from fat traps. This fuel presents differences in chemical
Accepted 19 March 2014
Available online xxx
composition and on physical properties as compared to standard biodiesel produced from vegetable oils.
Tests were performed on a single cylinder, air cooled, direct injection diesel engine at 1500 rpm,
performance and pollutant emissions were measured and the combustion parameters were analyzed.
Keywords:
Biodiesel
The use of AFRBD in the engine resulted in similar performance with slight brake thermal efficiency
Animal fat residues decrease at low loads and a slight increase at high loads.
Diesel engine A decrease of 9% of power output at 1500 rpm was also detected. As per pollutant emissions, a drastic
Emissions reduction of unburned hydrocarbons between 32% and 45% was obtained with AFRBD (animal fat residue
Performance biodiesel). Particulate matter emissions were also reduced at low and medium load ranges, but no dif-
Combustion ferences were detected at high loads. Nitric oxides emissions were also measured and slight increase was
detected at low loads and a slight reduction was noticed at full engine load.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The modern society’s style of life is based on high consumption
of energy and goods. Besides the problem of the scarcity of re-
sources, the problem of pollution is very serious and it threatens
the air, the soil, and the water. Thus for a more reasonable use of
resources, two main research areas started to be developed lately:
the research for renewable sources of energy and the reduction,
recycling and valorization of wastes. Among the most important
sources of wastes, the restaurants and households produce signif-
icant amounts of non-recyclable wastes that can be valorized.
Waste cooking oils and waste fat are very attractive raw materials
for biofuel production because of their low prices and because they
are essentially composed of carbon (76%), hydrogen (10%) and ox-
ygen (11%) [1] and have very low or zero contaminants like sulfur,
nitrogen, or dangerous metals. A lot of researches were made about
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 (0)2 51 85 85 61; fax: þ33 (0)2 51 85 82 99.
E-mail address: sary.awad@gmail.com (S. Awad).
1
Tel.: þ33 (0)2 51 85 85 61; fax: þ33 (0)2 51 85 82 99.
the valorization of lipid wastes feedstock like waste cooking oil,
animal fat from slaughter houses, fish fat, soap stocks [2e7]. But
there are few studies that were made about highly degraded fatty
wastes like fat trap grease. However, a study realized by Andersen
and Weinbach (2010) [8], estimated that in Norway 2.5 tons of AFR
(animal fat residues) from fat traps could be collected per 1000
households per year. The authors of this study took in consideration
the water and contaminants content of AFR and the trans-
esterification reaction yield and concluded that one ton of AFR can
produce 0.78 tons of biodiesel. Assuming that the European Union
has the same potential of Norway, with a 210 million households, it
can collect 525,000 tons of AFR per year that can be transformed to
409,500 tons of biodiesel each year corresponding to 455 million
liters of biodiesel.
Among different processes used to transform fats to biofuel, the
transesterification seems to be very promising because of the
quality of fuel called biodiesel that it can produce. Biodiesel is
biodegradable, non toxic, is free of aromatics and dioxins, its high
flash point makes it safer for storage and transportation [9e11] it
can be used directly on direct injection engines, resulting in similar
performance and lower unburned hydrocarbons, particulate matter

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
0360-5442/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
2 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11

Abbreviations m mass [g]

Mair molar mass of air
AFR animal fat residues P in cylinder pressure [Pa]
BD biodiesel Q heat [J]
BMEP brake mean effective pressure R universal constant of perfect gas [J mol1 K1]
DF diesel fuel r the gas mixture constant [J g1 K1]
EVO exhaust valve opening T temperature [K]
FAME fatty acid methyl ester V volume of the combustion chamber [m3]
HRR heat release rate W mean gas velocity in the cylinder [m s1]
ID ignition delay Xb burned fuel fraction
IVC inlet valve closing Sp mean piston speed [m s1]
LHV lower heating value
PM particulate matter Greek
SOC start of combustion l ratio of the crank radius over the connecting rod length
SOI start of injection [m]
TDC top dead center b1 premixed fuel fraction
UHC unburned hydrocarbons q crank position [ CA]
4 equivalence ratio of the in-cylinder gas mixture
Variables
A surface area [m2] Subscripts
B bore diameter [m] air intake air
C1 constant of the Woschni’s model comb combustion
C2 constant of the Woschni’s model wall walls of the cylinder
Cv specific heat at const. volume [J g1 K1] r reference conditions
hc convection heat transfer coefficient [W m2 K1]

and carbon monoxide emissions as compared to diesel fuel [12e engine was mounted on a fixed table and coupled with an eddy
14]. However some of its cold flow properties and oxidation sta- current dynamometer that converts mechanical energy generated
bility problems should be dealt with [15e17]. by the engine power directly to the network output. Two systems
In this paper, authors dealt with biodiesel produced from animal were installed to manage the control and acquisition of measured
fat residues collected from fat traps. This kind of raw materials is signals. First system controls the engine-dynamometer and also
not treated well in the literature, and the authors have not found controls the acquisition of low-frequency measurements (torque,
any works on engine tests dealing with highly degraded fats. Thus, engine speed, pressure and temperature in the collectors). Second
the aim of this paper is to compare biodiesel derived from animal system measures high-frequency signal, which mainly concern the
fat residues with diesel fuel on a single cylinder, air cooled, direct cylinder pressure, fuel injection pressure and also the angular po-
injection diesel engine where the combustion parameters perfor- sition of the crankshaft. The pressure in the cylinder was measured
mance and pollutant emissions were tested, analyzed and at a frequency of 90 kHz using a piezoelectric pressure sensor,
compared. water cooled, type AVL QH32D. The injection pressure was
measured by a piezoelectric pressure transducer, type AVL QH33D,
2. Materials and methods located in between the injection pump and the fuel injector. The
angular position of the crankshaft was measured by an encoder,
2.1. Engine test facility type AVL 364C, placed on the flywheel.
The flow of intake air was measured by a differential pressure
A single cylinder, four-stroke, air cooled, direct injection, diesel transmitter; type LPX 5481 (made by Brooks instruments). For
engine developing power output of 3.7 kW at 1500 rpm was used temperature measurements, the test engine was equipped with a
for this work. Test engine specifications are given in Table 1. The series of thermocouples type K. Ambient temperature was
measured by an active transmitter for humidity and temperature,
type HD 2012 TC/150 (Delta Ohm). The fuel flow was measured
Table 1 using a Coriolis mass flow meter type RHM 015 GNT (made by
Test engine specifications. Rheonik).
Lister Petter e TS 1 series For measuring emissions, a bay of analysis (made by Environ-
General informations 4 strokes, natural aspiration
nement S A) placed on the line of engine exhaust gas was used to
Number of cylinders 1 analyze the main pollutant gases. Emissions of HC (hydrocarbons)
Cooling system Air cooled were measured by FID (flame ionization detector) using a heated
Stroke 85.5 mm hydrocarbon analyzer (model GRAPHITE 52M), emissions of nitric
Bore 95.3 mm
oxides (NOx) were measured via a chemiluminescence nitric oxide
Connecting rod length 165.3 mm
Volumetric ratio 18:1 analyzer TOPAZE 32M. Emissions of CO (carbon monoxide) and
Maximum power 3.7 kW at 1500 RPM oxygen (O2) were measured by absorption of infrared radiation
Swept volume 630 cc using a 2M MIR analyzer. Particulate emissions were measured
Injection timing 20 CA before TDC using a dust analyzer in real time (TEOM model 1105, made by
Injection pressure 250 bar
Rupprecht & Patashnick co. inc.), for measurement and continuous

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11 3

Table 2 study is given in Table 2. The schematic of test engine setup is

Sensor measurements errors. shown in Fig. 1. The signal of encoder was used to regulate brake
Parameter Sensor type Error velocity by means of a PID regulator. Engine power was controlled
Torque (Tm) Effort sensor (FN 3148) 0.1 N.m
by means of a rack and a pinion that control the volume of in-
Engine speed AVL 364C 3 RPM jection pump piston. Engine speed and power were commanded
Injection timing AVL 364C 0.05 CA from the same computer used for low frequency acquisition.
Intake air flow rate Differential pressure 1% of
transmitter (LPX5841) measured value
Fuel flow rate Coriolis type mass flow meter 0.5% of
(RHM015) measured value 2.2. Tested fuels
In cylinder pressure Piezo-electric (AVL QH32D) 2 bars
Injection pressure Piezo-electric (AVL QH33D) 2.5 bars Animal fat residues (AFR) used in this study were collected
Intake air temperature Differential pressure 1.6 K
transmitter (LPX5841)
from fat traps. A fat trap is a tank installed on the waste water grid
Fuel injection temperature K type thermocouple 1.6 K coming from households, hotels, restaurants and slaughter houses.
Exhaust gas temperature K type thermocouple 1.6 K Inside the trap, fat will float due to its lower density and will
Ambient air temperature HD 2012 TC/150 0.2 K solidify on the surface, while water exits from the bottom of the
Relative humidity HD 2012 TC/150 2%
tank [18]. The animal fat residues (AFR) were collected from
Hydrocarbon emissions FID (GRAPHITE 52M) 10 ppm
Nitric oxydes emissions TOPAZE 32M 20 ppm different fat traps, situated in a radius of 30 km near to Bordeaux,
Carbon dioxide emissions Infra-red detector (MIR 2M) 0.2% and separated from water and sludge by centrifugation. The
Non-reacted oxygen Infra-red detector (MIR 2M) 0.25% analysis of AFR showed the effects of high degradation, their acid
Carbon monoxide emissions Infra-red detector (MIR 2M) 50 ppm value was higher than 60 mgKOH/gfat and their viscosity was lower
Particulate matter emissions TEOM 1105 10 ng/s
Fuel lower heating value Isoperibol calorimeter 0.25% of
than fresh animal fat (16 mm2/s at 40  C versus 60 mm2/s for duck
(PARR 6200CLEF) measured value fat). The biodiesel was prepared by a two-step acid catalyzed
process. The reaction involved 2 kg of AFR and both steps were
performed at 60  C under vigorous agitation during 5 h and 1 h,
respectively. First step was performed using 30% w of methanol
weighing of the mass concentration of particulate exhaust. The and 3.6% w of 17 M sulfuric acid while the second one involved
experimental results of fuel flow rate, exhaust gas temperature, 10% and 1.8% of respective chemicals [18]. At the end of reaction
NOx, CO, O2 and UHC (unburned hydrocarbons) were taken from 2.2 L of biodiesel were obtained containing 98% FAME (fatty acid
20 cycle average. The data acquisition system for these parameters methyl ester).
was connected with Lab view 8.2 software which gave 20 cycle After a separation of the biodiesel and glycerol, biodiesel was
average. All the experiments were repeated five times to verify the washed with water in order to eliminate excess alcohol and re-
per-formed measure. The sensitivity of instruments used in this sidual catalyst and then dried using calcium chloride (CaCl2).

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the test engine setup.

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
4 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11

The product biodiesel was characterized and it was conform to m m m

xb Cn Hm Oz þ 0:21 air O2 þ 0:79 air N2 /xb nCO2 þ H2 O
European Norm EN14214. Spectromass chromatography showed Mair Mair 2

 
that the effects of the high degradation of AFR were clear on the mair m z mair
composition of AFRBD (animal fat residues biodiesel) by the þ 0:21 ..  xb n þ  O2 þ 0:79 N
Mair 4 2 Mair 2
detection of remarkable amounts of short chain FAME, branched
(4)
and cyclic carbon chain FAMEs and in the presence of alcohols,
aldehydes and ketone. The important characteristics of biodiesel
from AFR are compared with those of DF (diesel fuel) in Table 3. As where xb is the cumulative burned fuel fraction at each time
it can be noticed the degradation of fat resulted mainly in the step and which is deduced from the heat release at earlier
presence of short chain and branched FAME which might explain calculation steps, mair is the mass of air trapped inside cylinder
the lower flash point of AFRBD as compared with biodiesel origi- at the inlet valve closing which is calculated using measured
nated from non degraded animal fats [19]. On the other hand, non- engine intake air flow and the engine speed, and Mair is the
saturated FAME level was lower than those that can be found in molar mass of air.
non-degraded animal fats [19], which could be attributed to the The heat losses through the walls of cylinder are calculated
bacterial activity which could favorite the degradation of non using equation (5)
saturated fatty acids. The lower amounts of non saturated FAME can
explain the relatively high viscosity of AFRBD (at the upper case of 8 X dQ
> P dQWall Wall dt
the admissible EN14214 values). >
> ¼
>
> d q dt dq
>
>
<  
2.3. Heat release model P dQWall
¼ hc $Awalls $ Tg  TWalls (5)
>
> dt
>
>
The heat release rate was calculated in the closed part of the >
>
>
: dt ¼ 1
cycle (between inlet valve closing and exhaust valve opening) using
dq 6N
the following assumptions:

➣ The gas inside the chamber of combustion is homogeneous in where Awalls is the surface area of the walls, Twalls is the
temperature and chemical composition. measured temperature of cylinder walls that is considered as
➣ The gas mixture is considered as a perfect gas. constant during the cycle [20] and the global heat transfer co-
➣ Blow by effects are neglected. efficient hc is calculated using Woschni’s correlation (equation
(6)):
The results of these assumptions can lead to equation (1)

 8
> 0:2 P 0:8 T 0:55 W 0:8
dQcomb Cv dp Cv dV dQwall < hc ¼ 3:26:B
¼ V, þ þ 1 P, þ (1)
dq r dq r dq dq > VTr (6)
: W ¼ C1 Sp þ C2 ðP  Pmotored Þ
Pr Vr
where P is the measured cylinder pressure; it is recorded by the
acquisition system every 0.1 CA. V is the in cylinder volume
calculated by equation (2) from the kinematic model: where B is bore diameter of the cylinder and W is mean gas velocity
in the cylinder. C1 and C2 are constants that depend on the stroke of

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
VS 2
the cycle. Sp is mean piston speed. Tr, Pr and Vr are reference con-
VðqÞ ¼ Vc þ , 1 þ l  cos q  l  sin2 q (2) stants taken at the beginning of the cycle. Pmotored is pressure of the
2
engine at motored cycle.
The specific heat of gas mixture at constant volume is calculated
as a function of temperature and chemical composition as
2.4. Analysis of error
described in equation 3
8
>
> 1 X The measurement errors of all equipments used in this study are
< Cv ¼ mi Cvi listed in Table 2. Let F be a parameter calculated from n measured
m i (3)
> parameters (x1,., xn) the error induced to F can be calculated using
>
: i
Cv ¼ a0 þ a1 T þ a2 T 2 þ a3 T 3 þ a4 T 4 equation (7) [21]:

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

2
2
2
vF vF vF
ErrorðFÞ ¼ errorðx1 Þ þ errorðx2 Þ þ . þ errorðxn Þ (7)
vx1 vx2 vxn

The coefficients of the polynomial correlation used in equation Thus the estimated uncertainty values at different operating
(3) are listed in Table 4. conditions are as follows:
The composition of the gas mixture inside the cylinder was
calculated at each crank position using the combustion equation (4) ➣ Brake power: 0.4e1.9%
based on the empirical formula of the fuel. The excess air amount at ➣ Specific fuel consumption: 0.6e2%
each load was obtained from the low acquisition system mea- ➣ Brake thermal efficiency: 0.7e2%
surements i.e. fuel and air flow rates. ➣ Air/fuel equivalence ratio: 1.1%

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11 5

Table 3 explain the correlations between parameters in order to under-

Properties of tested fuels. stand changes in engine behavior while changing fuels and engine
Properties Units DF AFRBD charge.
Density at 15  C g/l 840 870

Injection temperature C 3.1.2. Heat release rate
Kinematic viscosity at mm2/s 3.2 4.7
injection temperature
Applying equation (1) to the experimental pressure curves the
LHV kJ/kg 43,000 37,000 rate of heat release can be derived for both fuels at different loads.
Chemical composition C21H44 C18H36O2 In Fig. 3 a and b are represented the HRR (heat release rate) evo-
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 15 12.7 lutions of both fuels with respect to crank angle at 1500 rpm for
Cetane number 50 53

20% and 100% of full load respectively.
Flash point C 55 128
FAME content % m/m e 98 Combustion proceeds following three consecutive phases: pre-
Unsaturated FAME %m/m e 42 mixed combustion, diffusion combustion and late combustion.
C4 e C12 FAME %m/m e 4 After the start of injection, fuel droplets mix with air, this mixing
Branched FAME %m/m e 2 phase is controlled by turbulence inside chamber and fuel viscosity
Water content mg/kg e *
Sulfur content mg/kg <10 *
and volatility. Volatile fuels have tendency to mix well with air and
Acid value mg KOH/g e 0.3 viscous fuels have tendency to form big droplets within the fuel jet
Methanol % m/m e Traces leading to a lower mixing. During compression phase, fuel/air
Monoglyceride content % m/m e Traces mixture reaches auto-ignition conditions and combustion takes
Diglyceride content % m/m e Traces
place, the premixed fuel will burn out sharply because of the
Triglyceride content % m/m e Traces
Free glycerine content % m/m e Traces abundance of oxygen and the high contact surface between air and
Total glycerine content % m/m e Traces fuel droplets. Usually the premixed combustion ends before the
* Non detected.
end of injection, thus the fuel delivered by injector will be burned
by diffusion. And at the end of injection, fuel continues its com-
bustion at the late combustion phase.
3. Results and discussions Higher Cetane number of AFRBD leads to an earlier SOC (start of
combustion). However, during the IDperiod (ignition delay), high
3.1. Combustion parameters viscosity and low volatility of biodiesel result on a lower mixing
rate of fuel with air, thus, less fuel can be prepared and mixed
3.1.1. Cylinder pressure before the start of combustion resulting on a lower premixed phase.
The in-cylinder and the injection pressures variations during On the other hand, during diffusion combustion where rich pockets
cycles were measured every 0.1 CA. At each load, after the stabili- of fuel are present in burning zone, biodiesel has the advantage of
zation of the engine, the pressure curves of 100 consecutive cycles incorporated oxygen that contributes to a better distribution of
were recorded and their mean values were adopted. Fig 2 a and b oxygenated radicals and leads to a faster combustion as compared
illustrates the cylinder pressure variations during cycle for both to DF. So the end of combustion will depend on the compromise
fuels at 20% and 100% of full load respectively. AFRBD resulted in between faster diffusion combustion and lower premixed com-
higher peak pressures that vary from 77.8 bars at 20% load to bustion of AFRBD with respect to DF.
90.6 bars at full load. At the same values of BMEP (brake mean
effective pressure) the DF developed 75.5 and 90.7 bars respec-
3.1.3. Ignition delay
tively. The difference between both fuels peak pressures has a
The ID is the time period separating the Physical SOI (start of
decreasing trend with respect to BMEP. In order to explain these
injection) and the start of the combustion (SOC). During this period
tendencies, the heat release rates of engine fueled with both fuels
the fuel starts to mix with air to form a combustible mixture.
were derived at different part loads and analyzed.
All combustion parameters are correlated to each other and to
physical properties of fuels. Thus combustion analysis will be pre- 3.1.3.1. Effect of load. IDs of both fuels have decreasing trends
sented as follows: a brief description of combustion process with respect to BMEP (Fig. 4), When engine load increases, more
including effects of fuel properties will be presented. Then a specific fuel is injected leading to higher cylinder wall and residual gas
analysis of each combustion parameter will be led on two levels: 1) temperatures. Since the auto-ignition of fuels is enhanced with
variations with respect to engine load, and 2) variations with pressure and temperature increase [22], ID will decrease with
respect to fuel type. Finally a brief summary will be presented to BMEP.

Table 4
Coefficients used to calculate Cv in equation (3).

a0 a1 a2 a3 a4

O2
300-1000 K 5.7494843E01 2.9293514E04 1.4955197E07 3.4136175E10 2.2781799E13
1000e5000 K 7.0086448E01 1.5940001E04 3.2706289E08 4.6124019E12 2.9526012E16
N2
300e1000 K 7.1965895E01 4.1814681E04 1.1767938E06 1.6751270E09 7.2594701E13
1000e5000 K 6.0919053E01 4.4182283E04 1.6879677E07 2.9980991E11 2.0052629E15
CO2
300e1000 K 1.7019589E01 1.8748206E03 1.9668486E06 1.2974915E09 4.0006968E13
1000e5000 K 5.8171981E01 5.9334902E04 2.4156147E07 4.5235643E11 3.1939610E15
H2O
300e1000 K 1.3045322Eþ00 1.6050556E03 2.9351635E06 3.2187101E09 1.1577651E12
1000e5000 K 9.7442159E01 1.4116678E03 4.0324101E07 5.5472689E11 2.9522173E02

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
6 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11

3.1.3.2. Effect of fuel properties. ID of AFRBD is lower than that of DF N = 1500 rpm @ 20% Load
at all loads which can be attributed to the higher cetane number of 35
FAMEs [23]. But the ID differences are decreasing while load in- AFRBD
creases. At 20% load the difference is around 15% and it is less than 30 DF
6% at higher loads which reflects a lower sensitivity of the ID of
AFRBD with respect to load. Since the ID is directly related to re- 25
sidual gas temperature, it is important to analyze exhaust gas
temperature evolutions of both fuels with respect to BMEP as an 20

HRR [J/°CA]
indicator of residual gas temperature.
15
3.1.4. Exhaust gas temperature and combustion duration
The exhaust gas temperature and combustion duration evolu- 10
tions of both fuels with respect to load are presented in Figs. 5 and 6
respectively. 5

3.1.4.1. Effect of engine load. Exhaust gas temperature and com- 0

bustion duration are increasing with engine load for both fuels.
Increasing engine load requires the injection of higher amounts of
-5
fuel, leading to higher cycle temperatures and combustion -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Crank angle θ [°CA]

N = 1500 rpm @ 20% Load

(a)
80 N = 1500 rpm @ 100% Load
DF 40
AFRBD
70 AFRBD 35 DF
Cylinder pressure [bars]

60 30

50 25
HRR [J/°CA]

40 20

15
30
10
20
5
10
0
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -5
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Crank angle θ [°CA]
(a) (b) Crank angle θ [°CA]
N = 1500 rpm @ 100% Load
Fig. 3. a) Heat release rate comparison between both fuels at 20% load. b) Heat release
90 DF rate comparison between both fuels at full load.

AFRBD
80
Cylinder pressure [bars]

70
12
60 DF
11,5
AFRBD
50
Ignion delay [°CA]

11
40
10,5
30 10

20 9,5

10 9

0 8,5
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Crank angle θ [°CA] 8
(b) 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
BMEP [bars]
Fig. 2. a) Cylinder pressure comparison of both fuels at full load. b) Cylinder peak
pressure comparison between both fuels with respect to BMEP. Fig. 4. Ignition delay evolutions of both fuels with respect to BMEP.

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11 7

430 21
DF DF
Exhaust gas temperature [°C]

385 18
AFRBD AFRBD

15
340

12

β1[%]
295
9
250
6
205
3

160
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
BMEP [bars] BMEP [bars]
Fig. 5. Exhaust gas temperature evolution of both fuels with respect to BMEP. Fig. 7. Premixed combustion fuel fraction evolutions with respect to BMEP.

durations. Late combustion leads to fuel combustion during
expansion, where the contribution of this heat to engine work is
very low and thus the most important part of this heat leads to a
rise in the exhaust temperature [2,24].
3.1.4.2. Effect of fuel properties. The trends of exhaust gas temper-
atures of AFRBD as compared to DF are similar to those of com-
bustion duration. At low loads, the combustion duration of AFRBD
is 4 CA longer than DF leading to an increase of 11  C in exhaust gas
temperature. At high loads, the shorter combustion duration (by
2 CA) of AFRBD with respect to DF led to a relative decrease of its
exhaust gas temperature of 7  C. As it was explained earlier in this
paper, the end of combustion variations are ruled by the compro-
mise between lower premixed combustion and faster diffusion
combustion of AFRBD as compared to DF. Thus, fuel fraction burned
during premixing phase (b1) was analyzed.
3.1.5. Premixed fuel fraction
Trends of b1 of both fuels with respect to BMEP are presented in
Fig 7.
3.1.5.1. Effect of engine load. Both fuels exhibit a decreasing trend of
b1 with respect to BMEP. On HRR curves this effect appears clearly
where at low loads premixed combustion phase is very clear and
can be distinguished clearly but at high loads, combustion is almost
by diffusion and the premixed phase can be barely distinguished.
With load increase, ID shortens rapidly and lets less time for fuel/air
mixture to be formed which explains this trend of b1.
3.1.5.2. Effect of fuel properties. At low loads b1 is 19% for DF versus
12.5% for AFRBD thus the higher amount of burned DF during
premixed phase shortens its combustion duration as compared to
AFRBD. At higher loads, the short ID of both fuels reduces consid-
erably the premixed phase and its importance in the control of
combustion duration. Thus at high loads the faster combustion of
biodiesel shortens considerably its combustion duration.
3.1.6. Combustion analysis summary
While using AFRBD on diesel engine it results on higher cylinder
pressures with a decreasing trend. At low loads the difference be-
tween peak pressures is 2.5 bars and at high loads, difference is
insignificant. The analysis of heat release, combustion parameters
and fuels properties showed that:
1) at low loads the low volatility and high viscosity of AFRBD led to
a low premixed combustion phase as compared to DF which
resulted on a longer combustion duration and higher exhaust
gas temperature. At these conditions the higher residual gas
temperature and cetane number of AFRBD led to a high differ-
ence between its ID and that of DF which led to a higher dif-
ference in peak pressures. Earlier SOC of AFRBD leads to a higher
pressure during compression stroke and, by consequence, to a
higher peak pressure.

64
28 DF
Brake thermal efficiency [%]

DF
Combuson Duraon [°CA]

AFRBD
60 25
AFRBD

56 22

19
52
16

48
13

44 10
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
BMEP [bars] BMEP [bar]
Fig. 6. Combustion duration evolution of both fuels with respect to BMEP. Fig. 8. Brake thermal efficiencies evolutions with respect to BMEP.

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
8 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11

2) At high loads, the effect of premixed combustion on the control 400

of combustion duration is lower and the combustion proceeds DF
almost by diffusion. Thus the effect of oxygen presence in AFRBD 350 AFRBD

UHC emissions [ppm]

was predominant. It led to a shorter combustion duration and
exhaust gas temperature. So lower residual gas temperature 300
moderates the effect of higher cetane number of AFRBD and
lowers the differences between starts of combustion which 250
explains the non-significant difference in peak pressures of
fuels.
200

3.2. Performance 150

3.2.1. Power output 100

The use of AFRBD on the engine resulted in a decrease of energy
output of 9% as compared to DF at 1500 rpm. At maximum load the
injection pump delivers the same volume of fuel, but the higher
density of AFRBD led to an increase of 6% of fuel mass flow rate.
However the heating value of AFRBD is 14% lower than that of DF
which finally led to an 8.8% decrease of energy input which cor-
responds to the decrease of energy output considering a small
difference on engine efficiencies while changing fuels.
3.2.2. Brake thermal efficiency
The evolutions of brake thermal efficiencies of both fuels with
respect to BMEP are presented in Fig. 8, it can be noticed that at
lower loads the brake thermal efficiency of the engine is better
while using DF, but at higher loads it becomes better when using
AFRBD.
The shape of heat release curve with respect to TDC (top dead
center) has a crucial role in the determination of engine efficiency.
Combustion starting earlier in the cycle leads to earlier pressure
increase during compression stroke, which resists to the piston
motion increasing pumping work. Combustion ending later during
the cycle, lead to a heat release during expansion phase where the
contribution to work becomes lower.
3.2.2.1. Effect of engine load. Examining the heat release shapes for
both fuels shows the progression of combustion curves towards
TDC while increasing BMEP, which explains the increasing trends
of break thermal efficiencies. However, increasing loads lead to
earlier start of combustion and longer combustion durations
which explains the concavity of curves (the optimal efficiency
results from the compromise between the higher energy released
around TDC, and the increase in energy released earlier and later
in cycle).
1800
DF
1500 AFRBD
CO emissions [ppm]
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
BMEP [bars]
Fig. 10. Unburned hydrocarbon emissions of both fuels with respect to BMEP.
3.2.2.2. Effect of fuel properties. When comparing AFRBD with DF it
can be noticed that at low loads the earlier start of combustion of
AFRBD and its longer combustion duration led to a 1.5 points of
efficiency drop. But at higher loads where starts of combustion of
fuels are closer, the shorter combustion duration of AFRBD led to 1
point of efficiency enhancement with respect to DF.
3.3. Emissions
3.3.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
The carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are increasing with load
for both fuels (Fig. 9). In natural aspiration diesel engines, the global
equivalence ratio increases with load, thus less oxygen will be
available for the combustion, and the CO emissions increase
sharply.
As it is clearly shown in Fig. 9, differences in CO emissions be-
tween both fuels, considering the measuring error of equipment,
are not significant. Although the presence of oxygen on the AFRBD
molecules and its lower stoichiometric air to fuel ratio, its lower
energetic content (LHV (lower heating value)) leads to a higher
amount of fuel to be injected in order to obtain the same BMEP as
per DF. If differences in engine efficiency are neglected, the injector
should deliver around 16% more AFRBD to the engine which is
approximately equal to the difference between air to fuel stoi-
chiometric ratios of both fuels. And since the CO emissions are
3500
DF
3000
AFRBD
PM emissions [ng/s]

2500
1200
2000
900
1500

600
1000

300 500

0 0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
BMEP [bars] BMEP [bars]
Fig. 9. Carbon monoxide emissions of both fuels with respect to BMEP. Fig. 11. Particulate matter emissions of both fuels with respect to BMEP.

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11 9

1350 At low loads, the lower ID of AFRBD combined with the oxygen
DF content of fuel resulted with highest reduction rate of UHC (45%) as
1250
compared to DF. At full load the ID of both fuels are almost the same
AFRBD
Nox Emissions [ppm]

1150 and thus the reduction of UHC is attributed only to the oxygen
bonds of fuel resulting on UHC emissions reduction of 32%.
1050

950 3.3.3. Particulate matter

850
750
650
550
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5
BMEP [bars]
Fig. 12. Nitric oxides emissions of both fuels with respect to BMEP.
controlled only by equivalence ratio [23,25], no significant changes
in CO emissions can be noticed while using AFRBD instead of DF.
3.3.2. Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions are presented in
Fig. 10. As it can be noticed, the UHC emissions are increasing with
load while using both fuels. The UHC emissions are caused by two
major phenomena: the first one is the over-mixing leading to over-
lean regions and the under-mixing leading to over-rich regions
[25,26]. The first one occurs during ID where the injected fuel start
mixing with air, at the boundaries of mixing region some amounts
of fuel might become very diluted with air and reach a value lower
than the flammability lower limit. This fuel fraction escapes com-
bustion region and undergoes a slow-incomplete combustion. This
phenomenon occurs likely on low loads where ID is relatively long
and overall equivalence ratio is low. The second phenomenon oc-
curs during diffusion combustion where the fuel jet is very dense,
rich fuel pockets undergo a pyrolysis and UHC appear, but due to
later mixing, a part of these UHC can be oxidized. The amount of
oxidized UHC depends on the temperature and oxygen availability
on the cylinder and on the mixing rate. Under-mixing becomes
more significant at higher loads because of the higher amount of
fuel burned by diffusion.
The UHC evolution with respect to BMEP is less steep than CO
because the up-mentioned phenomena have opposite evolutions
with respect to load.
The PM is produced by thermal cracking of fuel in the zones
deprived of oxygen. Then, because of turbulence inside the com-
bustion chamber, the PM will be mixed with oxygen. If the mixture
occurs at high temperature it will undergo an oxidation process.
But if the temperature is not high enough (at the expansion phase),
the PM can not reach the activation energy necessary to its
5
oxidation. The PM is the solid product of fuel pyrolysis and it is
increasing with the increase in C/H and C/O ratios [26], it also in-
creases with the equivalence ratio and the cycle temperature [25].
The mechanisms of PM formation are the same as those of UHC.
As it can be noticed in Fig. 11, at low loads, the evolution of PM
with respect to BMEP is slow, because the higher production of PM
caused by the increase of fuel to air ratio is balanced by the
enhancement of oxidation due to the cycle temperature increase
and the shortening of ID (reducing the over-mixing phenomenon).
But at high loads, the PM emissions increase rapidly because, at this
stage, a higher fuel fraction burns lately at the expansion stroke
where the chamber temperature is not high enough, and the
oxidation ability is very low.
The reduction of PM reached 88% while using AFRBD as
compared to DF at low loads and the gap between both curves
decreased until reaching 0% at BMEP higher than 3.8 bars. In order
to explain these trends, the differences between fuels should be
analyzed. Both fuels have the same C/H ratio (w2/1) and at a given
load both fuels have close equivalence ratios. Secondly the cycle
temperature and pressure are higher while using AFRBD at low
loads. And finally, the ID of AFRBD is shorter at low loads than that
of DF. So at high loads, the chemical composition of the mixture, the
temperature and pressure conditions and the combustion charac-
teristics of both fuels are very close, thus their PM emissions are
very close.
3.3.4. Nitric oxides
The nitric oxides (NOx) emissions are presented in Fig. 12. For
both fuels the NOx emissions are increasing with load until reaching
a maximum value in the vicinity of 3.5 bars of BMEP, and then
emissions start to decrease. The reason behind increase at low and
medium loads is the increase in cycle temperature that enhances

Table 5
Possible causes of NOx variations and their effects.

Possible cause Effect on NOx Current work

High cetane number 1 Shorter ID leading to lower mixing before premixed combustion Low premixed combustion, lower effect on
and NOx will decrease NOx formation
2 Earlier combustion, higher cycle pressure and residence time at high Earlier SOC, higher cycle temperature, higher NOx
temperature, increase in thermal NOx formation
High insaturations level 1 More carbonated radicals are liberated during combustion and prompt Low content of unsaturated FAME will decrease NOx
NOx will increase [28,29]
2 higher adiabatic flame temperature, higher thermal NOx formation
Lower PM formation Lower losses by radiation towards cylinder walls, high gas temperature, At low loads 80% of PM were reduced, significant
NOx increase increase in flame temperature and in NOx
No aromatic and Lower flame temperature, NOx decrease e
polyaromatic hydrocarbons
Faster combustion Higer cycle temperature, thermal NOx increase e
Higher bulk modulus Higher injection pressure, faster combustion, NOx increase Not applicable in this case, the physical SOI was
found identical for both fuels
Oxygen bonds More oxygen availability in rich mixture pockets, more NOx is formed Oxygen bonds can enhance the combustion and
increase NOx production

Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
10 S. Awad et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e11
the production of thermal NOx, the essential source of nitric oxides
in diesel engines according to Zeldovic’s model [27]. At high loads,
the fuel to air ratio becomes very high and the oxygen becomes less
abundant, thus the oxidation of the nitrogen decays and the NOx
emissions decrease.
At low loads a 20% of NOx increase was recorded with AFRBD,
this difference started to decrease gradually until reaching 0 ppm
between 2.4 and 3.8 bars of BMEP, and finally, a reduction of 4% of
NOx was noticed at full load of engine running on AFRBD.
The parameters that can be responsible of the NOx increase are
listed in Table 5. As it can be seen in this table a wide range of
causes can lead to a certain increase or decrease in NOx emissions.
In the present case, the higher cetane number promotes NOx
formation because of the higher cycle temperature and higher
residence time. The premixed combustion in the used engine is
very small (it varies between 3 and 19% for DF versus 2.4 and
12.5% for AFRBD) and can not be very significant for NOx pro-
duction. So at low loads the shorter ID of AFRBD, the low PM
production and longer residence time of burnt gas at high tem-
perature led to a significant increase in NOx emissions. With load
increase, the decrease of difference between ID, residence time
and PM levels of both fuels led to similar NOx production at me-
dium loads. And at high loads the shorter residence time of gases
in the cylinder and the higher viscosity and flash point of AFRBD
and its relatively high saturation level led to a slight decrease of
NOx formation.
4. Conclusions
In this work the performance, combustion parameters and
pollutant emissions of a single cylinder, air cooled direct injection
engine were evaluated while using biodiesel produced from animal
fat residues (AFR) collected from fat traps, and compared to the
reference case where #2 diesel fuel (DF) is used. The degradation of
AFR seems to affect essentially the unsaturated fatty acids and it
resulted on a lower saturation level.
The use of AFRBD on diesel engine led to a 9% power drop at
1500 rpm because of its LHV. And engine brake thermal efficiency
dropped by 1.5 points at low loads and increased by 1 point at high
loads. This effect was explained by the earlier start of combustion
and longer combustion duration of AFRBD at low loads and its
shorter combustion duration at high loads.
Correlation between combustion parameters and fuels proper-
ties showed that the opposed effects of high viscosity and low
volatility of AFRBD on a hand and its oxygen content on the other
hand on combustion lead to this contrast between high and low
engine loads.
At low loads high viscosity and low volatility reduce premixed
combustion and extends combustion duration. However at high
loads combustion occurs mostly by diffusion and the effect of
AFRBD oxygenation has the most important effect and leads to
combustion duration shortening.
Concerning the pollutant emissions, a drastic reduction of UHC
was noticed at all loads which can be attributed to the shorter ID of
AFRBD and its low volatility which avoids the over-mixing problem
during premixed combustion and to its oxygen bonds that allevi-
ates the effect of under-mixing during diffusion combustion.
The PM emissions were also reduced drastically at low loads, but
this reduction diminished gradually with load until disappearing at
high loads. The drastic reduction at low loads was attributed to the
reduction of over-mixing and to the higher cycle pressure and
temperature obtained while using AFRBD. But at high loads where
the IDs of both fuels, the cycle pressure, the C/H and C/O ratios of
both fuels are very close, thus no differences on PM emissions could
be noticed.
Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078
The NOx emissions were increased at low loads by 20%, the
difference between NOx emissions diminished with load until
disappearing at 2.4 bars of BMEP and finally it decreased by 4% at
full load. The main reasons of this trend were attributed to the
higher temperature at low loads while using AFRBD and to the
higher reduction of PM emissions that contribute to radiation
heat transfer between burned gas and cylinder walls. When the
engine load increased, the PM production increased also, the
differences in cycle temperature diminished and the combustion
duration of AFRBD became shorter which diminished the resi-
dence time of nitrogen at high temperatures. All these parameters
led to a slight decrease of NOx emissions at full engine load while
using AFRBD.
While using AFRBD at 1500 rpm at full load, UHC and NOx were
reduced simultaneously without rising PM or CO emissions all with
increasing engine efficiency. Thus, a stationary cogeneration en-
gine, running at 1500 rpm with AFRBD, presents simultaneous
energetic and environmental benefits.
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Please cite this article in press as: Awad S, et al., Experimental investigation on the combustion, performance and pollutant emissions of
biodiesel from animal fat residues on a direct injection diesel engine, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.078