Name: _____________________ Biology WAFA ELIAS

Date: Reproduction in plants Grade 9

Define asexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction, the production of new individuals of a species by a single parent organism.
The offspring are genetically identical to the parents. known as clones.

Identify examples of asexual reproduction

Bacteria:
 Bacteria: microscopic organisms made of one cell
 No nucleus, just loop of DNA
 DNA replicates / is copied ;
 cell wall, develops in the middle of the cell ;
 Type of asexual reproduction - binary fission ;
 bacteria cell divides into two ;

Fungi:
 Single-celled yeast reproduces by binary fission or budding
 All other fungi reproduce via spores.
 When the sporangium bursts it spreads the spores.
 Spores land and grow mycelium (roots) for example mushrooms

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Potatoes: stem tubers (swollen underground stems)
 Some of the plants stem grows normally above the ground, producing leaves which photosynthesis, other stems
(The shoot) goes back underground and the stem swells to form a new genetically identical potato.
 The swollen stem acts as a storage organ.
o sucrose transported (to underground stems) ;
o through phloem / translocation ;
o sucrose converted to starch ;
o stem swells ;

the tubers are harvested, some are saved to produced next year’s crop.

Budding is particularly common in plants; it is most commonly a form of vegetative propagation in which a bud on part
of the stem simply grows a new plant.
The new plant eventually becomes detached from the parent and lives independently. The bud may be part of the stem
such as a bulb or tuber

Asexual reproduction
Produce genetically identical offspring
Involves one parent
Example: budding\yeast
spore formation\fungi
binary fission \ bacteria
tubers\potatoes
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
produce offspring with inherited properties from both
parents
Involves 2 parents (male and female)
Humans : Male gamete \sperm
Female gamete \ egg cell (ovum)
Plants: Male gamete \found inside the pollen grain
Female gamete \a nucleus inside the ovule

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction: – to a population of a species in the wild
– to crop production
Advantages
1. Can reproduce rapidly
2. only one parent is needed.

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 3. No gametes are needed.
4. All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring. (e.g. good flavor, high yield)
5. Where there is no dispersal (e.g. with potato tubers), offspring will grow in the same favorable environment as the
parent.
6. Plants that reproduce asexually usually store large amounts of food that allow rapid growth when conditions are
suitable.
7. Dense colonies outcompete other species
8. Less energy / resources used
Specifically in crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means that a plant that has good
characteristics (high yield, disease-resistant, hardy) can be made to reproduce asexually and the entire crop will show
the same characteristics

Disadvantages
1. reduced genetic diversity; identical offspring; There is little variation created, so limited ability to adapt to
environmental changes and less chance of survival in a varying environment;
2. negative traits passed on;
3. Prone to extinction: If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offspring will have resistance
(Off springs will inherit bad characteristics if there are any)./ disease or change in environmental conditions, likely to
kill all organisms. /one disease could wipe out total population ;
4. more competition for local resources ; Lack of dispersal (e.g. with potato tubers) can lead to Overpopulation
(competition for nutrients, water, light, space).
5. less chance of evolving

16.2 Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction: is a process involving the fusion of two gametes (sex cells / haploid) to form a diploid zygote and
the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.
Gametes nuclei fuse together at fertilization, and zygote divides to form an embryo which grow into a new individual.
Hermaphrodites: an organism that can produce both sorts of gametes, e.g. earthworms, slugs and most, but not all
flowers.

In animals In flowering plants

male gametes sperm Inside the pollen grains
female gametes egg cells Inside the ovules

 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

 – to a population of a species in the wild
 – to crop production
Advantages
1. There is variation in the offspring, so adaptation to a changing or new environment is likely, enabling survival of the
species.
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 2. New varieties can be created, which may have resistance to disease.
3. In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal away from the parent plant, reducing competition.
(colonization)
Disadvantages
1. Requires Two parents (though not always – some plants can self-pollinate).
2. slower process / takes longer (than asexual reproduction) ; Growth of a new plant to maturity from a seed is slow.
3. Fertilization may not happen
4. Loss of lots of energy / less energy efficient / many eggs is wasteful; Much pollen / many seeds wasted
5. Fewer offspring produced

16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants

 Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the sepals, petals, stamens, filaments and anthers, carpels,
style, stigma, ovary and ovules, of an insect-pollinated flower

 State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas and ovaries
Parts Functions
Petals Brightly coloured, scented to attract insects or birds for pollination
Also to protect the internal structures of the flower
• Grasses don’t have petals, instead they have green leafy-like structures which enclose the

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 reproductive organs.
Sepals Protect the flower while it is in bud (green)
Stamen Male part of flower (anther + filament)
Anther Contains 4 pollen sacs filled with pollen grains
Each pollen grain contains a male gamete that are produced by meiosis (a type of cell division).
Notes:
• The number and size of stamens in a flower depends on the species.
• Filaments can be long or short according to the species.
• When the stamen is ripe the pollen sacs burst releasing the pollen grains.
• Pollen source of food for insects
Filament Stalk that holds the anther
Carpel Female part of flower (stigma + style + ovary)
Stigma sticky surface to trap pollen grains
Style Holds the stigma - an elongated structure that connects the stigma to the ovary.
Ovary Contains one or many ovules. Each ovule contains one ovum (a female gamete).
Becomes the fruit after pollinated

Ovule Contains the ovum (the female gamete)

Becomes the seed after pollination
• After fertilization (fusion of the male and female gametes):
• Egg cell ------ Zygote ----- embryo
• Ovule ---- becomes a seed
• Ovary ----- becomes a fruit (not necessarily)

nectary A gland at the base of the carpel that contains nectar (a sugary solution) to attract insects for
pollination. (insects feed on)
receptacl The expanded part of the flower stalk. In some plants, it becomes an edible part
e of the fruit (like apples strawberries and pears).

Pollen grains and ovules

The male gametes are inside the pollen grains which are made in the anthers. The anther has four spaces or pollen sacs
inside it, some of the cells around the edge of the pollen sacs divide by mieosis to make pollen grains. When the flower
bud opens, the anther split open. The pollen looks like a fine powder, it is often yellow, surounded by a hard coat so it
can survive in difficult conditions, The coat protects the male gametes in the pollen grains as they are carried to another
flower.
The female gametes are inside the ovules in the ovary. They have been made by meiosis. Each ovule contains just one
female gamete.
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  Use a hand lens to identify and describe the
anthers and stigmas of a wind-pollinated flower
 Distinguish between the pollen grains of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
 Describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

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 Parts Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
Large, sticky or spiky to attach to insects Smooth, light, dry and very small : easily
Pollen
carried by the wind
grains
Amount
Produced in quite large amount (but Smaller than Very Large amount: increase chances of
of
wind pollinators) because some will be eaten or will pollination because most will be blown away
pollen
be delivered to the wrong kind of flower and lost.
grains
Large, brightly colored, scented, often with guide Small, or no petals at all: no need to attract
Petals
lines Bracts are small / inconspicuous (hidden) ;
Nectary Strongly scented No scent
hang loosely outside flower,
large anthers to produce large quantities of
Structure

Inside flowers so insects will brush past it./ enclosed

Anthers
anther/ shorter filament / shorter stamen
Inside flower, Sticky, so pollen grains stick to it when
Stigma
insects brush past./ enclosed stigma/ shorter style
pollen;
long filaments so wind can carry pollen
grains easily
Dangling Outside the flower, Large and
feathery to catch pollen grains in the air
stigma has, feathery surface / large surface
area, to catch pollen ;

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Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
Types of pollination
Define self-pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
different flower on the same plant
Define cross-pollination as transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
plant of the same species

Explain the difference between self-pollination and cross-pollination.

 transfer of pollen from anthers or stamen to stigma;
 self = within same flower (or flower on same plant);
 cross = between flowers on different plants (of same species);

note: If pollen lands on the stigma of a different speiceies of plant, the pollen usually die.

Discuss the implications to a species of self-pollination and cross-pollination in terms of variation, capacity to respond to
changes in the environment and reliance on pollinators
SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
Pollen is transferred from the anther to the Pollen transfer from anther to stigma of another
stigma of the same flower. flower of the same species.
Implications No variation.---- disadv Guarantee variation.

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 Not be able to adapt to changing environmental
Better chance of adapting to changing conditions.
conditions.---disadv
No reliance on pollinators.( does not need insect Reliance on pollinators to carry the pollen to other
to pollinate)- Very efficient---- adv plants. - Risky: pollen might not reach other flower
more chances of fertilisation

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of self-pollination

Disadvantages
 No variation / (genetic) diversity;
 less chance of adapting to changing conditions / new environments / (new) disease ;
 risk of extinction ;
 increase chance of genetic disease ;
Advantages
 only one plant needed ;
 less wastage of pollen ;
 no need for pollinators ;
 more chances of pollination ;
 more chances of fertilisation ; / fertilisation, successful if no other plants (of same species) nearby ;
 prevents extinction / enables survival of species ; useful if plants are (geographically) isolated / on their own ;
 adapted variety spreads; /parent plants adapted to the environment, pass alleles to offspring / AW ;
 idea of sexual reproduction better than asexual reproduction for variation ;

Explain the consequences of self-pollination for a population of plants

 idea that pollination / fertilisation, always going to happen / AW ;

 no agent of pollination needed ;
 little wastage of pollen ;
 reduced / little, variation / diversity ;
 increased competition between plants (as have the same adaptation) ;
 increase chance of, genetic / inherited, disease ;
 all plants adapted to same, conditions / environment ;
 little ability to adapt to changing conditions / little ability to evolve ;
 an infectious disease can kill all of the population / all plants more susceptible to the same disease ;
 risk of extinction ;

Some plant species are self-pollinated.

Discuss the long-term effects of self-pollination on the evolution of these plant species.
 limited variation;
 offspring become homozygous (over time) / owtte;
 allow: reference to inbreeding / limited gene pool
 variation is due to mutation;
 low chance that mutations will be expressed / owtte (or words to that effect);
 offspring will be well adapted to conditions near parent;
 if environment does not change;
 limited opportunity for evolution if environment changes / will not be able to adapt to change in the
environment;
 allow: reference to disease in context (as a change)

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  avp; e.g. some variation due to reassortment of chromosomes and crossing over during meiosis / reduced
variation leads to intraspecific competition locally; [max 4]

 State that fertilization occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule
 Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilization

Fertilization:
1. After pollination (When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the correct species)
2. The pollen grains grow a long tube (pollen tube) that grows down the style to the ovary (pollen grains secrets
enzymes to digest a pathway through the style) where it enters a small hole, the micropyle, in an ovule.
 Gets nutrition from tissues of style
 Carries male gamete cell

 The nucleus of the pollen (male gamete) then passes along the pollen tube and fuses with the nucleus of the ovule
(female gamete) to form a zygote.
 This process is called fertilization.

 Fertilization: is the fusion of 2 haploid nuclei (male and

female gametes) to form a zygote, which divides and grow
into embryo and then into a new individual.

 After fertilisation, the sepals, petals and stamens which are

no longer needed will wither and fall.
 Ovules form the seed
 Ovule wall (integuements) becomes seed coat/ testa.
 Ovary wall becomes a fruit

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A seed is the product of sexual reproduction in flowering plants. In dicotyledonous plants the seed consists of:

 Testa: tough, protective layer of seed coat (prevents embryo from being damaged, also prevent bacteria and fungi
from entering the seed)
 Micropyle: small Hole in testa which allows water to enter so enzymes can be activated.
 Cotyledon: stores of starch and protein for the dicotyledonous seed that will be broken down by enzymes as
embryo grows into a new plant.
 Hilum: Place where the seed is attached to the fruit

 Embryo: Consists of plumule and radicle

 Plumule: The embryo shoot
 Radicle: Embryo root

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  Petals, style, stigmas, stamens fall off (unnecessary)
 Food transported into embryo by phloem and stores as starch, protein, fat.
 Water transported away (very dry) --- decrease mass, slows the chemical reactions – inactive: survive in harsh
conditions e.g. cold, drought which would kill a growing plant.
 Many seeds become dormant, remain in state of dormancy for many years until an environmental factor
stimulates them.

The function of the fruit is to protect the seeds inside it until they are ripe and then helps to disperse the seeds.

Fruits and seeds are dispersed by animals, water and air.

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Germination is when the embryo starts to grow

 Without water, a seed is dormant. This is very useful because the seed can survive harsh conditions such as cold
or drought.
 When a seed germinates, it first absorbs water through the micropyle. (needed for chemical reactions)
 As the water goes into the cotyledons, they swell and the testa burst.
 After the seed has absorbed enough water, the enzymes in the cotyledons are activated and they start to digest
the food store.
 Enzymes like amylase, protease, and lipase are activated
 Protease breakdown the Protein into amino acids
 Amylases breakdown down starch int maltose
 Maltose and amino acids are soluble, so they dissolve in water and diffuse to the embryo which uses these
foods for growth.
 enzymes required in process of respiration ;

 cell expansion makes radicle grow out through the testa

 plumule starts to grow upwards and emerges through soil
 leaves spread out to absorb light energy and photosynthesize
 stored food is used until leaves are to support energy needs

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Investigate and state the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds, limited to the requirement for
water, oxygen and a suitable temperature

Conditions for germination:

Seeds can survive in a dormant state for a long time (The embryo and food store are surrounded by impermeable seed
coat (testa) and the micropyle is the only gap) until the three following conditions are present:

1. A supply of water [Water enters through the micropyle and activates enzymes to convert insoluble stores to
soluble food (starch to glucose, protein to amino acid) and make tissues swell so that the testa swell open].

2. Oxygen for aerobic respiration which releases energy, allowing the embryo to grow.

3. Suitable temperature for enzymes because germination is a process controlled by enzymes.

 Light ----- not usually a requirement for germination but some seeds need a period of exposure to light before
they germinate.

1 The need for water

 Label three containers A, B and C and put dry cotton wool in the
bottom of each.
 Place equal numbers of soaked seeds in all three.
 Leave A quite dry; add water to B to make the cotton wool moist; add
water to C until all the seeds are completely covered (Figure 16.32).
 Put lids on the containers and leave them all at room temperature for
a week.

Result
The seeds in B will germinate normally.
Those in A will not germinate.
The seeds in C may have started to germinate but will probably not be as advanced as those in B and may have died and
started to decay.

Interpretation
Although water is necessary for germination, too much of it may prevent germination by cutting down the oxygen supply
to the seed.

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2 The need for oxygen

Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 16.33.

If the moist cotton wool is rolled in some cress seeds, they will stick to
it.
The bungs must make an airtight seal in the flask and the cotton wool
must not touch the solution.
Pyrogallic acid and sodium hydroxide absorb oxygen from the air, so the
cress seeds in flask A are deprived of oxygen.
Flask B is the control. This is to show that germination can take place in
these experimental conditions provided oxygen is present.
Leave the flasks for a week at room temperature.

Result
The seeds in flask B will germinate but there will be little or no germination in flask A.

Interpretation
The main difference between flasks A and B is that A lacks oxygen. Since the seeds in this flask have not germinated, it
looks as if oxygen is needed for germination.
To show that the chemicals in flask A had not killed the seeds, the cotton wool can be swapped from A to B. The seeds
from A will now germinate.

Note: Sodium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air.

The mixture (sodium hydroxide + pyrogallic acid) in flask A, therefore, absorbs both carbon dioxide and oxygen from the
air in this flask.
In the control flask B, the sodium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide but not oxygen.
If the seeds in B germinate, it shows that lack of carbon dioxide did not affect them, whereas lack of oxygen did.

3 Temperature and germination

 Soak some maize grains for a day and then roll them up in three strips of moist blotting paper as shown in Figure
16.34.

 Put the rolls into plastic bags. Place one in a refrigerator (about 4 °C), leave one upright in the room (about 20 °C) and
put the third in a warm place such as over a radiator or, better, in an incubator set to 30 °C.

 Because the seeds in the refrigerator will be in darkness, the other seeds must also be enclosed in a box or a
cupboard, to exclude light. Otherwise it could be objected that it was lack of light rather than low temperature that
affected germination.

 After a week, examine the seedlings and measure the length of the roots and shoots.

Result
The seedlings kept at 30 °C will be more advanced than those at room temperature. The grains in the refrigerator may
not have started to germinate at all.

Interpretation
Seeds will not germinate below a certain temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the germination, at least
up to 35–40 °C.
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